LOW-SPEED AERODYNAMICS From Wing Theory to Panel MethodsMcGraw-Hill Series in Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineering, aan D- Rede, 3 Universi of Maryland Ania Fmt of reba ate eh Tego Gx mais ee fren Ft a ee Hoe Wh ra Pepe Seite fing te coma ar Sansome: scar Dans - eran: Prom Wg They Pane etd sea soy ad hws Con! sera Aen ene spin ond cof Pg Sr Siu ooloy Er eon Se Ye nd ow vs ph Dror LOW-SPEED AERODYNAMICS From Wing Theory to Panel Methods Joseph Katz Allen Plotkin Prfesars of Acrospace Engineering nd Engineering Mechanics ‘Son Diego Sie Universi ‘McGraw-Hill, Inc. eeu ade uaF Aucin Caen New Dah re san foe So Paae Sagat Say Tayo TowEye ce ime ed sy ve his congo by MC prea tierra rth et era ei em rien prion oe Pa ‘Tee Shen ee Jot Coan a ohn Mort Se ey ane Henan ibe of Congres Cagle eh (at a ‘Teper ai rom wing ear Josh fran Ale Ps ABOUT THE AUTHORS Joseph Kats is Professor of Aerospace Enginering and Engincering Mechan- ier at San Diego State University where he has been a faclty member since 1986, He received the degrees of BSe, MSe and DSc, the latter in 1977, in ‘Aeronautical Engineering from the Technion rae Istitte of Technology He was a faculty member in the Mechaical Engineering Department of the ‘Technion frou 1980-1984 and headed the Avtomotive Program fom 1982 1084. He spent 1978-1980 and 1984-1986 at the Large Seale Aerodynamics Branch of NASA-Ames Research Center asa Rescarch Associate and Senior Research Associate, respectively, and has maintained his tis 10 NASA, through grant suppor. He has worked inthe 40” by A full sale wind tonne fand bas developed panel method capable of calculating three-dimensional Unsteady fowfeds and applied i to complete aircraft and rae car conigurs ‘ont. He i he author of more ‘ces in computational and Allen Plotkin s Professor of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechan- ics at San Diego Stte University where he has been faculty member ‘nee 85, He graduated from the Bronx High Scho of Science, recived BS land. MS degrees from Columbia University and a PhD from Stanford University in 968. He was a faculty member in the Department of Aerospace Engineering of the Universty of Maryland from 1948-188. In 1976 he received the Young Engineer Scientist Award ffom the National Capital Section of the AIAA and in 1981 received the Eagincering Sciences Award from the Washington Academy of Sciences. He isan Associate Fellow of the [AIAA and served two terms aS a associate ctor ofthe ALAA Jourmal from 1986-1991, He ie the current contributor to the World Book Encyclopedia articles on Aerodynamics, Propeller, Streamining, and Wind Tunnel. He is the author of approximately 40 journal aftiles in aerodynamics and fd mechanics,CONTENTS Preface 1. Introduction and Background LE Deseo of Fd Motion 12 Chose of Coordinate Sy 13 Patios, Steakines, an Steamnes 14 Fores in Fd 13 Integral Fem of the Fis Dynami Egations 116 Diereatl Form of he Fad Dynami Equations 1.7 Dimensional Azali ofthe Fit Dynamic Equations 18 Flow wah High Reyoods Numer 19 Simiariy of Hows 2. Fundamentals of Inviscid, Incompressible Flow 21° Angular Velocy, Vority and Grelation 22 Rat of Change of Vor, 23. Rteof Change of Chalton—Kebin' Theorem 24 Inotatona Flow and the Velocity Potential 25 Boundary and Iniy Conditions 26 Beroul’s Euan forthe Presare 27 Simply and Maliply Connected Rens 28 Uniqueness ofthe Saation 29 Vortex Quantities 2.10 Two-Dimerslonal Vortex 2A TheBlor Sevan aw 2212 The Velocity Induced ty 2 Saab Vortex Segment 213 TheSeam Fancon 3. General Solution of the Incompressible, Potential Flow Equations 5.1 Sttemest fhe Potential Flow Problem BBRSaneuee battexoeeneunR a8 &a 3 uM a5 a6 an a Mo aia nas sue 3 as te ae 5 2 3 Sa ss “ 62 rt oe ‘s ‘ec i re ewuese ties rete oo Ske Se rams Seo aan Serna ten tri Sera gpa eee eros diane sbrmer terri ‘Sie Remmi du the Flow oer th inde an the Sphere ‘Smal Disturbance Flow over Three-Dimensional Wings: Formulation ofthe Problem Defniton fe Problem ‘he Bounry Conon onthe Wing Sarna nc she iting alee ‘Sete wing wih Noro The Zero Ange of At routes Wing st Arle of Ata —Lifing Stas Te Arora Lads Tisai Theor of Seal: Ditubance Comptes Pow Small Disturbance Flow over Two-Dimensional fu in Nn hi Zr Age Atak Feet clit tng rein pl aces nd Menon Tn A Moanin Cohan ov Thin Ao Theory Exact Solutions with Complex Variables Summary of Compe. Vale Tory econ Poem Sime Be SC Cat sem a Sings Slions 632. Powsnacorme ‘nis For Rt Jokowat Tere eicoeal Mapping sede akon Tanorason chi matte Ao $32. Lact ede ttn $53 Flow Soma toa erie 634 Grose Ata 655. Siomaneontom Asta eeu yeseszeeae gessee 100 3 110 10 2 us a 141 16 6 155 15 66 re a uA a ta a a z H i 2 0 coma te Aci with Fie eating Edge Ange 159 ‘Summary of Presare Dsrbtons for Exact Ai Solutions ist ‘Method 0 tnages 1 Perturbation Methods 13 "Thin Arfl Problem me ‘Sexond Order Slaon m Leading age Soution 1 Matted Asymptotic Expansions te ‘Tin Aira In Ground et 1 ‘Three-Dimensional Small-Disturbance Solutions. 193 Fite Wing’ The LiliagLine Model LL Defnton ofthe Problem B12. The Lifting Line Mode! ‘The Aerodynamic Loads ‘The Elin Lift Dsibation Genel Spunvise Cxeulaion Distribution 8.6 Twited Elipse Wing 17 Concasons rom Lifting Line Theory Slender Wing Theory ‘S21 Detntion ofthe Problem 4822 Solution af the Fw over Slender Pointed Wings £25 TheMethodof RT Jones 82.4 Conlon rm Slender Wing Theory Slender Boy THeory 1431. Axsymmettc Longitudinal Row Pa Slender Body ot Revelation 432 Tranterse Flow Past Slender Body of Revolution 433. Preme and Fore Inormation 1534 Conclusions fom Slender Body Theory Farid Clelatio of laduced Drag Numerical (Panel) Methods ‘The Boundary Conditions Redon of the Problem ta Set of Linear Algerle Equations ‘Acrodyami Leaie Fretminary Conieratons, rior oExtalishing Numerical Soltions ‘Steps toward Constrcting « Numeral Slaton Enample Sot of Ta Af wih be Lampe Vortex Element ‘Acouting for Ete of Compresiliy abd Viscosity Singularity Elements and Influence Coefficients “Two-Dimensional Peat Sing Elements IDI "Two Dimensional Point Source 104.2 Two-Dimensional Pi Doablet102 u 4 na 3 na us ne 10.13 Two Dimension! Pot Vortex "Rab Dimension! Constant Sire angulanty Elements 1021 Constant Seng Source Disb 10.2, Constant Seng DoubetDisbton 1025 ConfaneStength Vortex Distribution ‘Ro Dimersonal Linea Stengh Singliy Elements TOL Linea Sorc Distrbton [032 tiner Dost Distbation 1033 Linear Vertex Dstibton 03.4. Ouadebe Double Dstbvion ice Dinensoal Cotat Stent Singlity Element foi Queda Sure 1042 Qundrserl Doablet 10.43. Constane Double Pane Egialnce o Vortex Ring 10.44 Comparison of Near Far ield Formos 1045 Contant Seng Vortex Lie Seancot 046 Vortex Ring 1047 Homesioe Vores "Tice Dimenonal Higher-Order Blea ‘Two-Dimensional Numerical Solutions ‘ott Sigua Sltions TnL DacreteVorex Method hid Dherte Source Method ‘Contant Suengh Singularity Solution (Neumann B.C.) IUD Contant Serene Source Met 32. Constant Srength Dovblet Method 23. Contant Stregth Vortex Method Constant Peat (Drschlet) Boundary Condon Methods ToS Combined Source and Doubt Method. 1132. ComfancStenth Doble Method Lary Varying Stgaiy Stengts Methods (Using the Neuman Be) TAL. Linen Source Mead 1142. Liar Stengh Vortex Methods {tary Varying Sigal Stents Methods (Using the Diet BC) TSS Linea Soure/Double Method 1152 Linear Dublet Nests Based on Qvdratc Doble Dastibuton (Using the Drclet Bc) 61 Linea Soure/Quadeatie Double Method 11.62 _Guadre Double Method ‘Some Consions About Piel Methods “Three-Dimensional Numerical Solutions Lifting Lie Solution by Honesoe Element Modeling of Redetom fom Sold Boundaries iting Saface Slaton by Vortex Ring Elements ne 2? at BS Bs Be Bs Bo ii BR 4 12 conmomah Inroaton to Panel Coes A Brie story Fine Order Potent Based Panel Methods Higher Over Panel Methods She Slaton nt Panel Codes Unsteady Incompressible Potential Flow Forman ofthe Prot ad Chace of Coeinatn Netto of sltion ‘tical Pal Considerations Computation of Preses Examples the Utesty Boundary Condon Sima of Slaton Methodsiony Srdden Aeration ofa Fat Pte Unntendy Motion of cr Dimensonl Ti Ail ‘sendy Mtn of Sender Wing ‘Alon for UrsteayAiUsg the Lamged Vortex Element Serco ah nce Ra Cnn steady Lifting Sure Stony Vortet Rig Elements Uy Fetes” : Enhancement ofthe Potential Flow Model ‘wate Rap ‘Conny Between Poti Fw ané Hoda Layer Sober Inhont of Vosos Fr Efe on Al Deng Pow oe Wage High Ange tact Fone Astnal Pest Fae Ces Appendix A: Airfoil Integrals Appendix B: Singularity Distribution Integrals Appendix C: Principal Value of the Lifting Surface Integral J, Appendix D: Sample Computer Programs Index “1 m2 421 2 a & 6 S12 313 en 573 379PREFACE ‘Our goa in writing this book i 19 presenta comprehensive and uptodate treatment of the subject of inviscid, incompressible, and iotaionl aerodyna Imic, Over the ast teveral years there has been a widespread use of Computational (surface singularity) methods forthe solution of problems of foncer to the lowspeed aerodynamics. A need has developed fora tex, fo provide the theoretial bass for these methods as well ab 10 provide a Snooth transition fom the asia small-dsturbance methods ofthe past 10 the computational methods ofthe presen. Thi book was writen in response to this need A unique featore ofthis book is that the computational approach (from a single vortex elemento a three dimensional panel formulation) is Interwoven throughout so that I Serves asa teaching tool inthe understanding ‘ofthe asical methods swell aa vehicle for the reader to obtain solutions to complex problems tha previously could not be dealt with i the context ofa textbook. The reader wil be introduced to diferent levels of complexity in the ‘numerical modeling of an aerodynamic problem and willbe able to assemble ‘odes to implement solution. "We have purposely limited our scope to inviscid, incompressible, and inrotational aerodynamics so that we can present a truly comprehensive ‘coverage of the material. The book brings together topics curently scattered ‘throughout the Hteatue, It provides a detailed presentation of computational techniques for three-dimensional and unsteady lows. It includes a ssematic tnd detailed treatment (including computer programs) of two-dimensional panel methods with variations in singulanty type, order of singular, Reumann or Dirhlet boundary conditions, and velocty- or potential based spproache, "This book is divided into three main parts. Inthe st, Chapter 1-3, he base theory i developed. In the second part, Chapters 4-8, an analytical ‘pproach 1 the soltion ofthe problem is taken. Chapters 4, 5, and 8 deal tit the smallsturbance version ofthe problem and the clascal methods ofiy nonce thins theory, litingtine theory, sender wing theory, and slender body nai eon ro sons vi ome val theory apertura. Leo penning igerordersma-Ssurbance approximations are ae rd art Chopes 9-14 presen asatemate Keatment ae net seu stbuion echage for obaning numeral OF a premble potential flows A general mothoslogy fot sas CO, meta soluton developed and apped to « srs of azemblng © rams Scotyoum clemens (iwoimenonal, ee ‘Sten, nd steady podem re ested). a Jeuged tobe sed textbook fru course in ow speed 110 Se Sie the ached enor or the sear graduate els sma be covered in 2 oneycar couse and n one-quaiet Toe com ee can be consncted by hig the Op that the orem fe to empbosoe. For example, a senor elective couse that irri on to-dimenonal ad eroyoamie ght include CRAs Haan ee aital Ia A hone! adie course that emphasized 12s Aarau ofthe subject might ile Chapters 13,4 5-7, 8, 9 arnt ours at enphassed mmeil approach (pel methods) am Chater 123 and 9-1 wih a tenment of fe and pot ih i ean assumed thatthe reader atk Bs couse in aan ana mahematilDockground tat ides a exposure Ini eh pata erential cqunon, and ome aries sor cael fen topics covered by ti text a ned y the Aid dynannin bec of the omer nature ofthe Bid dynamic equation, Sema IS" maniycaprientl approach fc ding with mest ch a chad development programs. 