Chapter 3

Give me matter, and I will construct a world out of it. Immanuel Kant Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Centroid of Area

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.1 Ductile material Figure 3.2 Failure of a from a standard tensile test brittle material from a apparatus. (a) Necking; (b) standard tensile test failure. apparatus. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Fiber Reinforced Composites

Lead Epoxy Pure aluminum Material Wood Steel Nylon Graphite 0 100 200 300 400 500 Ratio of strength to density, N-m/kg 600 10 4

2 1
12

Fiber

Figure 3.3 Strength/density ratio for various materials.

Figure 3.4 Cross section of fiber-reinforced composite material.

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Stress-Strain Diagram for Ductile Material

Elastic Plastic Y Sy

Su P _ Stress, = _ A

U
E

R
P

Sy P

Y _ _ Slope, E = 0 0.002 _ Strain, = _ l

P _ Stress, = _ A

0 0.002 _ Strain, = _ l

Figure 3.5 Typical stressstrain curve for a ductile material.

Figure 3.6 Typical stress-strain behavior for ductile metal showing elastic and plastic deformations and yield strength Sy. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Comparison of Brittle and Ductile Materials

Brittle B P _ Stress, = _ A Ductile

P _ Stress, = _ A

Sf

Compression

Sf

Tension _ Strain, = _ l

_ Strain, = _ l

Figure 3.7 Typical tensile stressstrain diagrams for brittle and ductile metals loaded to fracture. Hamrock Fundamentals of

Figure 3.8 Stress-strain diagram for ceramic in tension and in compression. machine Elements

Example 3.6

Magnesia Steel

Figure 3.9 Bending strength of bar used in Example 3.6.

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Behavior of Polymers
Brittle (T << Tg) Limited plasticity (T 0.8 Tg)

P _ Stress, = _ A

Sy

Extensive cold drawing (T Tg) Viscous flow (T >> Tg) 0.01

_ Strain, = _ l

Figure 3.10 Stress-strain diagram for polymer below, at, and above its glass transition behavior. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

10 4

Metals Lead Copper Steels Cast iron Zinc alloys Sintered iron

Polymers

Ceramics

Density of Materials

Density, , kg/m3

Alumina Aluminum tin Aluminum Silicon nitride Silicon carbide

Magnesium Silicone rubber Acetal Phenol formaldehyde Nylon 10 3 8 10 2 Natural rubber Polyethylene

Graphite

Figure 3.11 Density for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Material Metals Aluminum and its alloysa Aluminum tin Babbitt, lead-based white metal Babbitt, tin-based white metal Brasses Bronze, aluminum Bronze, leaded Bronze, phosphor (cast)b Bronze, porous Copper Copper lead Iron, cast Iron, porous Iron, wrought Magnesium alloys Steelsc Zinc alloys Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) Nylons (polyamides) Polyethylene, high density Phenol formaldehyde Rubber, naturald Rubber, silicone Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 ) Graphite, high strength Silicon carbide (SiC) Silicon nitride (Si2 N4 ) a Structural alloys b Bar stock, typically 8.8 103 kg/m3 c Excluding refractory steels. d Mechanical rubber.

Density, kg/m3 lbm/in.3 2.7 103 3.1 103 10.1 103 7.4 103 8.6 103 7.5 103 8.9 103 8.7 103 6.4 103 8.9 103 9.5 103 7.4 103 6.1 103 7.8 103 1.8 103 7.8 103 6.7 103 1.4 103 1.14 103 .95 103 1.3 103 1.0 103 1.8 103 3.9 1.7 2.9 3.2 103 103 103 103 0.097 0.11 0.36 0.27 0.31 0.27 0.32 0.31 0.23 0.32 0.34 0.27 0.22 0.28 0.065 0.28 0.24 .051 .041 .034 .047 .036 .065 0.14 0.061 0.10 0.12

Density of Materials

(0.03 lbm/in.3 ).

Table 3.1 Density for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

10 12

Metals

Polymers

Ceramics

10 11

Steels Cast iron Brass, bronze Aluminum Zinc alloys Magnesium alloys Babbitts

Carbides Alumina

Modulus of Elasticity

Graphite

10 10 Modulus of elasticity, E, Pa Phenol formaldehyde Acetal Nylon 10 9 Polyethylene

10 8

10 7

10 6

Figure 3.12 Modulus of elasticity for various metals, Natural rubber polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F). Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Modulus of Elasticity, E Material GPa Mpsi Metals Aluminum 62 9.0 Aluminum alloysa 70 10.2 Aluminum tin 63 9.1 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 29 4.2 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 52 7.5 Brasses 100 14.5 Bronze, aluminum 117 17.0 Bronze, leaded 97 14.1 Bronze, phosphor (cast)b 110 16.0 Bronze, porous 60 8.7 Copper 124 18.0 Iron, gray cast 109 15.8 Iron, malleable cast 170 24.7 b Iron, spheroidal graphite 159 23.1 Iron, porous 80 11.6 Iron, wrought 170 24.7 Magnesium alloys 41 5.9 Steel, low alloys 196 28.4 Steel, medium and high alloys 200 29.0 Steel, stainlessc 193 28.0 Steel, high speed 212 30.7 Zinc alloys d 50 7.3 Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 2.7 0.39 Nylons (polyamides) 1.9 0.28 Polyethylene, high density .9 0.13 Phenol formaldehyde e 7.0 1.02 Rubber, naturalf .004 0.0006 Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 ) 390 56.6 Graphite 27 3.9 Cemented carbides 450 65.3 Silicon carbide (SiC) 450 65.3 Silicon nitride (Si2 N4 ) 314 45.5 a Structural alloys. b For bearings. c Precipitation-hardened alloys up to 211 GPa (30 Mpsi). d Some alloys up to 96 GPa (14 Mpsi). e Filled. f 25%-carbon-black mechanical rubber.

Modulus of Elasticity

Table 3.2 Modulus of elasticity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Material Metals Aluminum and its alloysa Aluminum tin Babbitt, lead-based white metal Babbitt, tin-based white metal Brasses Bronze Bronze, porous Copper Copper lead Iron, cast Iron, porous Iron, wrought Magnesium alloys Steels, Zinc alloys d Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) Nylons (polyamides) Polyethylene, high density Phenol formaldehyde Rubber Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 ) Graphite, high strength Cemented carbides Silicon carbide (SiC) Silicon nitride (Si2 N4 ) a Structural alloys.

Poissons ratio, 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.22 0.33 0.26 0.20 0.30 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.40 0.35 0.50 0.28 0.19 0.19 0.26

Poissons Ratio

Table 3.3 Poissons ratio for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

3 10 2 2

Metals Aluminum Copper Brass Magnesium alloys

Polymers

Ceramics

10 2

Thermal Conductivity
Graphite

Cast iron Bronze Steel Alumina Thermal conductivity, Kt, W/m-C Stainless steel

10

Silicon carbide

Natural rubber 1

10 1

Figure 3.13 Thermal conductivity for various Acetal, nylon metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F). Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Polyethylene

Thermal conductivity, Kt Material W/m C Btu/fthr F Metals Aluminum 209 120 Aluminum alloys, casta 146 84 Aluminum alloys, siliconb 170 98 c Aluminum alloys, wrought 151 87 Aluminum tin 180 100 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 24 14 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 56 32 Brassesa 120 69 Bronze, aluminuma 50 29 Bronze, leaded 47 27 Bronze, phosphor (cast)d 50 29 Bronze, porous 30 17 Coppera 170 98 Copper lead 30 17 Iron, gray cast 50 29 Iron, spheroidal graphite 30 17 Iron, porous 28 16 Iron, wrought 70 40 Magnesium alloys 110 64 Steel, low alloyse 35 20 Steel, medium alloys 30 17 Steel, stainlessf 15 8.7 Zinc alloys 110 64 Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 0.24 0.14 Nylons (polyamides) 0.25 0.14 Polyethylene, high density 0.5 0.29 Rubber, natural 1.6 0.92 Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 )g 25 14 Graphite, high strength 125 72 Silicon carbide (SiC) 15 8.6 a At 100 C. b At 100 C ( 150 W/m C at 25 C). c 20 to 100 C. d Bar stock, typically 69 W/m C. e 20 to 200 C. f Typically 22 W/m C at 200 C. g Typically 12 W/m C at 400 C.