1h wider seme, sch an a auch a win tunnels large computer codes where the pron wes cmening an tesing eas ith sone ink aor incr cre rena te cs of apercomputer and sophscated Uo i thee famed for spied models tht low or a 38y Seer man pyc fet (ee having simple Ming vortex in ee oe mmediely tel ta he Ast wing ina tandem formation has the age i) re acca aerodynamic and hydrodynamic problems, the casi cal med ncn bourdry layer long body’ sce surrounded nae ot an Bowel, has produced important enpnecring ls, This ae eee the son ofthe ini Nw ooh the presse pron Seacquenty the foes wach a hit and induced drag. Then, 8 setts the wea ow inthe thin boundary ayer allows for the eae daa as non eee Tis methodslony hasbeen wed sucesflly too heat nary fo tot alan ahd mare esl dss eae o developments computer capacity and sped, the inv eee ee Soap and dealed geometses (uch as aplanes, cae) so rately ths apponch (Panel method), Tes, for (he eat sae era! cond arte min ols of fowseedaroyaamiests all ver the word, eee for a lea and sstematc explanation of how and 207 (or thease) hse meds werk Ts tok lone tong o Tespond to thr ned "We would keto thank graduate todents Lindsey Browne and especially Steven Yon who developed the two-dimensional patel coda Chptr 11 and {hecked the integrals in Chapter 1, We woul ket acknowedge the helt omments tom te following collagues who read all ot part of the ‘runs Hol Ashe, Richard Magan, Tua Sarpy nd Mion Van Dates Alen Phtkin would tke to thank he teachers Richard Stalk, Ktshaamurhy Karmel, Mit Van Dyke, and Trmgard Flgge-Lou, his parents Clare and Oscar Pltkin for tir ove and support, snd his Siren Jeanie Anne and Seman Roe, and expel his wife Scena for thet Inve, suport and paicnce. Joseph Kate woul ie othr sparen Janka {nd Jeo Katehi chien Sey, Ronny, and Danny ard hs wife Hida or {hic ne, support and patente suppor of he Low- Speed Actoynamic Branch 3 NASA Ames acknowledged hy Jonph Kat fo tt apration that inated this project and for thei elpdrng pst years the Yara Sager f developing the metho presented in this Book McGraw sa the authors msl Hk o thank the folowing reviewers for eht manybepl comment ad suggestions: Leland A. Carbon, Teas AEM Unversiyt Chien-Yen Chow, Unverty of Colorado; Fred R. De Sarnetie, North Carolin State Univerty, Bares W. MeCormick, Penn syria Sine Unvery;and Maurice Rasmussen, Uaiversty of Onahoma Joseph Kate Alten loinLOW-SPEED AERODYNAMICS From Wing Theory to Panel MethodsCHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ‘The diferent equations that ae generally used inthe solution of problems relevant to low-speed aerodynamics are a simpli version of the governing ‘equations of fid dynamics. Also, mos engineers when faced with finding 8 Solution toa practical aerodynamic problem, find themselves operating large ‘computer codes rather than developing simple analytic models to guide them in thei analysis. For this reason, it is important to star with a bret {evelopment of the principles upoa which the general fd dynamic equations fate based. Then we willbe in a positon to consider the physical reasoning tehind the assumptions that are introduced to generate simplified versions of ‘the equations that sil correctly model the aerodynamic phenomena being studied. IC hoped that this approach wil give the engineer the ability t0 pprecate both the power and the limitations of the techniques that will be presented in this text. In this chapter we will devive the conservation of matt and momentum balance equation and show how they are reduced to obtain ‘the equations that wll be used in the est ofthe text to model Hows of interest to the low-speed aerodynamics. 1.1 DESCRIPTION OF FLUID MOTION “The Aid beng studied here is modeled as 8 continuum and infinitesimally all regions ofthe ful (with «fixed mass) are elle lid element or fluidTICLE 1 ac 3 east fom oer a il ewe fm» Sy fed cone ae nnn toe a gg ert te a Stn ing sutpen sa ie ree saci verte pare pant of ew, wich aes the approach of sic rt aot srgee ame terete Fae ornd The potion of any fd parle P (Se Fg 11) 8 £9 Epler Yo Zor) 29) the position of P at some iil time £= 0. (Note thatthe wee tg at he re (3 epee the vet with component Jo aaa fe velo of ths price ae then gen by = 0 and the accleration by co a3) Fe the evauaton ofthe motion of “te Lagangianformlation requis th 7 x ai, Fx no a aetone oon ta ew eal te Enerian method, proves the pa swmonsenon as aacnonono 3 istration offlw variables at each instant during the motion. For example, if ‘cartesian coordinate system is used, the components ofthe uid velocity re ‘Bren by wm ute,y.2.0) veeley.2.0) i) wm we, ¥, 58) ‘The Eulerian approach provides information about the Mud variables that is consistent with the information supplied by most experimental techniques and iia oem that 6 appropriate for most practic! applications. For these reasons the Eulerian description of fd motion isthe mast widely wed 1.2 CHOICE OF COORDINATE SYSTEM For the following chapters, when posuble, primarily a cartesian coordinate system wl be used, Other coordinate systems such 35 curvilinear, etindrcal Spherical et, will be intwoduced and used i necessary, mainly to simplify the Treatment of certain problems, Also, ftom the Kinematic point of view, 3 ‘aeful choice ofa coordinate system can considerably simply the soto of ‘problem. As an example, consider the forward motion ofan airfoil, with constant speed U, ina flid that i otherwise at eest—as shown in Fig. 11 Here, the origin of the coordinate system is attached to the moving airfoil and the trajectory of afd particle mserted at point Py at =O is shown in the figure. By following the rajecoros of Several parties, a more complete escripion of the Howeld is obtained in the figure. Itt important to ob- serve that fora constantwelocty forward motion ofthe ail, im this frame of reference, these tuajecory lines become independent of time. That ix i ‘various particles are introduced atthe same point in space, then they wil follow the same trajectory. Now let's cramine the same flow, but from a coordinate systom that i fixed relative to the undisturbed id. At = 0, the airfoil wae a the ight side of Fig. 12 and asa ceult oft constan-velociy forward motion (with a speed ‘UW. towards the et sie ofthe page), later at =r i has moved to the new Postion indicated in the figure. A typical patce's trajectory line between a noume 124 osm arose 10 and ty for this cae, i shown in Fig, 12. The part's motion sow ‘pends on time and ne trajectory ha be established fr each partie norte crample depict the importance of good” coordinate sytem elec Far mnny problems where a constant velocity and a fied geometry ey ate present the seo ody fed frame of reference wil esata Steady of time independent flow. 1.3. PATHLINES, STREAK LINES, AND ‘STREAMLINES ‘Thvee sels of curves ate normally associated with providing a pictorial ‘Bacon ofa fuid motion pathlins, streak ines, and streamlines, Pathines. A curve desebing the trjgctory of a fd clement is called « rung ox parle path. Pahines are obtained inthe Lagrangian approuch aan togrtion of the equation of dynamics foreach fd parte, If the a fchd of + Suid maton given i the Eulerian framework by Ea. (1-4) weed tsed frame, the patline for particle at in Fig, 1.1 can be anes yan iatcgrtion of the velocity. For steady flows the pthlines in the eeitcd fame become independent of ine and canbe drawn a the cse (row over the rol shown in Fig. 11 Seay ies, In many cases of experimental flow visualization, partis fret jena smoke) are introduced imo the Bow a fixed point a space The (ee cseeeSing al ot these particles is called a streak ine. To construct teak ao oar tn Lagrangian approsch, draw a series of pathlines for paris eShag through a given point in space and at particular instant f time Bonnet the ends of these pales, Sowaines, Anothct set of curves can Be obtained (ata given time) by Hines sear racalll to the local velocity vector, To express analytically the tea don da steaming at certain instant of time, at any pint Pi the Aid, Seen’ must be parallel to the streamline element dl (Fig 13) “Therefore, on 2 steamline: axaieo a9 aston a eae Spa ie bak ET smootenot wo sxeonnan § 1 te velo vector is @=(u 1: ), the the vesor equation tec oh owing i an seaon Ea: (9) way vas =0 dew de=0 «6 de —udy=0 on itera equation form ae dy de rarer (1.6 Jn Eg (1.6), the voy (mt function ofthe coordinates ot xine. Hever or ent fos he eteaines ee Indepndet of ine tnd Steam, pains a steak ines Boome Het shown 14 FORCES IN A FLUID Prior to dicusing the dynamics of fd mation, the types of th ype of fore ha act 09 4 fi element should be dented. Here orcs sch shady forces pr nit Imus f, and surface forces that aa rst of the sre vector tll be Gime Tey nes einen of oy snc wi he fn'the ease of gravitational or magncic forces, and thet magn Propetonal el ma ™ 2 > defi the Suess ver € aL point cones the force Facing on pana ares S (shown in Fg 14) with wing am outward normal to SThen 1m order to obtain the components of th mens of the stress vector, consider the forse oie on oii aa acceso nF ing to Batcheoe* (p10 this equim yields the com 4,3, and x direction ne rteas es 2.3 an6 warn arnonecs whee the sbi 1, 2 and 3 denote the tee coors don. A TSS SERRE EY he met eulitanrea the ommety o he a wer emp ta = ee mpm te on shemale, rere Re eater ate ine decom on fice who Ow in Fig 16 Nov Ue aeton, hi nal nota aloe 9 simpler normal pots aon andthe sascip I. 2, and 3 dnote te rene tects, an 2 especie Fr expe, and ase may ane “The stress components shown on the cubical Hid element of Fig 1.6. can be Severe tie Melee seanvenon so mAcHOIN 7 summarized in mates form or in an indicia frm as follows: (Es-E25) a8) ‘Also itis customary to sum over any index that is repeated, such tha Sema for 11,23 a9) and to interpret an equation with a fee index (asin Eq. (1.9) as being valid forall vales ofthat index. For a Newtonian fd (where the stress components ry are linear inthe derivatives 34/2), the stress components ae elated to the velocity Held by (Gee for example, Batchelor,” p. 147) (10) whore 1 isthe viscosity coeticient, pis the pressure, the dammy variable ks Summed from Ito 3, and 6 isthe Kronecker deta fonction dened by 1 ol is) When the Bud is at rest, the tangential stresses vanish andthe normal stress component becomes simply the pressure. Thus the stress components become -p 0 0 wel o -p 0 aay 0 0 -p teresting eas of Eq, (110) isthe one-deree-o-reedom shear onary and a moving infite plate witha speed U. (shown out pressure gradieas. This flow i called Couete flow (se, Another fw between in Fig. 1), Fw betwee 8 sina (oe ‘er as ing pe ie{or example, Yuan, p, 240) and the shear stress becomes uae ay Since there is no presste gradient in the flow, the