Thermal Conductivity

Table 3.4 Thermal conductivity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

2 10 4

Metals

Polymers

Ceramics

10

Polyethylene Silicone rubber Natural rubber Acetal, nylon Nitrile rubber

Linear Thermal Expansion Coefcient

_ Linear thermal expansion coefficient, a , (C)1

Zinc Magnesium Aluminum Brass, copper Most bronzes Babbitts Steel 10 5 Leaded bronze Cast irons Sintered iron

Phenol formaldehyde

Alumina Silicon carbide Silicon nitride Graphite

10 6

Figure 3.14 Linear thermal expansion coefficient for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Linear thermal expansion coecient, a Material ( C)1 ( F)1 Metals Aluminum 23 106 12.8106 a 6 Aluminum alloys 24 10 13.3106 6 Aluminum tin 24 10 13.3106 6 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 20 10 11106 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 23 106 13106 6 Brasses 1910 10.6106 6 Bronzes 18 10 10.0106 6 Copper 1810 10.0106 6 Copper lead 1810 10.0106 6 Iron, cast 11 10 6.1106 6 Iron, porous 1210 6.7106 6 Iron, wrought 12 10 6.7106 6 Magnesium alloys 2710 15106 Steel, alloysb 11 106 6.1106 6 Steel, stainless 17 10 9.5106 6 Steel, high speed 11 10 6.1106 6 Zinc alloys 27 10 15106 Polymers Thermoplasticsc (60-100)106 (33-56)106 d 6 Thermosets (10-80)10 (6-44)106 6 Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 9010 50106 Nylons (polyamides) 100106 56106 6 Polyethylene, high density 12610 70106 e 6 Phenol formaldehyde (25-40)10 (14-22) 106 f 6 Rubber, natural (80-120)10 (44-67)106 g 6 Rubber, nitrile 3410 62106 6 Rubber, silicone 5710 103106 Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 )h 5.0106 2.8106 Graphite, high strength 1.4-4.0106 0.8-2.2106 6 Silicon carbide (SiC) 4.310 2.4106 6 Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ) 3.210 1.8106 a Structural alloys. b Cast alloys can be up to 15 106 ( C)1 . c Typical bearing materials. d 25 106 ( C)1 to 80 106 ( C)1 when reinforced. e Mineral lled. f Fillers can reduce coecients. g Varies with composition. h 0 to 200 C.

Thermal Expansion Coefcient

Table 3.5 Linear thermal expansion coefficient for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F). Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

2.0

Metals

Polymers Natural rubber

Ceramics

1.8

Specic Heat Capacity

1.6

Specific heat capacity, Cp, kJ/ kg-C

1.4

Thermoplastics

1.2

1.0 Magnesium Aluminum 0.8 Graphite Carbides, alumina 0.6 Steel Cast iron Copper

0.4

Figure 3.15 Specific heat capacity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).

0.2

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Material Metals Aluminum and its alloys 0.9 0.22 Aluminum tin 0.96 0.23 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 0.15 0.036 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 0.21 0.05 Brasses 0.39 0.093 Bronzes 0.38 0.091 a Copper 0.38 0.091 Copper lead 0.32 0.076 Iron, cast 0.42 0.10 Iron, porous 0.46 0.11 Iron, wrought 0.46 0.11 Magnesium alloys 1.0 0.24 b Steels 0.45 0.11 Zinc alloys 0.4 0.096 Polymers Thermoplastics 1.4 0.33 Rubber, natural 2.0 0.48 Ceramics Graphite 0.8 0.2 Cemented Carbides 0.7 0.17 a Aluminum bronze up to 0.48 kJ/kg C (0.12 Btu/lbm F. b Rising up to 0.55 kJ/kg C (0.13 Btu/lbm F) at 200 C (392 F).

Specic heat capacity, Cp kJ/kg C Btu/lbm F

Specic Heat Capacity

Table 3.6 Specific heat capacity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Example 3.12
l1 = 1 m l 2 = 0.3 m

l3 = 0.5 m d = 0.1 m

P1 = 3 kN

Figure 3.16 Rigid beam assembly used in Example 3.12.

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

1000 Diamond SiC Si3N4 Be B Aluminas Sialons BeO ZrO2 Si Glasses Pottery Ti alloys Al alloys Rock, stone Cement, concrete Mo W alloys alloys Ni alloys Cu alloys Zn alloys Tin alloys Lead alloys Engineering alloys Engineering ceramics WC-Co

100

CFRP Uniply KFRP GFRP

Specic Elastic Modulus

()
E __ Modulus of elasticity, E, GPa 10

1/2

(m/s)

Engineering composites

CFRP Laminates GFRP KFRP Mg alloys MEL PC Epoxies PS PMMA PVC Nylon

104 Fir Parallel to grain Balsa

Ash Oak Pine

Porous ceramics

Wood products Woods

1.0

Ash Lower E limit for true solids Oak Pine Fir Perpendicular to grain Spruce Balsa 103

3 103

PP HDPE

Polyesters

Engineering polymers

PTFE LDPE Plasticized PVC

Guidelines for minimumweight design E __ =C

0.1

Polymers, foams Hard butyl Soft butyl 1000 PU

Elastomers

3 10 2 Cork

1/2 E __ =C

Polymers, foams 300

Silicone
1/ 3 E __ =C

Figure 3.17 Modulus of elasticity plotted against density.

(G 3E/ 8; K E ) 10 000 30 000

0.01 100

3000 Density, , kg/m 3

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

10 000 Engineering ceramics B Si

SiC Diamond Si3N4 Sialons ZrO2 Al2O3 Ge MgO

Cermets

Glasses

Engineering alloys

1000

CFRP GFRP Uniply KFRP Pottery Engineering CFRP composites Be Laminates GFRP KFRP Nylons PMMA Mg alloys

Specic Strength

Steels Ti alloys Cast irons Al alloys Zn Stone, alloys rock Engineering alloys

W alloys Mo alloys Ni alloys Cu alloys

100 Strength, S, MPa Fir Parallel to grain Balsa Woods 10

Ash PP Oak Pine Wood products MEL PVC Epoxies PS Polyesters HDPE PTFE PU

Lead alloys

Ash Oak Pine Fir Perpendicular to grain LDPE Soft butyl

Cement, concrete Porous ceramics Guidelines for minimumweight design

Silicone

Balsa

Engineering polymers

Elastomers

Cork

Polymers foams

f __ =C

Figure 3.18 Strength plotted against density.

2/ f 3 __ =C 1/ f 2 __ =C

0.1 100

300

1000 Density, , kg/m 3

3000

10 000

30 000

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

1000 Diamond Minimum energy storage per unit volume Yield before buckling Engineering alloys Mo alloys Beryllium Cermets W WC SiC Boron Si3N4 MgO Al2O3

100

Modulus of elasticity, E, GPa

10

Steels ZrO2 Ni alloys CFRP BeO Uniply Silicon Cu alloys Zn alloys Ti alloys Ge Common rocks GFRP Engineering Al alloys Brick, etc. Glasses ceramics Mg alloys Cement Sn + Engineering Laminates Concrete composites CFRP GFRP Lead Ash Oak Pine Porous Mel ceramics ll to grain Epoxies PMMA Cast irons
4 S __ = 10 E

Modulus of Elasticity vs. Strength

Balsa Woods Wood products Polyester Ash Oak Pine to grain Balsa LDPE HDPE PTFE

PS PVC Nylons PP Design guidelines S __ = 0.1 E

1.0

3 S __ = 10 E

2 S __ = 10 E

Engineering polymers S __ =C E
3/ 2 S __ =C E

Polymers, foams 0.1

Hard butyl Cork Silicone 0.01 0.1 Soft butyl 1 10

PU

Elastomers

S __ =C E

Maximum energy storage per unit volume Buckling before yield

Figure 3.19 Modulus of elasticity plotted against strength.