Aid motion in the x eSSuow fs eaiely duc tothe action ofthe wseous forces, The fore F onthe ‘te cane found by integrating, on the moving upper surface 15 INTEGRAL FORM OF THE FLUID DYNAMIC EQUATIONS “To develop the gvering integral and dierent equations describing the Moa, rus oper of he i are vestigated a8 arty rae er olume that saonary and submerged inthe fd Fg 18). These aay deniy, momentum, nergy tad any change ith ine For Mot the a Bowing tough the con volume che um of sree atom othe property the con! volume and the nate of his ae the cmv) vue trough is boundaries. Avan example the ree mu canbe aad by tering the change nd Sst ce ert wlume (ev) The mass my Nithin the conta volume ben meu [oa 3) nhete dV is the volume element, The aecumulaton of mass within the control volume is amen 8 3 “The change in the mass witia the coatol volume, duc 10 the mass leaving (ma) and tothe mass entering (mq) through the boundaries (6) [ones aw oa (13) neacoumnon o saxcacin 9 here s the velocity vector (u,v, w) and pqsm i the rate of mass ea {ios and noemal tothe surface clement dS (wis the outward normal), as Shown in Fig. 18. Since mass is conserved, and no new material is bei produced, the the sum of Eq, (1.132) and Eq, (1.14) must be equal to zero: me 3 pave pia Equation (118) isthe imepral representation of the conservation of mas. I simply states that any change inthe mass ofthe fd in the contol ‘lume is equal to the rate of mas being transported across the contol surface (es) boundaries. Ina similar manner the rate of change in the momentum of the id towing through the contol volume at ay instant dima). [ds the sum ofthe ‘sccumulation of the momentum per unit volume pq within the contol volume tnd ofthe change ofthe momentum across the contol surface boundaries: as cas) nga 8 fos 5 {easy + [ onta-mas G16) This change in the momentum, as given in Eq, (116), scoring to Newton's second law must be equa othe forces JF applied tothe uid inside the contro volume: lon. mgs Se aay ‘The forces acting on the Mud in the conto volame in the x direstion are sitter body forces pf pet unit volume, oF surface frees, pet uni ‘Bscussed in Section 1.4 (oe) [ oars [nas aw ‘whore mis the uit normal veetor that points outward from the contol volume, BY substituting Eqs. (1-16) and (1-18) into Eq, (1.17) the integral form ofthe momentum equation ia the {direction is obtained: 2f onare[, miarnes=[_acarf nnas i ‘This approach can be used 10 develop addtional governing equations, suchas the energy equation. However, for the fid dynamic eases that are being considered heey the mass andthe momentum equations are suficent to eseie the Bud mation10 rows seroomaes 1.6 DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF THE FLUID DYNAMIC EQUATIONS gation (118) and (1.19) are the ites forms ofthe conservation of mass Fava rscniom equations In many cases, though. the difrential repre aa meemore ‘rcfl. Tn ogder to devve the diferent form of the Sin Bt mse equation, both integrals of Eq (1-18) should be volume sarees can be atcompliahed by the we of the divergence theorem (See ele!” p39) which states that fora vector [ease [veer om iain way er hn he et id Me ton ty te ean nt) eee trowel on of the Rud (rghchand sie) aside the contol volume, In EQ. GLanh Wis the gradient operator, and, in cartesian coordinates, cor in india form wher isthe unit vector iJ fr j= 1, 2.3). Thus the indica form ofthe Sheps ewe becomes [nase [Sar um) ‘An application of Eq, (1.20) t0 the surface itera trm in Eq. (115) transforms it 0 a vole integral [nanese [,crner “This allows the two terms tobe combined as one volume integra ea [.Qev-eg)aveo subere the tme derivative s taken inside the integra since the contol volume ae Borause the equation must hot for an asbitraty conta volume ior the Mud, then the integrand is aso equal to zero, Ths, the TE diferent form of the conservation of mast or the continuity tquaton is obtained: a 269. pa= a Bv-pa=0 a rover neo wacnoRD HL Expansion of the second term of Eq. (1.21) yields 2 Beq-vp+p¥-a=0 (12ta) and in cartesian coordinates: 2 vB a2) By wing the material deratine Padyg eben darted Di aan ay oe Bq, (1.21) becomes. vp Pe. pe-qn0 ate ‘he muti dsvatie D/DY represen the rae of chang flow paride For tmp e selon oa parce gen Da Dr ters am ‘An icompecabe Mui i 8 Bid whose clement cannot experience ‘olan change Since by Jfniton the mas of «Bud elements constant, the Thi ments of tn tcompresible uid must have constant deny” (A tomogencous incompressible id i therefore »constan-dnsty Bund) The ‘ont equaton (E9,(020) fora ncompresabe Ru reduces a au 20 3 Vara yt ae” 029 Note that the incompressible coin equation does oth oe ht ity equation doce met hve kine derive She tie penn an bn seen Dom "To obtain the dierent frm of th 3 momentum equation, the diver feng een (9) mpd oe me ital tm of Ea [manee[_vemaer [pnnas=[ Seav ‘Substcating these results into Eq. (1.19) yields [[eoorrre-m-S}er-0 aan12 onsen atnoowecs ‘ince this integral olds for an arbitrary control volume, the integrand must be ero and therefore a 23% Ue 4.25) Lipa tt ons eheSe 6242.3) os) the continuity ‘Expanding the letand side of Eq (1.25) fest, and then sng ‘equation, wil roe the lefthand side t0 Duetouaee[ etn] eee elo (Note that the fad sceeration fs which axonding to Newton's second law when multiplied by the mass per Totume most be equal EF) eligi form ofthe acceleration term ato Ea. (2.25), tne iicnta form ofthe moneatam equation besomes a= Fo: 2 eof tt 129 erate dann) din atsan cones . fe, Oty te ane ee BE 128) 2p, ng He esr on See Ste Be a8) Pe 2 Ft He (1.26 ts Me (135) ‘oa Nemoian id testes components ate given by Eq. (10) an by Fae Ege (ie), he Naver tkes eats are ‘anes o(2bease) =a and in earesian coordinates: (Strate) =~ valet srnoveenon ato aaceonin) 13 Sr ng drm ey ca $103) 9 Cee ee sod boundaries (Fg 19) bth he noma nd angel ele components “will reduce to zero: 4.=0 (onsolid surface) (1.28 {on solid surface) (2a) ‘The numberof exact solutions tothe Nav because of the nonlinearity of the diferent Stokes equations is small fie rn pon Hower, ny tions some terms ean be neplected 40 tht simpler equations can be bined: For camp, by suming constant vat ewe (1.27) oS +4-¥4)= tsp + ura +BT0-0) 29 Furthermore, by assuming an incompressible uid (for which the ‘omtnsty equation (Bq. (1.23)) 8 V-q=0), Eq, (1.27) seduces to (heat) =et-to eon oe See Be qev asp “This equation i called the Euler equation14 onsen ssroowners ‘ncune jinn ort ater, In situations when the problem has cylindrical or spherical symmetry, the se of appropriate coordinates can simpy the solution. AS an example, the ‘eedamenat equations foram incompressible Nuk! with constant viscosity are (SeSete. The clindial coordinate system sds in Fig: 110 and for Ere example the 7.8 coordinates are im a plane normal co the x coordinate ae eermors , and D/Dt in ther, 8, x systems ate (sce Pai'* p38 oF Yuan, p.132) a2) ax) ay “the continuity equation in elinrieal coordinates fr an incompressible ‘uid then booomes eee a WB) om oacousti w eacronnes 1S Tpke erste ye. A spherical coordinate system withthe coordinates , 8, i described in Fig. LiL The operators @, Ve and D/D! in the r, 6g system are (Karamchet chapter 2, of Yuan p. 132) V (oS tae riind i) oo 3)*zanG6 0936) arog an : sin 839 ee “The continuity equation in spherical coordinates for an incompressible goin 0), 1300 7 ind 30 tind ag"? Gee ‘Te momentum equation fran incompressible fui is (Pap. * decton cord 2 2) Frag) Oo) Atte to mea 36) u(t aay16 towsran sexoomanaes — When a two-dimensional low field is treated in this teat, it will be described either cartesian coordiate system with coordinates x and zor it sesermponding polar coordinate system wth coordinates and 0 (see Fs {LD Ie thie polar coordinate stem, the continuity equation for an Jotoaprssibe fd is obtained from Eq. (1.35) by eliminating 34u/3r and the ‘neon anomentum equations fr an incompressible fui are ideal Eqs (1.36) and (137), spectively. 1.7 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE FLUID DYNAMIC EQUATIONS the previous section (Ba vie and thet solution, even by numerical methods, arr cam be elected in certain regions of the flow felt, while, the saeekcat pct features a til etained, then a set of simplified equations aor ear ined (and probably solved with less effort), I this section, some of ‘Re SSations for simplifying the governing equations wil be discussed. aes fo determine the relative magnitudes ofthe various elements in tne grvcmingfeental equations, the following dimensional analss vr simply, consider the Rid dynamic equations with constant Propertis (icons, and p= const): v az peer)ememrrer 09 “The fist step i to define some characteristic or reference quantities, relevant raccoon we mcnatcine 17 toe phy polem ote it Reference length (6 wis hor) occ eed ees am pt ceric ie (one ee of» Foc poses, of L/V Reference per te eam pesine =) : Baty tres (ee: mania o eth protons) With he nd of these character quate we can defn 1 ‘nondimensional variables: : onde artes (146) If these characteristic magnitude tudes are properly selected, then all the non: dimensional values in Eq. (46) willbe ofthe order of 1. Next, the governing ‘equations need to be rewritten sing the quantities of Eq. (146). As an ‘ample, the fist term ofthe continuity equation becomes 13) asp ee _ BGS S5+35) wow ‘The corresponding equations in they and z dtetions canbe obtained Re sien ons can be obtained by the procedure, Now, by multiplying Eq. (187) by L/V apd Eq. (48) byLip? we end up with ee +(ora) ee ate snes (146) a fries te a me va erent (wil ee of Ste I and te eathe serene ome ean tft y ie tones ear ee te panne, he cin enon aa ree ane ode of ape and for tna) 2) am acm ae apo Tn te monet MSS a nodineanal um L oo 1.51) ak c bch is time constant and spin the impoance of simedependent sree SOs ecm wd frm ft Rondimenstonal member Pate same were the characte tine the ee of the rt aperiodic ee wake eigen) Pein & ‘putts Lae eee 1.52) Gow V cee! ee Stouhal number i very small, perhaps due to very low frequencies, then {he time-dependent Bist term in Eq (1-50) canbe neglected compared fo the terme of order “The second group of nondimensional numbers (when gravity i the body force and fy the gravitational acceleration g) is called the Froude number, find sands forthe ratio of inertial force to gravitational force: : (1.53) Ve = Smal values of F (note that F"? appears in Ea. (150) will mean that body forces sch as gravity shouldbe inched inthe equations, in the case of ree Surface river fows, waterfalls, ship hydrodynamic, et. For the flow of ges, from the kinetic theory point of view (see Yuan,'? 1.257) the viscosity can be comnected to the characteristic velit of the Imoleules« and to the mean distance A that they uavel between collisions (mean tee path), by ame$ Substituting this into Eq (1.6) vil: yl neo (I) ‘This formulation shows thatthe Reynolds number represents the scaling of the ‘elocty-times length, compared 1 the molecular scale ‘The conditions for neglecting the viscous terms when Re2>1 will be dlscussed in more dual athe ext secon. For simpy, a the beginning of this analysis an incompresible id was assumed, However, if compressibility isto be considered, an adtonal rondimensional number appears that is ealled the Mach number, and isthe Fao ofthe velocity to the speed of sound a 7 os [Nate thatthe Euler number ean be related to the Mach number since lp~4" (sce abso Section 4.8). Density changes caused by pressure changes ate negligible if (see Karamehet* p.23) wo Me wear Bar Mer a9) 1nd if these conditions are met, an incompressible uid canbe assumed.8 FLOW WITH HIGH REYNOLDS NUMBER The mont important outsome of the nondimensonaiing process of the lng ent shat ow he eve magne of he rms apPestng {be cquaton can be dcrmined and compared If sed, small mach a needling insipid equation ht ae ease ose bat sl Sam th dominant peal eet. Tec of fe cominlty eatin al terms hive the same mage and tone is be negted. or the momenta eqeation the rte mateo he come ante obaned by sbtting Eas 0511.6) no Bert, an fortes deton ve et aa Before proceeding further, et sexamine the range of Repos number and Mach amber fr some typi enginccingprblews, Since the vacoty of Meets haha and weer very sal ge vary of paces Wacetngpotlems (aa Towspeed aerdynams, hydrodynamic of se et ce) al win the Re range, a shown it Fi. 13. So fr Saations hen the Reynolds umber sig te cous terms become small Sune to th ee terms of onder ia Eq (10). But before melting ) we rsx (S] ” ‘tind pevoounon we mcestoin 21 NUE aie eo mopbeutee) ~ ow repon no gt Reo mater fw. these terms, a closer look atthe high Reynolds sumber flow condition is ceded. At an example, consider the flow over an airfoil, as shown in Fig. Tri In general, bad on the asumption of high Reynolds number the ‘iocous terms of Eq. (1.60) (or 1.30) canbe nplete inthe outer ow regions (outside the immediate vicinity of a solid surface where Viq~ order 1) “Therefore, in thi outer flow repion, the solation can be approximated by solving the iacompresbe continuity and the Esler equations: vea=0 ao a ve Ae qevqat—T 2) Equation (1.62) ea rst onder partial ferential equation that requires 2 boundary condition on one velocity component on a solid surface compared to 2 boundary condition on the velocity vector needed for Eq. (1.30) in the Previous section. Sine the fw is assimed tobe inviscid, thete is ao pisical ‘eason fr the tangential selocty component to be 2er0 on a satonary solid Siiface and therefore what remains fom the no-ip boundary condition (Eq (128, 6) thatthe normal component of velocity mast be 2210 qe=0(onsolid surface) a.) However, closer investigation of such flow Bld reveals that aca the slid ‘oundarie in the fd, shear ow derivatives suchas Wg become large and the viscous ters cannot be neglected even for high values of the Reynolds number (Fig. 1.19, As an example, near the surface of a steanlined two-dimensional body submerged ina steady ow inthe x cretion (with no oy forces) the Navier-Stokes equations can be reduced to the classical2 sowsren ascot: poundary layer equations (see Schlching,'* p-131) where now x represents ‘Satan along the body surface and = is eased normal to the surface, The fmomentum equation in the x direction 20 yt) 2 2H aden) = Bank ry sada he norma 2 deo 4 1. on 008) So, in conclusion, for high Reynolds aumber fows there are two dominant regions in the Bowed 1. The outer flow (away from the slid boundaries) where the viscous effets Ie negligible. A solution for the inviscid flow in this region provides information about the presse distribution and the related forees. 22. The thin boundary layer (neat the solid boundaries) where the viscous “Tiectscannot be neglected. Solution of the Boundary layer equations will ‘provide information about the sheat suess distribution and the related (ition) forces. For the soltion of the boundary:ayer equations, the no-lip boundary ‘condition & applied on the solid boundary. The tangential velocity profle {tude the boundary layer is shown in Fig. 14 and its seen that as the outer ‘Reon approached, the tangential velocity component becomes independent Ofrs The ntrface betwoen the boundary-layer repion and the outer fo feqion isnot precy defined and occurs at aditance 9, the boundary tayer {Hlekne. trom the wall For lage values of the Reynolds number the ratio of {he boundary ayer thickness toa chracterstc length of the body (an sirfi's Chord. for example) is proportional to Re"! (se, Schlichting," p 129). ‘Theriore, the normal extent of the boundary-layer region is negligible when vicwed on the length scale ofthe outer region “A detailed solution for the complete Rowfeld of such a high Reynolds number How proceeds follows: 1. A solution is found forthe inviscid ow past the body. For tis sotuion the ‘stnaryconton of zero velocity normal to the sold surface applied at the surface of the body {which & indistingushable from the edge of the oundary ayer on the scale of the chord). The tangential velocity Pottponeat om the body surface U, is then obtained as part ofthe inviscid SStuion. andthe presture distribution along the solid surface is then ‘determines, 12. Note that in the boundary-layer equations (Eqs. (1.61) and (68) the Presure doce mot vary across the boundary layer and is suid tbe server avo excronine 23 impressed on the boundary layer. Therefor, the wrface presture distribu tion i taken from th invited solution in (I) and inserted into Eq. (1.6. ‘Also, Uris taken from the invited solution asthe tangential component of the velocity at the edge ofthe boundary layer and is used asa boundary ‘condition in the solution ofthe boundary ayer equations “The solution fora high Reynolds number flow field with the assumption of an invicid Buide therefore the frst step towards the solution of the Complete pysicl problem. (Acditional iterations between the iaviscd outer ffow and the boundary-layer repo in search for an improved solution are posible and are discussed ia Chapters 9 and 14.) 19. SIMILARITY OF FLOWS ‘Another interesting aspect ofthe process of nondimensionalizing the equations inthe previous section that two diferent flows are considered tobe similar the nondimensonal numbers af Eq. (1.0) are the same. For most practical ‘ses, where gravity and unsteady elects ae negligible, only the Reynolds and the Mach numbers aced to be matched. A posuble implementation of this Principle sn water o wind-tunnel testing, where the scale ofthe model ders from that of the actual ow conditions For example, many airplanes are tested in small sale fist (.g 1/508 scale), In order to Keep the Reynolds number the same then either the tispeed othe st density must be increased (e. by factor of 8). Tiss a Iypialconfht that test engineers face, since increasing the airspeed 5 times Wall bring the Mach number to an unreasonably high range. The second iermative of reducing the Kinematic viscosity ¥ by compressing the air i osile in only vey few wind tunnels, and in most cases matching both of {ese sondimensional nimbers i diicale. ‘Another possibilty of applying the similarity principle to exchange ‘ids between the setual andthe fest conditions (eg, ter with air where the fio of Kinematic vaconity i about 1:15). Thus a 1/1S-tale model of a ‘bmarine ean be tested in a wind tunnel a true speed conditions. Usual tis beter to increase the speed ia the wind tunel and then even a smaller scale ‘model canbe tested (ofcourse the Mach number not always matched but for {ch low Mach number applications this i lesser) REFERENCES 2 Yom 5 Puno 9 fla Meh Prete Hal Egat Cit N10, 3 Ki Fons aa Fe Pat coher Yous 11S. Raum sii flr Fd teraz, RE Keeger, Mal, FL 1980 1 Seto Rou Laer Teor, Mere New or2 sowareen asnovmaucs PROBLEMS: LL, Te east component of «two-dimensional fw ld ae given by woolerastinil hee Ais 8 constant. Does this ow say the incompressible cominy 1.2, The velocity components of hee dimensional, acompresible fox are piven by wae» ve natfare Determine the uations ofthe eames passing through poit (11,1. 13, The vlc component of 2 two-dimensional ow are Bien by (6) Deen i ow sty the incompressible contiuty equation? 1A The two-dimensional nsmpresbe, visor, laminar fow between two parle {ater du tow conan pressure gadet dp ale Poiell flow (down i Fix. 115). Simply the cotinuty and momeatum equations for this case and ‘gay the bouncy conion o the wal (ay = 4/2). Determine the velo ‘Seman fe) Between the plates ao the Sherog Suess rule #1) om the wal CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF INVISCID, INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW In Chapter 1 it was established shat for fows ‘ffets of viscority are eflectively confined to thin Boundary layers and hin wakes. For this tetson our study of low-speed aerodynamics wl be limited 10 ows ouside these ited repons where the flow i assumed tobe inviscid and incompressible, To develop the mathematical equations that govern these flows and the tools that we wil ned to solve the equations iti necessary 10 study rotation in the Mid and to demonstrate is relationship tothe efets of sony, Tt is the goal of this chapter to define the mathematical problem (ciferetil equation and boundary conditions) of low-speed aerodynamics ‘hose solution will ccupy us forthe remainder of the book. 24_ ANGULAR VELOCITY, VORTICITY, ‘AND CIRCULATION ‘The arbitrary motion of « uid clement consists of translation, rotation, and formation. To ilstate the rotation of a moving Hud element, conser at rf the control volume shown in Fig. 21. Here, for simplicity, an ‘nites rectangular element is sclestd that being raslted inthe? =O lane by velocity u, 0) of corer. The lengths of the sides, parallel 2s26 Lousmen nscomasace ‘Reco of cng ad emer to the x and y direction, are Ax and Ay, respectively. Because of the velocity ‘variations within the fuid the clement may deform and rotate and, for ‘example the x component ofthe velocity at the upper corner (a0. 4) of the ‘clement’ wil be. ut (3u/3y) Oy, where higherorder terms ‘in the small ‘quanti Ax and Ay are neglected. Ata later time (eg. e+ At, tis wll ‘hase the deformation shown at the righthand side of Fig. 21. The angular ‘velocity component, (note positive direction in the figure fllows the Fhtchand rule) of the fd clement can be obtained by averaging the instantaneous angular velocities of the Segments 1-2 and 1-f ofthe element ‘The instantancous angular velocity of segment 1-2 is the diference in the linea velocities ofthe two edges ofthis segment, divided bythe distance (Ax): ae 1p ntelative velocity Yar 8" a Angular elo of segment 1~2~ 28th 1 and the angular velocity ofthe 1-4 segment is (eranen ay ‘The 7 component of the angular velocity of the fluid element is then the average ofthese two components Bae 3y ‘The two additional components of the angular velocity can be obtained simituty, and in vector form the angular velocty becomes wn ixa en rmonseneas or wc, ccurasonc ow 27 1s convenient to define the vorticity & a8 twice the angular velit. ee eam -(B-8) eeme3) Now consider an open surface S, shown in Fig. 22, which has the closed carve C as fs boundary. With the use of Stokes’ theorem (see Kellogg" p. 53) the vorticity onthe surface 5 canbe related tothe line integral around C: [vxa-nas~[ aes-fad where m is normal to S. The integral on the right-hand side is called the Creulation and is denoted by T, rofea ey This relation canbe illusteated again with the simple fuid element of Fig. 2.1 ‘The circulation AP ie obtained by the evalation ofthe cosed line lateral of the tangential velocity component around the Bid element, Note thatthe positive direction corresponds to the posive dection of ‘eran Benes nd oe iteraFor the general three dimensional case these conclusions canbe summarized as ey “The circulation is therefore somehow tied to the rotation in the Buid (cg. t0 the angular velocity of solid body type rotation). In Fig. 2:3 to fxamples are shown to ilsrate the concept of etculation. The curve C {Gashed lines) is taken to be s ice in each case. In Fig. 234 the Roweld ‘onsite of concentric cela sueamlines in the counterciockwise direction. It {8 clear that along the circular nteraton path C (Fg. 2-2) q and in Eq, {0.3 are postive forall dl and therefore Chas «postive cxcuation. In Fig, ‘owes (oad watt (eatin. 2.3) the flomfild isthe symmetric flow of a uniform stream past a circular ‘finder. lis cler from the symmetry that the eicuaton is zx for this as. "To itstrate the mation of # Mud with rotation consider the contol volume shown in Fig. 24a, moving along the path . Let us assume thatthe Sisous forces ate very large and the ud wil rotate as a rigid body, while Following the path In this case V xq 0 and the flow i called roainal. For the fid motion described in Fig. 246, the shear forces in the fid are feglble, and_the Aid wil not be rotted by the shear force of the reiting fd elements, Tn thi case Vq=0 and the fow is considered to be erotional rxounentaion nse, comrmesate RoW 29 Beat Aecen 22 RATE OF CHANGE OF VORTICITY ‘To obiin an equation that governs the rate of change of vorticity of Hud Clement, we start withthe incompressible Navier-Stokes equations in cartesian ‘oondinats (E4. (1.30), Basen a Tecan wane ee ing tery =9f gx: atari at es) Now take the curl of Eq, (1.30), with the second term on the Itch side Feplaced by the righthand side of Eq. 3). Note that for a scalar A, ‘Pu VA = 0 and therefore the pressure term vanishes % Be ox(gxtye vats vey e6 “To simply the result, we use the following vector identity, Ux Xa Sa HE TOF -g en song with the incompressible continuity equation and the fact that the tortciy is divergencetree (noe that for any vector A. V-TXA=0). If we "so assume that the body force acting i conservative Jiotational, such as ‘rviy) then vxteo andthe rate of change of vorticity equation becomes svat ve e830 toworen seroomnacs “The inviscid incompressible version ofthe vorticity transport equation i then De, Di For fow that is two-dimensional, the vorticity i perpendicular to the flow direction and Eq. (2.8) becomes 4 ey) em am and the vortcty of each Aud element i seen to remain constant. “The vorticity equation (Eq. (28) strongly resembles the Navier-Stokes ‘equation and for very high valves. ofthe Reynolds mumber ii seen that the ‘ori that created atthe solid boundary convected along withthe flow itt much farer rate than i can be flied out across the Now and so it femains inthe confines of the boundary layer and tailing wake. The fd in the outer portion of the Howeld (the part that we wll study) i seen to be effectively rotaton-free (irotational) as well as inviscid. "The above observation can be ilustrated for the two-dimensional case ‘using the nondimensional quantities defined in Eq. (1.46). Then, Eq. (2-10) ‘canbe rewritten in nondimensional form ne Dir Re. where the Reynolds number, Re, is defined in Eg. (1.56). Here a two- ‘mensional flow inthe x-y planes assumed and theelore the vorticity pnts in the = diection. The lefthand side inthis equation {5 the rate at which ‘vority fs accumolated, which & equal tO the rate at which i is Being [enerated (ocar the slid boundaries of slid wurtaces). It cleat from Eq (20) that for high Reynolds number flows, vorticity generation is small and ‘an be neglected outside the houndary layer. Thus for an rotational Suid Eq (22) veces 0 7 2.109) ov av au_ aw By: ae ea 2 em ae a 23. -RATE OF CHANGE OF (ARCULATION: KELVIN'S THEOREM ‘Consider the crulation around a fd curve (which always passes through the ‘same fd portcles) in an incompressible inviscid ow with conservative body rrowmenisor mmc, coumemais now 3 forces ating. The time rate of change ofthe cicultion ofthis Bud curve Cis gvenas orp Debi Since Ce a hid curve, we have D4 > Phen and Batmag {2arfada ex or baa ew = ‘coordinates and time only i $4" dq= fe d(q'/2)=0. The acceleration wis ‘bianed from the Euler equation (Eq. (1.62) and is op aa—v(2) oe Substitution into Bq, (2.14) yields the result that the circulation of a Mid curve fra ews since the integral nd a closed path is zero and the ‘work done bya conservative force around a closed path is also zero. The result {in Eq. 2.18) isa form of angular momentum conservation and is known as Keluin's theorem (ater the British scientist who published his theorem in 1), which stats that: theme rate of change of dcuation around a closed curve consisting ofthe same Mud elements i 210. For example, consider ‘lol a8 ia Fi. 2.5, which prior to 1=0 was a rest and then at 0 vas Suddenly set into constant forward motion. As the iol moves through the nouns 25 Cet ned by an oi ert ey et ine man,32 sows sencones ‘ida circulation Fuga develops around it a order to comply with Kelvin’ theorem a starting Yortck Fen tst exist such thatthe total relation around ‘ine thet surounds both the sro and the wake remains unchanged DTaP Dar ° e169 “This is posible ony i the starting vortex ctculation wil be equal 10 the “avoi’sGreulaton, but is rotation sil be in the opposite direton 24 IRROTATIONAL FLOW AND THE ‘VELOCITY POTENTIAL, Ie hasbeen shown that the vortity nthe high Repos number flows that ae beng studied conned to the boundary layer and wake regions there the infos of vsonty is nok nelle and so Is appropriate (0 ‘Some an iotatonl es well sini low outside these confined regions {ne rents of Section 2.2 and 2.3 wl be wed when i necessary to del {pons of srt the Bowe) emer the following ne itera in «simply connected exon, along the ine € [nde [vérovay ower am Ie ow sin oh rep ten wd deo xt Gierental (ee Kreysei"p. 741) of s potential © that i independent of the Integration path € and a function of the location ofthe point PCs, 2): eenae[femreeere am where ys an arbitrary reference pont. & i alle the velocity potential and The welowty a each point can be obtained ass gradient ave ew and in cartesian coordinates ea “The substitution of Ea, (2.19) into the comity equation (Eq. (1.23) leads to the following diferent equation forthe velocity potential Piqe¥ FO =0'-9 e2y which is Laplace's equation (names after the French mathematician Peete S Deru ie. n'y sant of compel enna sn oan itanal ai Ne tw Lapses eunton Ine rsmwusras cr mnce, sconmmnas now 3 ieremial equation. Since the Bud's viscosity has been neglected, the no-ip ‘boundary condition ona solid-fuid boundary cannot be enforced and only Eq. (1.2) required. In more general form, the boundary condition states tht ‘the normal component ofthe relative velocity between the Maid and the solid surface (which may havea velocity qy) i 2210 on the boundary: a @-a-0 em “This boundary condition is physically reasonable and is consistent with the proper mathematical formulation of the problem a willbe shown later inthe hap For an icotational inviscid incompressible How it now appears thatthe ‘elocty eld ean be obtained from a solution of Laplace's equation forthe "eloctypotemial. Note that we have not yet used the Euler equation, which Connects the velocity to the pressure. Oace the velocity field is obtained i i necesay 10 alo obtain the presure dstnbation onthe body surface to allow {ora cakeulation ofthe aerodynamic forces and moments. 2.5 BOUNDARY AND INFINITY ‘CONDITIONS Laplace's equation forthe velocity potential isthe governing partial diferentia uation forthe velocity fr an invecd, incompressible, and ctotational flow. Wisan ellipse ciferenial equation that results in boundary vale problem, For aerodynamic problems the boundary conditions need to be specified on all, sold surfaces and at infty. One form of the Boundary condition on soldi interface s given in Eq. (2.22). Another statement of ths boundary fenaiton, which will prove useful in applications, is obtained inthe folowing way, Let the sli surface be given by Foyt ax in cartesian coordinates. Particles on the surface move with velocity qa such that F remaine zero. Therefore the derivative of F following the surace priles mast be zero: Dy pad fa tF=0 em APE qe FF 25 since the nowmal othe surface is proportional tothe gradient of F ve ive 29 1 Eq, (2.25) is now substituted into Eq, (2.24) the boundary condition2, gr aPP. eee am Grae ae am Linn. the turbance ad tthe oy moving though a Bi tat was iiialy af rest decaye to 2er0. In a spaced frame of reference ‘eboty of such fd (at fet therefore zero at infinity (Far fom the solid boundaries of the body) 228) tim 26 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION FOR THE PRESSURE “The incompresible Euler equation (Eq, (1.31) cam be rewritten with the wse of Eq. (25) 8 A_qxgevEas—v2 gps vSay—ve em For rotational flow §=0 and the time derivative of the velocity can be a9,.2. 8-39 ex Let a assume tat he body frei conservative wih potential, tee en 1 gravity is the body fore acting andthe = axis points upward, then E =~. “The Tuler equation for incompresbleirotational flow with a conservative body force (by substituting Ege. (2.30) and 2.31) into Eq. (2.29)) then becomes Bye 9%), wleskeh 2) 0 em ation (22) ite quty ia pens nto ie ty Bree t+ ec 233) ptt ar ‘This is the Bernoull (Dutch/Swiss mathematician, Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1752) equation for inviscid incompressible iertational flow. A more (ful form ofthe Bernoul equation i obtained by comparing the quantities tn the lefthand side of Eq. (2.33) a two points in the ai, an aitrary pont nd a reference point at infty, sa). The equation becomes ew rronueers of min, MEME How 38 I the reference condition is chosen such that E=0, const, and ‘4-0 then the pressure p at any point in the ld ean be called from ram ee eae et 235) Ie the ow is steady, incompressible but rotational the Bernoulli equation (Ea. (2.3) f sill vad with the time-derivauve term set equal to 2er0 if the fonstant on the righthand side js now alowed to vary from streamline 10 Streamline. (This beeanse the product qX' is normal 19 the steamine ld their dot product vanishes along the stamline. Consequently, Eq. (2.3) ‘an be used in a rotational uid between two points ying on the same ‘sreamline) 2.7. SIMPLY AND MULTIPLY ‘CONNECTED REGIONS ‘The reson exterior 10 a two-dimensional airfoil and that exterior (0a three-dmensonal wing or body ae fundamentally diferent in a mathematical ‘eve and lead to velosity potentials with diferent properties. To pont out the ‘ifernce in these regions, we ned to introduce a few base definition. ‘A redublecuve ina epion canbe contracted toa point without leaving the region, For example, in the fegion exoror (0 ah alto, any cane surounding the airfoils not reducible and any curve not surrounding it i reducible. A. simply connected region is one whete all closed curves are reducible. (The region exterior (0 a iite thee-dimensional body & simply ‘onnected. Any curve surounding the body can be translated away from the body and then contracted.) A barrier isa curve that i inserted into a region but sno apart ofthe resulting modified region. The insertion ofbarier ato region ean change i from being muliply connected t0 being simply ‘connected, The degree of connectivity of a region isn +1 where m Is the Iinimum number of barirs needed to make the remining region simply onnected, For example, consider the region in Fig. 26 exterior to an aif Draw a barrier from the trang edge to downstream init. The orginal repion minus the batier i now simply connected (aote that curves in the region can no longer surround the sifoi). Therefore m= 1 and the orginal repion i doubly connected ‘Consider irrational motion ina simply connected region. The circle tion around any curve i given by refaraafro-anfao ax Sa ve ‘Fw ee ta fl ns Gb commce eo.6 Lowsmsn sitoorans (C Tepe ies sha pl commeed en. With the we of Eqs. (24) and with 50 the circulation i sen to be zero. ‘Ala Rinse the integral of d around any curve i 2210 (Eq. (2.36), the ‘clot potential i single-valued ‘Now conser ierotational motion in the doubly connected region exterior toan gol a shown ia Fig. 2.7. For any curve not surrounding the aro, the “ove real forthe simply connected region apply and the culation is zr. Now inert bari as shown inthe figure. Consider the curve that consists of Crud Ca, which surround the iro and the two sdas ofthe barrier. Since fhe tegon caluding the barr i simply connected, the eieulation around this cave i seo, This leads tothe following equation: faa-fearfras [aa [Note that the rst term isthe ctculation around C; and the second is minus the steltion around C;- Als, the contibutions from the barter cancel for ‘Moudy ow (ince the barier cannot be along a vortex sheet). The circulation ‘Sound curves C, and C; (and any other cures surrounding the airfoil once) te the sume and may be nonzero. From Ea, (2.36) the veloty potentials not nlecaled if there a nonzero circulation 28 UNIQUENESS OF THE SOLUTION “The physical problem of finding the velocity ll fr the Now created, say. by {he motion ofan sro or wing has been reduced tothe mathematical problem ‘taolving Laplace's equation forthe velocity potenal with suitable boundary Conditions foF the velocity on the body and at infinity. In e spacesixed feteence (ame, this mathematical problem is ve-0 esta) te on body am) FO50 tron @316) rowan or erm, eeocnesnis now 37 Since the body boundary condition is on the normal derivative of the potential and since the flow’ la the region exterior to the body. the Mathematical problem of Eqs. (2.372, b ) called the Neumann etterior problem. In what follows we wil answer the question "is there a unique Solution tothe Neumann exterior problem?” We wil discover thatthe answer [Ssiferent for «simply and mitply connected rion Tet us consider a simply connected region fst. This wil aply tothe region ‘outside of 1 threedinensonal body but care must be taken in ttending the results to wings since the lowed isnot rotational everywhere (rakes). Assume that there ate two solutions ©, and @; to the mathematical problem posed in Eqs. (2.374, b, c). Then the diference = sates Laplace’ equation, the homogeneous version of Eq. (2.37), and G39). ‘One form of Green's (George Green, German mathematician, early 1800) theorem (Ret. 1.5, p. 138) is obtained by applying the divergence theorem t0 the fencton @ F@ where @ 8 a solution of Laplace's equation, [the lid region and $s its boundary. The result is [re-voa- [ous aw [Now apply Eq. (2.38) to @p forthe region R between the body B and an abiteay surface © surrounding 10 get, [reorvooa’=f an2eas[on%8as aa) If we let ¥ go to infinity the integral over E vanishes and since 39o/3n= 0 on B we ate Ltt with [reo-ve.av ow Site eg ary petra el nw ma be 0 ad Sateen oS ce She eo he See ee cee athena eng eel er ne ie a a eek Sit come eo veto he al ia fe 28a al sna 0-0-5 Green's theorem is now applied to the function @p inthe region @ between the airfoil C and the conve © surounding st Note thatthe integrals are sil ‘volume and srfaceintcgrals and hat the integrands do not vary normal to the Plane of motionInsert barter joining Cand and denote the two sides ofthe barrier 1s b~ and b+ as shown inthe figure. Note that mis the outward normal. b= find ~is the outward normal 1o b+. Equation (2.38) then becomes [¥0-¥04v [eo%eass [o.Zeas +f en%eas-[en28us ay “The integral around Cis zero fom the boundary condition and if we let Ego infinity the integral around 3 i ero alo. Let ©; be @, on b~ and @ be @aon by. Then Ea, (281) i a bas m2) [vep-vonav=[ = “The normal derivative of 2 is contiauous across the bari and Eq. (2.42) an be written in terms ofan integral over the barr: 5 as-( os Pas | 05 [ee-senav=[ ces-enites aa) Ii we reintroduce the quantities ®, and and rearrange the integrand we get [v0.80 (er-ar e010) Bas aan [Not that the circulations associated with flows 1 ad 2 are given by Tyo T=0! 95 acme or some, aeons oe 3 and are constant, nd finally [re-rearae-r[ Se ass Since in general we cannot require tha the integral along the barr be zero, the soliton 0 the Neumann exterior problem is only uniquely ‘etermined to within a constant when T= (when the ulation i specie {par of the problem statement) This result can be generalized for multiply ‘onnected regions in'a similar manner. The value ofthe ciculation cannot be Specie on purely mathematical grounds but wil be determined later on the Basis of phytal considerations. 29 VORTEX QUANTITIES In conjunction withthe velocity vector, we can define various quantities such 1S steamines, steam tubes, and stam surfaces. Cortesponding quantities fa be defined forthe vortciy vector that will prove tobe useful later on it ‘he modeling fling ows, "The fed ines (ein Fig. 2.2) that ate parallel to the vorticity vector are called wortex tines ad thes lines are described by gxat=o 8) Uwhete dls a segment along the vortex line (as shown in Fig. 29) In cartesian ‘Thordintes, this equation yields the dfeental equations fr the vortex ines: ae dy de See en “The vortes lines passing through an open curve in space form a vortex surface and the vortex lines passing through a closed curve in space form a Yortex tube. A. vortex filament is defined as @ vortex tube of infinitesimal ‘rosesectional af. "The divergence ofthe vorticity is zero sine the divergence ofthe cut of we vous 2940 tower ascomnacs any vector is identialy ze: -oxqe0 on) Consider, at any instant, a region of space R enclosed by a surface S. An pplication of the divergence theorem yields fs ads [-¥-gav=0 2.49) At some instant i time draw a vortex tube in the fw as shown in Fig 2.10 ‘Apply Eq” (2.49) tothe region enclosed by the wal f the tube S, and the ‘surfaces 5, and S; that cap the tube. Since on S, the vorticity i parallel to the surface, the contibuion ofS, vanishes and we ae et with [seur-[seete[tvear-o em) Note that wis the outward normal nds deton shown in he re I we note n a being postive inthe recon of the vortcty, then Eq (250) sense a i then Eg, 2.50) [es [At cach instant of time, the quantity in Eq. (251) is the same for any osescctonal surface ofthe tube. Let C be any closed curve that surrounds the tbe and Hes on its wall. The cucuaton around Cis given fom Eq. (2-4) as: [6xes-ont esy rex[ene cons. e2) andi seen to be constant along the tube. The results in Eqs. (2.51) and (2.52) xpress the spatial conservation of vorticity and ate purely kinematical IE Eq, (2.52) is applied to a vortex lament and mi chosen parallel to the vorticity vector, then Te= G45 = const es and the vorticity at any section of vortex filament is seen to be inversely ‘proportional to ts crosesectional area. A consequence ofthis result i that rwaons or mvc. necurmramr ow 8 ‘wore filament cannot end inthe fd since zero area woud lead to an infinite Vale fr the vorticity. This limiting ease, however, is useful forthe purposes [ot modeling end 30H convenient to define 2 vortex filament with a fied Sioulation, veo cros-sectonalaea, and infinite Vortcty as a vortex fament tri concenrated vorticity ‘Based om results similar 19 those of Section 2.3 and this section, the German sient Hermann von Helmboltz (1821-1854 developed his vortex theorems for inviscid lows, which an be sommarizd a 1. The strength of vortex filament i constant along its length. 2. A vorter filament cannot start or end in a Sud (it must form a closed path ‘or extend to ini). 1 The fd that forms a vortex tube continues to form a vortex tube and the freagi of the vortex tube Temains constant as the tube moves about {hence vortex elements, such as vortex ines, vortex tubes, vortex surfaces, te wil remain vortex cements with ime) ‘The first theorem is based on Eq. (2.53), while the second theorem fotlows from this, The third theorem f actually combination of Helmholtz’ third and fourth theorems andi a consequence ofthe invsld ow assumption (Eq. 29). 240 TWO-DIMENSIONAL VORTEX ‘Tlustrate a flowficld frequently called» two-dimensional vortex, consider 3 two-dimensional rgd cinder of radius rotating in_a viscous id at a Constant angular velocity of 0, a8 shown in Fig. 2-112. This motion ests in ‘Tow with culo steaming’ and therefore the radial velocity component i enon Conzcquent the continuity equation (Eq. (135)) in the 78 plane tecomes eg : eng es) Integrating this equation resus in ana ess) “The Navier-Stokes equation in ther diretion (Eq. (1.34). afer neglecting the body force terms, becomes -2 50) a__ P Since gis a function of + only, and owing tothe radial symmetry of the [lobiem the presure must Be ether function of ofa constant. Therefor, [ denative will not appear inthe momentam equation inthe @ direction42 sonseap sercomvacs “Teo dientin owl! ound onda oe ning 8 ph 0 (&4.139, es and since gy sa function ofr only, Lye, 4 ote. oa arr 238) Integrating wit expect ils ie are where C; is the constant of integration, Resrrangng this yields 4 pew C. soammats on wm, Ninna now 43 and after an adtiona integration G en rE es) au) rr) i, =0, and by using the fist “The second boundary condition is satis on boundary condition, the velocity becomes Re, From the vortex flament results (Eq, (253), the circulation has the same sign 1S the vorticity, and is therefore postive in the clockwise direction. The ‘Srultion around the Gce of rads, concentric with the eylinde, i found 4 eon suwre rofl erte=aes? ee des on The pi yn ree : wk es) “This velociy distribution is shown in Fig. 2.116 and is called vortex flow. If ‘eo then the velocity becomes very large near the core, as shown by the (aahed lines. “thas been demonstrated that Tis the circulation generated by the ‘tating. cylinder. However, 10 estimate the vorticity” in the Aid, the Integration line shown by the dashed tines in Fig. 2.1le is suggcsed Tnegrating the velocty in a clockwise dzection, and recalling that 4, ~0, results ia ioral Sar" a fardeoearesccrigsirtanae-o-ar “This indicates that this vortex flow is iotational everywhere, except atthe {ove where all the vortty is generated. When the cove size approaches 2610 (R20) then this fow ie called a irrowtional vortex (excluding the e9te point, whore the velocity approaches infty) “The three-dinensional velocity field induced by soch an clement is Served in the next section.44 towsrap sexcomsace 21 THE BIOT-SAVART LAW 2» sei wher erty § cn ext and the poem i to detemin the vey eld aa eu f+ Enown orton, We my expres the welt field as the curl of a vector field B, such that ae . a-0x8 26 Since the cut of gradient vector is zr, Bis indeterminate 1 within the fashent ofa seal fen of posdon and tine, nd can be selected such vps e68) ‘The vortity then becomes Bevan Px (Tx B= TT By spplring Eq. (2.65) this reduces to Poisson's equation for the vector potential B va 2.66) The solution of this equation, using Green's theorem (eee Karamchet, p. 38 ‘Here Bis evaluated at point P (which sa distance rom the origin, shown in Fig. 2.12) and isa rest of integrating the vorticity & (at pote) within the saunas of avin, Nou ow 4S See ‘volume V. The velocity fils then the curt of B aa LP, Before proceeding with this integration, let us consider an infinitesimal piece ‘ofthe vortty fame fas shown in Fig. 213. The cross section area dS is selected rach that i nmal to & andthe direction dl onthe flame ee A asta Also the etculation Fs av=asat46 cower AERO MIAN and carying out the cur operation while keeping, and ted me get, a _ axe iene" hema? Substation of this result back into Eq. (2.67) results in the Biot-Savart law, which states vxr, z 08) ‘rin liferetial frm 7 6%) ‘A simitar manipulation of Ea. (2.67) leads to the following result for velocity due 194 volume dStDULON of vor - 27) 242 THE VELOCITY INDUCED BY A STRAIGHT VORTEX SEGMENT In this section, the veloc induced by & sight vortex fine sepment Sea Bl onthe gS iw Is ea at vor ie tat or end in-s fuid, and the following ucssion fe aimed at develop the Sntribtion of «segment that isa Secon of »contineow vortex tne The Sortex segment spaced st abitary onenaion nthe ay.) frame with Constant season Tar shown in Fig. 214. The veloc ioduced by tht mamas or ico, nccummsam: now 47 ‘vortex seyment will hive tangential components only. as indicated in the gure. Alto, the difference tyr, Between the vortex segment andthe point P ie According tothe Biot-Savart law (Eq. 2.682) the velocity Segment don this ine, ata point Pi rom the fiat itis clear that teduunp and dl Substituting these into Age ‘his equation canbe integrated over a section (1-2) of the straight vortex segment of Fig. 215 aoa Ey fianndr= Ejoas-omby 08) “The results ofthis equation are shown schematically in Fig. 2.15. Thus, the {elo induced bya straight vortex segments function ofits strength T, the stance d, and the two view angles By. Bs For the two-dimensional case (infinite vortex length) B=, B= x and wed Lenaed am Fare ei voter ne at sans it OF 234, B= 2 Serer ca r ag en ich is exactly haf ofthe previous vale "Equation (2.685) can be modifed to form that is more convenient for ‘numerial computations by sing the definitions of Fig 2.16. For the gener three dimensional cae the two edges ofthe vortex Sepment wil be located by fad; andthe vector connecting the edges is wenchBeton of te vw ngs wet fe he mem ed fe te ely ined erated cy cos Siem Sgt et 4s shown in Fig, 2.16. The distance d andthe cosines of the angle are then Ine ial ‘he reton othe velit ays ora he plane create and the vortex edges 1, 2 and is given by e stilanets ined and by substituting these quantities, and by mukiplying with this re ‘vector the induced velocity is fe ee aaineee Gon) en ‘A mot deta pode for sng tis mala en te (1,2) ves tens and Pa own pve a Scion a ae 2.13. ‘THE STREAM FUNCTION Consider two arbitrary streamlines na two-dimensional steady fom, mensional steady fow, shown in Fig. 217. The vloity along these lines Hs tangent to them Xai ude wade =0 as nnonwenraiso tice neonemts ow and, therefore, the fx (volumetric low rate) between two such fines i Constant. This ow ate between thee two Cu¥es rice f gen [deena en where A and B are two arbitrary points om these lines. If salar funtion ‘Ylers) for this fox is to be intoduced, such that its variation along a steamine wil be zero (according to Eq. (15), then based on these two tquations (Eqs. (1.5) and (2.73), elation tothe velocity is am Substituting this into Eg (1.5) or the streamline results in wy, py = 2 ae + Mew de + ude =O ay ae ds er “Therelore, dW along a streamline is zero, and between two diferent stteamlince d¥ represents the volume Bux (Eq. (2.73). Integration of this uation resus in econ. on steamlines ew Subtiuing Eqs. 274 it the continuity equation ih au, oe yaw a ar eae Bra? and therefore the continuity equation is automatically satisied. Note thatthe Stream function is vali for viscous low, 100, and if the irtatonal flow requirement is added then G, = 0. Recall hat the y component ofthe vorticity em ou _ ow a a &0 sowstan sncomace and therefore for two-dimensional incompressible rotational ow MF satis place's equation reno em 114s possible to express the two-dimensional velocity in the x-z plane as , wi eanixew Thus anixey en Using tis method, the velocity in eylindical coordinates (fr the 6) pane s obtained: (90a) (a0) ‘The relation between the strcam function and the velocity potential can ‘be fund by equating the expressions forthe velocity components (Eq. (220) and Eq, (2.74), and in cartesian coordinates oy ob ow wa ae ey oie or ‘These are the Cavchy-Riemann equations with which the complex flow potential will be defined in Chapter 6 Laplace's equation in polar oordinates, expressed in terms of the steam funeson, is nd in indica coordi em) ex) ‘To demonstrate the relation between the velocity potential and the stream function, fecal that along a streaming aV=udz—waem0 ea nonunion, enone row SI and smarty long 2 constant potential tine 40~ude+wde=0 es) Since the slopes of the seeamlines and the potential tines are_ negative fenprocals, these lines are perpendicular to one another at any pot in the fow. [REFERENCES {Ln Advncd Engrg Matas, 5a, Wey, New Yok, 10, PROBLEMS 2.1. Writ the alr version ofthe inviscid incompressible vortty inca! eaorinats fran anism ow 123, Frat the boundary condition of Eq. (2.27) fr ace (and a sphere) whose fabs varying suc hat =a) ima id 3s at iy. 2.3 (6) Conder an incompressible otal fow na Bid epon V with Boundary S. Find an equation for hence energy ie he region 5am nepal ve 5 (@) Now comer the two-dimensional ow between concentne inde with {di and b tnd veloty components qn and go Air (where AS ‘stn Cia the hei energy nthe Bai io ang the revel om o 2.4 (a) Find the velo induced at the contr of square vortex ing whose ‘Goulaton Tan rhose sides ae of agth 2 (by Find the vay slong the 7s nce Wy acca vortex ing that es the e-y plane, wae raise and Srealtion nT and howe center i the cgi of eordtes. 2.5 Fad the steam funtion f0F# two-dimensional flow whos veloy component ewe 2Avand w= "22 port equationCHAPTER 3 GENERAL SOLUTION OF THE INCOMPRESSIBLE, POTENTIAL FLOW EQUATIONS 1m the previous two chapters the fundamental id dynamic equations were formulated andthe condtons lading to the smplied ind, compre sible, and irotational ow problem were dicured. In this chapter the feet methodology for obtaining the elementary solutions to this poarel ne ‘problem wil be developed. Because of the linear nature ofthe poetal Ron Problem, the diferent equation doesnot have o be soled doa Alowfelds having diferent geometry at their boundaries. Tnsead, the iene, {ary solutions will be distributed in a manner that wil satly ech indeed Set of geometrical boundary conditions ‘This approach, of distributing elementary soltions with unknown teenth allows « more systematic methodology for resolving the lowes a both ofthe cases of “asia” und numerical ethos 34. STATEMENT OF THE POTENTIAL FLOW PROBLEM For most enginering applications the problem requires a solution in a uid domiin V that usually contains a soli body with nldtonal bousdavce wat may define an outer low boundary (eg. Wing a wind tunnel). a sown Fig 3.1 If the fw inthe fad sepia is considered to be incompscecle ot 2 Loos orm ena ronemmat ow square 53 iy ouation rete 0 eno oy ett oom the «erty in he i, he est component norm ‘iy tanaecod tote sd boundries ma bef, and ira bay ed coor se iottional then the cont vo-n=0 62) ’ ina fame isa yector normal tthe body’ surfs, and 64 is measured ilrferenc that atachet Yo the ody Abo he dsturtane rated by the totion ould decay far (r=) from the ody lin (60 =) = 0 iy betesn the andre ai sheer (9.2) adhe eat veloky sites anh 8a) (or be vlsy ny sen bys observer moving with te 32 THE GENERAL SOLUTION, BASED ON GREEN'S IDENTITY : ste hema theatl poem of te prevodi teal Sig anc nto re yy pl teed en sty tah any Sy cased one ith he oe Bruny Sehr oon Eg (3.3) nd 3) fo yd {SPT The nm ns eed sh ht ays ins tie Ist mrt ¥ Now he ete appearing in he rn, re (cain Ex (129) neeplcedy he veo 8/70," 0 ; {Sci alr fnctont of poston. Thi rsa fe [iore,-sey-aas-[iare-arana 09 ‘omen wed define the potest rmoen,4 tone scorns ‘This equation is one of Greens identities (Kllog,"?p,215) Here the surface integral is taken over ll the boundaries 5, inclading 8 wake model Sy (which ‘might models surface across which a dscominity in the velocty potent ot the velocity may oct) S25et Set. ‘Also, let us st oat and @=0 os where @ isthe potential of the flow of interest in V, and ris the distance fom 4 point PCy, 2), a8 shown in the igure. As we shall ve later, ©, i the potential of source (or sink) and is unbounded (I/r—>-=) as Pis approached fandr—>0. In the ease where the point Pi ouside of V both and ®, satisfy Laplace's equation and Eq. (3.4) becomes [(¢v0-003) -nas-0 a6 Ot pr te te cs when te pnt i ite he eon. Te Pom P mut tow te exit ton the pon of meas ed ‘Crean by tal per fas Ovae of eee ao ‘Emaningregon¥ the eal & sss Lapses ogantos PUI} Simin 0 andy) becomes, Loca (P8272) aso 66) ‘To evaluate the integral over the sphere, introduce 4 spherical coor system at P and since the vector m points inside the small «phere, ‘VO =~ 30/ar and V(L/r)= ~(U/Pe, Equation (3.64) nom becomes ae 0 -[,,C2+8)a5+[(bve-ov!)-nas-0 gay (On he sper wounding P, [45 Ane” (where r=) and w €+0 (and coming a te pros ans ne welsh een Secor do nu ay mucin heal Se) the hem se Ign! van, wee eo em ele “LL. Ble-—eoen Eaton (8) en dso wy=3 | (tr0-o0! on ‘This formula gives the value of (P) at any poet in the flow, within the region Vin terms ofthe values of @ and 9/3 onthe boundaries. If, for example, the point P ies on the boundary Sy then in order to exclude the point from V. the inepration i cated out ony atound the Serounding hemisphere (submerged in V) with radius «and Eq. @.7) o¢r)= | ($90-001) nas ar [Now considera situation when the flow of interest occurs inside the boundary (of 5, and the resulng “internal potential” is, For this Bow the point P {whi is inthe region V) exterior toy and applying Eq (3.6) yields on2.[ (v0,-0,9!)-aus amy es,» pits outa om Sr A. fom of (27) tat ier the Mate he erp we atc sa 9 nd ayia hate ings wa ope a or * 40 =z, [ -9)-(0- ay! aas ar eh (MO OF ‘The contribution ofthe S. integral in Eq, (3.8) (when S. is considered tobe far from 5p) ean be defined as -(P) ouryn2.{ (tr0-e0!) nas 9 1 ae ‘This potential, wally, depends onthe selection ofthe coordinate system and, for example in an inertial syem where the body moves through an otherwise atonary ud & can be selected as «constant in the region. Aso, the wake Surface fs asumed to be thin, such that 3/2 is continuous across it (Which ‘means that no fuid-dymamic Toads wil be supported by the wake). With these ‘Ssumption: Eq. (3.8) becomes e40)= 2. no-9)-(0-096!} nas ‘As was sated before, Eq. (3.7) (oF Eq. (3.10) provides the value of ‘0(P) in terms of © and 96/5 on the boundaries. Metefore, the problem i reduced to determining the value of these quantities on the boundaries. For ‘example, considera segment ofthe boudary Sy as shown in Fig. 3.2: then the ‘erence between the external and internal potentials canbe defined 3s @, oyover 32 ‘The lot poe wd boda, snd the diferene between the somal deriva ofthe eteral nd itera erie 2828, or oe “hee clement ae ele doublet (x) and sores (o) and the miu sgn tel of the normal ves 8 pig int ST properties of hee ‘lemeotry liom wil be iesipatd in he falling scone, With ths Seino of Eq 11 and (22) BG) an be een os on) sin L [0)-me aed bs )jesreun SE St fe neue deci Sy tice by Sina cpae mods ‘Jas eur) Alot) man) Les so "Note that both source and doublet solutions decay as r—+s and automaticaly ‘ll the boundary condition of Eq. (3.3) In order to find the velocity potential in the region V, the strength ofthe dstribution of doublets and sources onthe surface must be determined. Also, Eq. 3.13) does nt specify a unique combination of sources and doubles fr & pticular problem and choke mast be made inthis matter (usually Based om the physi ofthe problem). ts possible fo requie that 39,30 ue ons, and in this case the source term on Sp vanishes and only the doublet ‘tribution remains. On the other hand, the potential can be defined such th %=0 oa5, oP) = =, ‘Genet soni or mi cours, ror ow eoUATING_ ST ‘nd in tis case the doublet term on Sy vanishes and the problem will be ‘modeled bya sures distribation on the boundary. ‘In the two-dimensional case the source potenti is @, shown in Section 3.7, andthe two functions of Eq. (3.5) become a wil be en at oe ow ‘Ao hep he iepion s rund a ie with ads € ad Osco oy) -[, (ar -02) as oars ertanends=0 (5) ‘esate of he ll cic rand Ps ow 2ne compared fe inte lennsne cae) nd Ea Gow cnr op) =— [carve-ovinn-nas 6.16) os I the point lies on the boundary Sy, then the integration i around & semicice with radius € and Eq. (3.16) becomes 1 oP) $ [neve -evinr)-mas G.160) whereas if Pis inside Sy the two-dimensional version of Eg (3.74) i 1 ae ‘With the definition ofthe fr field potential. and the unt elements 4 and @ being unchanged, 4, (3.154) forthe two-dimensional cate becomes een} { [om Zen]as {arve,-,vinr)-nas 166) Lf wZanessoury am Note that 2/2 the oiemation of the doublet as wl be illustrated in Section 3:7 and thatthe wake model Sy inthe steady. two-dimensional ting case i needed to represent a discontinuity in the potential ®, 33. SUMMARY: METHODOLOGY OF SOLUTION In view of Eq. (3.13) ((.17) in two dimensions), itis possible to establish fairy general approach to the solution of incompressible potential Bow problems. The most important observation s thatthe solution of T° =0 can be obtained by dsuibuting elementary solutions (wutces and doublets) onthe problem boundaries (Sp 8). These elementary solutions automaticaly ull {he Boundary condition of Eq. (3.3) by having velocity elds that decay as‘r+0, However, atthe point where r™=0, the velocity becomes singular, and ‘erefore the bai elements are ealed singular soltions. ‘The general solution requires the integration ofthese base solutions over any surface S containing these singularity clemente becase each element wil have an effect on the whole Bai fed. ‘The solution ofa fluid dynamic problem is now reduced to fining the ‘ppropriate singularity element distribution over some known boundaries, so ‘hat the boundary condition (Eq. (3.2)) will be filed, The ain advantage ofthis formulation isis straightforward applicability to nomercal methods, When the potential is specified on the problem boundaries then this type of ‘mathematical problem is called the Dirichlet problem (Kellogg? p. 288) and is frequently used in many aumercalsoltions (panel methods) ‘A'more direct approach tothe soliton, from the physial point of view, § to specify the zero normal flow boundary condition (Eq (3.2)) on the solid boundaries: This problem is known ae the Neumann problem (Kellogg, p 246) and inorder fo evaluate the velocity eld the potential i diferentiied ve aa 2") 8a es ‘))as+ve. 1s) ‘Agtin, the derivative 3/3 for the doublet indicates the orientation of the clement as will be shown in Section 3.5. Substituting this equation into the boundary condition of Eq. (3.2) can seve as the bass of nding the ‘unknown singularity distibation. (This can be done analytically oF ‘merical For a given set of boundary conditions, the above solution technique i ‘not unique, and many problems can be solved by using ony one type of singularity element or ‘any linear combination of the two. singular, ‘Therefore, in many situations additional considerations are requited e-p, the ‘method that will be presented in the next chapter to define the ow nea sharp trling edges of wigs). Also, in a parculartoltion a mixed use ofthe above boundary conditions is possible for various regions in the fowfeld (ep [Neumann condition on one boundary and Dirchet on another) tempting 10 apply this methodology to the solution of particular problems, the features of the elementary solutions are analyzed in {he next sctons. 34. BASIC SOLUTION: POINT SOURCE ‘One ofthe two basic solutions presented in Eq, (313) i the source/sink. The potential of such a point source element (Fig. 334), placed atthe origin of & Spherical coordinate system, ss o- a9) ‘The velocity du to this element is obtained by using Vin spherical coordinates cena OLIN GF NECN, FTEITAL ROW rovATENE 58 ftom Ea, (1.38). This wil result i a velocity eld witha radial component oly. a2) and, in spherical coordinates, 62 th lock inthe rial reson decays withthe ae of and ising ove show Fp 336 Comers res clenen of eng ote 1 cine.) The volumes ow te ough peal aac Sosa gar aperne uae 33 {Smt at seit Ho tn ‘Se y= pe ae.(@ Low senno arnaoyrasacs whore 437 isthe surface area of the sphere. The positive o, then, isthe volumetic rate at which uid is introdvced a the source, wherens s aeatve Ss is the rate at which fow is going into the snk. Note that this insoukcton oy ‘uid at the source violates the conservation of mass, therefore, this pot mast ‘be exlud from the region of saution, Ite point element i acted at» point ‘corresponding potential and velocity will be nd not atthe origin, then the Gm) oxy ‘The caesian form ofthis equation, when the elements located a 32), BETO eae OM ‘The velocity components ofthis source element sre or~ x) 1TH = Hea y=») GIGI FOG O25) oe 2) 2 FIR +O- Wea O20) ‘This basic point element can be iterated over a ine, a ste ora lume V to crete corresponding singularity elements that ‘can be ased for example to construct panel clements. Consequently. these clements can be ‘stablished by the following integra: ss sonal 0% 2 oan ered [aie aay Ciena shoe Stay om No tai 6:29.02, dren he mae eng Pei ii Cn aa ge os tn Ste itn Sal Pa eee Sonny (sy, 2) rey vts.y.2) 13 218 ele wOe.9.2) 8.3.2) or rm occa Fone AW oUATIONG 6H 3. BASIC SOLUTION: POINT DOUBLET “The second baie woltion, presented in Eq (3.13), 6 the doublet o=Ha-v(!) G2» A closer observation reveals that os et sent can be ements of wit sng Tis agent tat he dob . Spel tom he suet cme: Cones poo sat on Setar aletsshorn nig. 3.4 The penta pom due hse iociement i (i er by leting Now, bringing the source and the snk together by leting that iam», and pis rit, the potential becomes en) or sch ‘As the distance 1 approaches 2270, eet andthe diference in length between [| and ¢—I becomes (e-N= [p+ 008 0 men ‘Telnet of pit oe a ik oiax [Not that this doublet element is identical the second term appearing inthe fener equatin f the potential (E. (3.13), oF Eq. (3.28) Weis in the w 633) For example, for «doublet atthe origin, the doublet strength vector (0.0.0) aligned wih the «axis (= and, a cooeinater is om Furthermore, in cartesian coordinates, the arbitrary orientation of p can be expressed in terms of three generic unit doublet elements whose axes ate aligned with the coordinate directions: 0,0) 0.4.0) (0,4) ‘The diferent elements can be derived for each ofthese three doublets by using Eq, (3.32) or by aiferentating the corresponding term in Eq, (329) sing {Fn a the derivative inthe direction of the three aes, The velocity potential sid ie ceo eh gee eno 24) aay ‘Taking 5/30 i the x,y, and = directions yields : (35 ended (3 |G 039 | Sia] Veaad FO Fa Equation (9.34) shows that the doublet clement docs not have a radial Symmetry and it has a dtetional property. Therefore, in artesian coordinates three elements are defined each pointing in the x, y oF = directions (se. for ‘example the element pointing inthe x direction in Fig. 5). Ater perforin ‘exe SOA OFT NcoMNE roa ow Euan 63 Th Reset h sand «Sublet igi be Seni (eps ine? amal tengo he Pert the diferentiaton in Eq. (3.36) n the x dtetion the velocity potentials 965,92) = Eel a O22 37) “The rest of the diflereniation in he ydrecion i 916,9,2)-- 2G -wle-x0 +O-wte-T? 638) nd herent in the x Girectons Oey = Ze -aMle-2eF Hy W HE aIT 0.29) The velocity feld, due to an xdirectiona point doublet (1, 0,0) is istrated in Fig. 3.3. The velocity components due to such an element atthe ‘origin are easly described in spherical coordinates “The velacty components in cartesian coordinates for this doublet a ‘can be obtained by dilerentating the velocity potential in Eq. (337): aes iP + (2 ~ 2a)? = 2 — eu) 6 ax [le aa) HW Ce a su" e=x))= 9) a (= +0- we (12-2) Slew +0 we oe)(64 towsees ascomaece ‘Again, this basic point clement can be integrated over ine a surface § the corresponding singularity elements that can be ‘sed, for example, to construct panel elements. Consequently, these elements [ese for (0,0) canbe established by the following integrals Lf sory 200019) dl hig O-we-aP | OM Bf any 22 Bhi Ow Fe-o OM Af nlto.y sien av Leet Oo 3.6 BASIC SOLUTION: POLYNOMIALS Since Laplace's equation is a second order difercatial equation, @ near function of postion wil Be a solution, too Art By +Ce ow) ‘The velocity components duc to such a potential are 2. Fran, vn Ba ev, where Un, Va, and W. ae constant velocity componsnts inthe sy. ‘ection Hence, the velocity potential due constant fre-stteam flow in the direction i onus os and in general OU Vay Me 6 ‘Along the sume lines, ational polynomial solutions cam be sought ands an ‘example let's consider the second-order polynomial with A, By and C being Baar tate ce 6s) ‘To satis the continuity equation, Peaareec There ae a large combination of constants that will satisty this condition, However, ome combination where one of the constants is equal to zero (e+ '8=0) deserves an intersting flow condition. Consequently A=-c ng this result ino Eg, (3.53) the velocity potential becomes o= aut) os) ener sun crm NOMENA FOBT Rw ROUTING 6S “The velocity components fortis two-dimensional ow in the x-r plane are wa2de a0 we-2Ar os) “To visualize thie ow, the streamline equation (16a) is needed and substituting the velocity components yields ae ae, Pax” 2Az Integration by separation 3 variables results in 656) ay =coms. “The streamline for diferent constant values of D=1,2,3+ ate plated in Fig 36 and, for example, only the frst quadrant of the #-2 plane fonsidered, then the potential desribes the flow around a comme. Ifthe wpe fall of the x-2 pane is considered then ths ow describes a stagnation flow gst a wal, Note that when = z=0, the velocity components u=w =O ‘ansh too--vhich means that a stagnation pont is present atthe origin, and the coordi Seu ect by = oman, Note ha ch quate ees ow ce3.7_TWO-DIMENSIONAL VERSION OF THE BASIC SOLUTIONS Source. We have sen inthe tee-densiona case that source clement wil faves radial vetacy compos ony Tha, he tmosimenal 7

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