10 000

100 Strength, S, MPa

1000

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

10 10

10 11 Al Alloys Engineering alloys

Wear Constant
Copper W __ = 10 3 A

10 12

10 13 Archard wear constant, KA, m2/ N

PTFE

Mild steel

Stainless steels Medium-carbon steels High-carbon Tools steels steels

Engineering polymers 10 14 LDPE Unfilled thermoplastics HDPE 10 15 Filled PTFE Nylons Filled thermosets

10 4 Cast irons Nitrided steels Cemented carbides Al2O3 Si3N4 SiC Sailons

10 5 Engineering ceramics

Filled thermoplastics Filled polymides

Bronzes

10 16 Maximum bearing pressure, Pmax

Diamond Engineering composites

10 6

10 7 10 17 Range of K A for p << pmax Rising K A as p nears pmax 10 100 Limiting pressure, pl , MPa 10 8 W __ = 10 9 A 1000 10 000

Figure 3.20 Archard wear constant plotted against limiting pressure.

10 18

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

1000 Engineering ceramics Si C AL7 O3 Mild steel Porous ceramics 100 Stone, brick, and pottery Zn Cast irons Cu alloys AL alloys alloys Mg alloys GFRP Pb alloys Ash, oak Pines Parallel to grain Balsa wood products Ash, oak Perpendicular to grain Pines LDPE Balsa PVC (plasticised) E =C CR PF KFRP Engineering composites Engineering alloys Ni alloys Ti alloys Si3 N4 W alloys Cermets

S alloys Zr O3

CFRP

Modulus of Elasticity vs. Cost

Cement, concrete Brick, stone, concrete 10

Glasses

Modulus of elasticity, E, GPa

PS

PC

PMMA

Polymides

Woods

PVC Epoxies Nylons Polyesters PP HDPE PTFE

Engineering polymers

1.0

Design guidelines

0.1 Polymer foams Hard butyl Elastomers E = C CR Soft butyl 0.01 0.1 1 Silicones
1/2

E = C CR 1000 10 000

1/3

Figure 3.21 Modulus of elasticity plotted against cost times density.

10 100 Relative cost times density, Mg/m3

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Sand Casting

Figure 3.22 Schematic illustration of the sand casting process.

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Forging and Extrusion

Figure 3.23 An example of the steps in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine, and the die used.

Container liner Billet Die Die backer

Container Pressing stem

Extrusion

Dummy block

Figure 3.24 The extrusion process. (a) Schematic illustration of the forward or direct extrusion process; (b) Examples of cross-sections commonly extruded. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

(a)

(b)

Polymer Extruder
Barrel heater/cooler Thrust bearing Hopper Barrel liner Throat Screw Barrel Thermocouples Melt Filter Breaker screen plate thermocouple

Gear reducer box

Throat-cooling channel Feed zone Melting zone

Adapter Melt-pumping zone

Die

Motor

Figure 3.25 Schematic illustration of a typical extruder. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Material Available Aluminum B, F, I, P, S, T, W Ceramics B, p, s, T Copper and brass B, f, I, P, s, T, W Elastomers b, P, T Glass B, P, s, T, W Graphite B, P, s, T, W Magnesium B, I, P, S, T, w Plastics B, f, P, T, w Precious metals B, F, I P, t, W Steels and stainless steels B, I, P, S, T, W Zinc F, I, P, W a B=bar and rod; F = foil; I = ingot; P = plate and sheet; S = structural shapes; T = tubing; W=wire. Lowercase letters indicate limited availability. Most of the metals are also available in powder form, including prealloyed powders.

formsa

Available Forms of Materials

Table 3.8 Commercially available forms of materials.

Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements

Tolerance vs. Surface Roughness

Figure 3.26 A plot of achievable tolerance versus surface roughness for assorted manufacturing operations. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements