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1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 A composite wall consist of alternative layers of fir ( 5 cm thick ) , aluminum ( 1
cm thick ), lead ( 1 cm thick ), and corkboard ( 6 cm thick ). The temperature is 60
C of the outside of the fir and 10 C on the outside of the corkboard. Plot the
temperature gradient through the wall. Does the temperature profile suggest any
simplifying assumptions that might be made in subsequent analysis of the wall?
Solution:
Thermal Conductivities:
k
fir
= 0.12 W/m.K (Table A.2, Appendix A)
k
alu
= 237 W/m.K (Table A.1, Appendix A)
k
ld
= 35 W/m.K (Table A.1, Appendix A)
k
cb
= 0.04 W/m.K (Table A.2, Appendix A).
Question No. 1: Plot the temperature gradient through the wall.
Answer:
Question No. 2: Does the temperature profile suggest any simplifying assumptions
that might be made in subsequent analysis of the wall?
Answer:
Yes, since the thermal conductivity of aluminum and lead are very high than fir and
corkboard, they are considered isothermal. Therefore consider only fir and corkboard.

fir
+ T
cb
= 60 C 10 C = 50 K
cb fir
L
T
k
L
T
k q
,
_



,
_

L
fir
= 5 cm = 0.05 m
L
cb
= 6 cm = 0.06 m
Then,
1
1. INTRODUCTION
( )( )
( )
( )( )
( ) m
T K m W
m
T K m W
q
cb
fir
06 . 0
/ 04 . 0
05 . 0
/ 12 . 0

T
cb
= 3.6T
fir
Then,

fir
+ 3.6
fir
= 50 K

fir
= 10.87 K
( )

,
_


,
_

m
K
K m W
L
T
k q
fir
05 . 0
87 . 10
. / 12 . 0
= 26.09 W/m
2
Considering all walls:
T
fir
+ T
alu
+ T
ld
+ T
cb
= 60 C 10 C = 50 K
cb ld alu fir
L
T
k
L
T
k
L
T
k
L
T
k q
,
_



,
_



,
_



,
_

L
fir
= 5 cm = 0.05 m
L
cb
= 6 cm = 0.06 m
L
alu
= 1 cm = 0.01 m
L
ld
= 1 cm = 0.01 m
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_


alu
fir
fir alu
L
k
L
k
T T
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_


ld
fir
fir ld
L
k
L
k
T T
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_


cb
fir
fir cb
L
k
L
k
T T
Then
2
1. INTRODUCTION

'

1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

+
cb ld alu
fir
fir
L
k
L
k
L
k L
k
T
1 1 1
1
= 50 K

'

1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

+
06 . 0
04 . 0
1
01 . 0
35
1
01 . 0
237
1
05 . 0
12 . 0
1
fir
T
= 50
T
fir
= 10.87 K
( )

,
_


,
_

m
K
K m W
L
T
k q
fir
05 . 0
87 . 10
. / 12 . 0
= 26.09 W/m
2
There it is equal to simplified solution.
1.2 Verify Equation (1.15).
Solution:
Equation (1.15)

T T
dt
dT
body
body
For verification only
Equation (1.3)
dt
dT
mc
dt
dU
Q
Equation (1.16)

T T Q
body
Then

T T
dt
dT
mc
body

T T
dt
dT
body
Then

T T
dt
dT
body
body
where mc is constant.
1.3 q = 5000 W/m
2
in a 1 cm slab and T = 140 C on the cold side. Tabulate the
temperature drop through the slab if it is made of
Silver
Aluminum
3
1. INTRODUCTION
Mild steel (0.5 % carbon)
Ice
Spruce
Insulation (85 % magnesia)
Silica aerogel
Indicate which situations would be unreasonable and why.
Solution:
L = 1 cm = 0.01 m
(a) Silver Slab
Si
L
T
k q
,
_

= 5000 W/m
2
Thermal conductivity of silver at 140 C, 99.99+ % Pure, Table A.1, Appendix A
k
si
= 420 W/m.K
( )

,
_



m
T
K m W q
Si
01 . 0
/ 420
= 5000 W/m
2
T
Si
= 0.12 K
(b) Alumium Slab
alu
L
T
k q
,
_

= 5000 W/m
2
Thermal conductivity of aluminum at 140 C, 99.99+ % Pure, Table A.1, App. A
K
alu
= 237.6 W/m.K
( )

,
_



m
T
K m W q
alu
01 . 0
/ 6 . 237
= 5000 W/m
2
T
alu
= 0.21 K
(c) Mild Steel Slab
ms
L
T
k q
,
_

= 5000 W/m
2
Thermal conductivity of mild steel at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
K
ms
= 50.4 W/m.K
( )

,
_



m
T
K m W q
ms
01 . 0
/ 4 . 50
= 5000 W/m
2
T
ms
= 0.992 K
(d) Ice Slab
4
1. INTRODUCTION
ice
L
T
k q
,
_

= 5000 W/m
2
Thermal conductivity of ice at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
ice at 0 C, k
ice
= 2.215 W/m.K
Note: there is no ice at 140 C, but continue calculation at 0 C.
( )

,
_



m
T
K m W q
ice
01 . 0
/ 215 . 2
= 5000 W/m
2
T
ice
= 22.57 K
(e) Spruce Slab
Si
L
T
k q
,
_

= 5000 W/m
2
Thermal conductivity of spruce at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
K
sp
= 0.11 W/m.K @ 20 C (available)
( )

,
_



m
T
K m W q
Sp
01 . 0
/ 11 . 0
= 5000 W/m
2
T
Sp
= 454.55 K
(f) Insulation (85 % Magnesia)
Si
L
T
k q
,
_

= 5000 W/m
2
Thermal conductivity of insulation at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
K
in
= 0.074 W/m.K @ 150 C (available)
( )

,
_



m
T
K m W q
in
01 . 0
/ 074 . 0
= 5000 W/m
2
T
Si
= 675.8 K
(g) Silica Aerogel Slab
Si
L
T
k q
,
_

= 5000 W/m
2
Thermal conductivity of silica aerogel at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
k
sa
= 0.022 W/m.K @ 120 C
( )

,
_



m
T
K m W q
sa
01 . 0
/ 022 . 0
= 5000 W/m
2
T
sa
= 2,273 K
Tabulation:
5
1. INTRODUCTION
Slab Temperature Drop, K
Silver 0.12
Aluminum 0.21
Mild Steel (0.5 % Carbon) 0.992
Ice 22.57
Spruce 454.55
Insulation (85 % Magnesia) 675.8
Silica Aerogel 2273
The situation which is unreasonable here is the use of ice as slab at 140 C, since ice
will melt at temperature of 0 C and above. Thats it.
1.4 Explain in words why the heat diffusion equation, eq. no. (1.13), shows that in
transient conduction the temperature depends on the thermal diffusitivity, , but
we can solve steady conduction problems using just k (as in Example 1.1).
Solution:
Equation (1.13)
( )
x
dt
dT
cA x
dt
T T d
cA
dt
dU
Q
ref
net


Answer: The application of heat diffusion equation eq. no. (1.13) depends on the
thermal diffusivity as the value of
t
T

is not equal to zero as it I s under unsteady


state conduction. While in steady conduction depends only on k because the value of
t
T

= 0 for steady state conduction giving


2
2
x
T

= 0 , so
dx
dT
k q
.
1.5 A 1-m rod of pure copper 1 cm2 in cross section connects a 200 C thermal
reservoir with a 0 C thermal reservoir. The system has already reached steady
state. What are the rates of change of entropy of (a) the first reservoir, (b) the
second reservoir, (c) the rod, and (d) the whole universe, as a result of the
process? Explain whether or not your answer satisfies the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.
Solution:
Equation (1.9)
L
T
k q

Thermal conductivity of copper at 100 C, Table A.1, Appendix A


6
1. INTRODUCTION
k = 391 W/m.K
L = 1 m
T = 200 C 0 C = 200 K
( )

,
_


m
K
K m W q
1
200
/ 391
= 78,200 W/m
2
.K
Q = qA
A = 1 cm
2
= 1 x 10
-4
m
2
Q = (78,200 W/m
2
.K)(1 x 10
-4
m
2
) = 7.82 W
(a)
( ) K
W
T
Q
S
rev
273 200
82 . 7
1
1
+

= - 0.01654 W/K
(b)
( ) K
W
T
Q
S
rev
273 0
82 . 7
2
2
+
+

= + 0.02864 W/K
(c)
r
S

= 0.0 W/K (see Eq. 1.5, steady state)


(d)
+
2 1
S S S
Un

= - 0.01654 W/K + 0.02864 W/K = + 0.0121 W/K
Since
0
Un
S

, therefore it satisfied Second Law of Thermodynamics.


1.6 Two thermal energy reservoirs at temperatures of 27 C and 43 C, respectively,
are separated by a slab of material 10 cm thick and 930 cm
2
in cross-sectional
area. The slab has a thermal conductivity of 0.14 W/m.K. The system is operating
at steady-state conditions. What are the rates of change of entropy of (a) the
higher temperature reservoir, (b) the lower temperature reservoir, (c) the slab, and
(d) the whole universe as a result of this process? (e) Does your answer satisfy the
Second Law of Thermodynamics?
Solution:
Equation (1.9)
L
T
k q

Thermal conductivity , k = 0.14 W/m.K


A = 930 cm
2
= 0.093 m
2
L = 10 cm = 0.10 m
T = 27 C (- 43 C) = 70 K
T
1
= 27 + 273 = 300 K
T
2
= -43 + 273 = 230 K
( )

,
_

m
K
K m W q
10 . 0
70
. / 14 . 0
= 98 W/m
2
7
1. INTRODUCTION
Q = qA = (98 W/m
2
)(0.093 m
2
) = 9.114 W
(a)
( ) K
W
T
Q
S
rev
300
114 . 9
1
1

= - 0.03038 W/K
(b)
( ) K
W
T
Q
S
rev
230
114 . 9
2
2
+

= + 0.03963 W/K
(c)
r
S

= 0.0 W/K (see Eq. 1.5, steady state)


(d)
+
2 1
S S S
Un

= - 0.03038 W/K + 0.03963 W/K = + 0.00925 W/K
Since
0
Un
S

, therefore it satisfied Second Law of Thermodynamics.


1.7 (a) If the thermal energy reservoirs in Problem 1.6 are suddenly replaced with
adiabatic walls, determine the final equilibrium temperature of the slab. (b) What
is the entropy change for the slab for this process? (c) Does your answer satisfy
the Second Law of Thermodynamics in this instance? Explain. The density of the
slab is 26 lb/ft
3
and the specific heat 0.65 Btu/lb-F.
Solution:
( )

,
_

3
3
3
/ 1
/ 018 . 16
/ 26
ft lb
m kg
ft lb
= 416.468 kg/m
3
( )

,
_

F lb Btu
K kg J
F lb Btu c
. / 1
. / 8 . 4186
. / 65 . 0
= 2721.42 J/kg.K
k = 0.14 W/m.K
T = 27 C (-43 C) = 70 C
T
1
= 27 C + 273 = 300 K
T
2
= - 43 C + 273 = 230 K
A = 0.093 m
2
L = 0.10 m
(a)

2
1
T
T
T
dQ
T
Q

2
1
T
T
T
cVdT
T
Q
( )

,
_

1
2 1 2
ln
T
T
cV
T
T T cV

( )

,
_

1
2 1 2
ln
T
T
T
T T
8
1. INTRODUCTION
( ) ( )

,
_

,
_

300
230
ln
300 230
ln
1
2
1 2
T
T
T T
T
= 263.45 K
(b)
( ) ( )
T
T T cAL
T
T T cV
T
Q
S
1 2 1 2



( )( )( )( )( )
45 . 263
300 230 10 . 0 093 . 0 42 . 2721 468 . 416
S = - 2801 J/K
(c) This will not satisfy the Second Law of Thermodynamic since this is not a rate of
entropy of production of the universe.
1.8 A copper sphere 2.5 cm in diameter has a uniform temperature of 40 C. The
sphere is suspended in a slow-moving air stream at 0 C. The air stream produces a
convection heat transfer coefficient of 15 W/m
2
.K. Radiation can be neglected.
Since copper is highly conductive, temperature gradients in the sphere will
smooth out rapidly, and its temperature can be taken as uniform throughout the
cooling process (i.e., Bi << 1). Write the instantaneous energy balance between
the sphere and the surrounding air. Solve this equation and plot the resulting
temperatures as a function of time between 40 C and 0 C.
Solution:
Energy Balance:
dt
dU
Q
( )

T T A h Q
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]

T T cV
dt
d
T T cV
dt
d
dt
dU
ref

Then:
( ) ( ) [ ]

T T cV
dt
d
T T A h
( )
( )

T T
cV
A h
dt
T T d

( ) C
A h
cV
t
T T +

,
_

ln
at T(t = 0) T
i
,
( )

T T C ln
9
1. INTRODUCTION
( ) ( )

+

,
_

T T
A h
cV
t
T T
i
ln ln

x i
T
t
A h
cV
t
T T
T T

,
_

,
_

ln

,
_

A h
cV
T
x

x
T
t
i
e
T T
T T

T
= 0 C + 273 = 273 K
i
T
= 40 C + 273 = 313 K

,
_

A h
cV
T
x

3
3
4
r V
r = (1/2)(2.5 cm) = 1.25 cm = 0.0125 m
2
4 r A
( ) h
cr
r h
r c
A h
cV
T
x
3 4
3
4
2
3

,
_


h = 15 W/m
2
.K
Properties of copper, Table A.1, App. A
= 8954 kg/m
3
c
p
= 384 J/kg.K
= 11.57 x 10-5 m
2
/s
2
( )( )( )
( ) K m W
m K kg J m kg
T
x
. / 15 3
0125 . 0 . / 384 3 / 8954

= 955 sec
Then:
( )
x
T
t
i
e T T T T



( )

+ T e T T T
x
T
t
i
( ) K e T
t
273 273 313
955
+

K e T
t
273 40
955
+

955
40
t
e T

C
10
1. INTRODUCTION
where t in seconds
Tabulation:
Time, t, seconds Temperature, T, C
0 40
10 39.6
20 39.2
40 38.4
60 37.6
80 36.9
100 36.2
200 32.7
300 29.6
400 26.8
600 22
800 18
1000 14.7
5000 0.3
10000 0.0
100000 0.0
1000000 0.0
0.0
Plot:
11
1. INTRODUCTION
1.9 Determine the total heat transfer in Problem 1.8 as the sphere cools from 40 C to
0 C. Plot the net entropy increase resulting from the cooling process above, S vs
T(K).
Solution:

T
= 0 C + 273 = 273 K
2
4 r A ,
3
3
4
r V
r = 0.0125 m
= 8954 kg/m
3
c
p
= 384 J/kg.K
= 11.57 x 10-5 m
2
/s
2
T = 40 C 0 C = 40 K
Total Heat Transfer:
Q = cVT = (8954 kg/m
3
)(384 J/kg.K)(4/3)()(0.0125 m)
3
(40 K)
Q = 1125 J - - - - Answer.
Plotting the net-entropy increase:
Equation (1.24)
12
1. INTRODUCTION
b
T
T
b
dT
T T
cV S
b
b

,
_

0
1 1

( )( ) ( )
b
T
T
b
dT
T T
S
b
b

,
_


,
_

0
1 1
0125 . 0
3
4
384 8954
3

1
]
1

,
_

,
_



0
0
ln ln 13 . 28
b
b
b
b
T
T
T
T
T
T
S
1
]
1

,
_

,
_



0
0
ln 13 . 28
b
b b b
T
T
T
T T
S
T
b0
= 40 C = 313 K
1
]
1

,
_


,
_



313
ln
273
313
13 . 28
b b
T T
S
T
b
, C T
b
, K S
40 313 0
35 308 0.0622
30 303 0.117
25 298 0.1642
20 293 0.2034
15 288 0.2344
10 283 0.2569
5 278 0.2707
0 273 0.2754
Plot:
13
1. INTRODUCTION
1.10 A truncated cone 30 cm high is constructed of Portland cement. The diameter at
the top is 15 cm and at the bottom is 7.5 cm. The lower surface is maintained at 6
C and the top at 40 C. The outer surface is insulated. Assume one dimensional
heat transfer and calculate the rate of heat transfer in watts from top to bottom. To
do this, note that the heat transfer, Q, must be the same at every cross section.
Write Fouriers law locally, and integrate between this unknown Q and the known
end temperatures.
Solution:
T
1
= 40 C
14
1. INTRODUCTION
T
2
= 6 C
dx
dT
kA Q
x
D D
L
D D

1 2 1
D
1
= 15 cm = 0.15 m
D
2
= 7.5 cm = 0.075 m
L = 30 cm = 0.30 m
x
D m
m
m m

15 . 0
30 . 0
075 . 0 15 . 0
D = 0.15 m 0.25x
2
4
D A

dx
dT
D k Q
,
_


2
4

( )
dx
dT
x m k Q
2
25 . 0 15 . 0
4

,
_



( ) dT k dx x Q
,
_



4
25 . 0 15 . 0
2
( ) dT k dx x Q
m

,
_


4
25 . 0 15 . 0
3 . 0
0
2
Thermal Conductivity of Portland Cement, Table A.2, Appendix A.
k = 0.70 W/m.K
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) 6 40
4
70 . 0 25 . 0 15 . 0
25 . 0
1
1
3 . 0
0
1

,
_


,
_


x Q
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) 34
4
70 . 0 15 . 0 3 . 0 25 . 0 15 . 0 4
1 1

,
_



Q
( ) ( ) ( ) 34
4
70 . 0
15 . 0
1
075 . 0
1
4
,
_


,
_


Q
Q = -0.70 W Ans.
1.11. A hot water heater contains 100 kg of water at 75 C in a 20 C room. Its surface
area is 1.3 m2. Select an insulating material, and specify its thickness, to keep the
water from cooling more than 3 C / h . (Notice that this problem will be greatly
simplified if the temperature drop in the steel casing and the temperature drop in
the convective boundary layers are negligible. Can you make such assumptions?
Explain.)
15
1. INTRODUCTION
Solution:
Specific heat of water at 75 C, Table A.1 , c
p
= 4194 J/kg.K
Q = (100 kg)(4194 J/kg.K)(3 K/hr)(1 hr / 3600 s)
Q = 349.5 W
A = 1.3 m
2
Then:
L
T
kA Q


( )( ) 20 75 3 . 1 5 . 349
,
_


L
k
Q
L
k
= 4.89 W/m
2
.K
Select Magnesia, 85 % (insulation), Table A.2
k = 0.071 W/m.K
L = (0.071 W/m.K) / (4.89 W/m
2
.K) = 0.01452 m = 1.5 cm
Yes, we can make an assumption of neglecting temperature drops as above as the thermal
conductivity of steel is much higher than insulation, also negligible temperature drops for
thin film boundary.
1.12. What is the temperature at the left-hand wall shown in Fig. 1.17. Both walls are
thin, very large in extent, highly conducting, and thermally black.
Fig. 1.17
Solution:
Left: ( )
L L L
T T h q

= 50 (100 T
L
)
Right: ( )
r r r
T T h q

= 20 (T
r
20)
16
1. INTRODUCTION
Equating:
q = 50 (100 T
L
) = 20 (T
r
20)
5 (100 T
L
) = 2 (T
r
20)
100 T
L
= 0.4T
r
8
T
L
= 108 - 0.4T
r

o
C
Then; by radiation.
( )
4 4
r L
T T q

= 5.67040 x 10
-8
W/m
2
.K
4
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) 20 20 273 273 4 . 0 108 10 67040 . 5
4 4
8
+ +

r r r
T T T q
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) 20 20 273 4 . 0 381 10 67040 . 5
4 4
8
+

r r r
T T T q
By trial and error:
T
r
= 42 C (right hand wall)
Then
T
L
= 108 0.4(42) = 91.2 C (left hand wall)
1.13. Develop S.I. to English conversion factors for:
The thermal diffusivity,
The heat flux, q
The density,
The Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
The view factor, F
1-2
The molar entropy
The specific heat per unit mass, c
In each case, begin with basic dimension J, m, kg, s, C, and check your answer against
Appendix B if possible.
Solution:
(1.) The thermal diffusivity,
Unit of is m
2
/s.
The conversion factor for English units is:
( ) h
s
m
ft 3600
3048 . 0
1
1
2
2

s m
hr ft
/
/
750 , 38 1
2
2
, checked with Table B.2, o.k.
(2.) The heat flux, q
Unit of q is @/m
2
or J/s.m
2
17
1. INTRODUCTION
The conversion factor for English units is:
( )
2
2
3048 . 0 3600 0009478 . 0
1
ft
m
h
s
J
Btu

2
2
2
2
/
/
317 . 0
/
/
317 . 0 1
m W
ft h Btu
m s J
ft h Btu

, checked with Table B.2, o.k.


(3.) The density
Unit of density is kg/m
3
The conversion factor for English units is:
( )
3
3
3048 . 0
45359 . 0
1
1
ft
m
kg
lb

3
3
/
/
06243 . 0 1
m kg
ft lb

, checked with Table B.2, o.k.


(4.) The Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
= 5.6704 x 10-8 W/m
2
.K
4
= 5.6704 x 10-8 J/m
2
.s.K
4
The conversion factor for English units is:
( )
( )
4
4
2
2
8 . 1
3600 3048 . 0 0009478 . 0
1
F
K
h
s
ft
m
J
Btu

4 2
4 2
. /
. . /
0302 . 0 1
K m W
K ft hr Btu

(5.) The view factor F


1-2
The view factor is dimensionless, so there is no need for conversion factor.
(6.) The molar entropy
Unit of molar entropy, S = J/K
The conversion factor for English units is.
F
K
J
Btu
8 . 1
0009478 . 0
1
K J
F Btu
/
/
0005266 . 0 1
(7.) The specific heat per unit mass, c
Unit of c is J/kg.K
The conversion factor for English units is:
F
K
lb
kg
J
Btu
8 . 1
45359 . 0 0009478 . 0
1
18
1. INTRODUCTION
K kg J
F lb Btu

/
/
00023884 . 0 1
1.14. Three infinite, parallel, black, opaque plates, transfer heat by radiation,as shown
in Fig. 1.18. Find T
2
.
Fig. 1.18
Solution:
( ) ( )
4
3
4
2
4
2
4
1
T T T T q
T
1
= 100 C + 273 = 373 K
T
3
= 0 C + 273 = 273 K
( ) ( ) [ ]
4 4 4
2
273 373
2
1
+ T
T
2
= 334.1 K = 61.1 C
1.15. Four infinite, parallel black, opaque plates transfer heat by radiation, as shown in
Fig. 1.19. Find T
2
and T
3
.
Fig. 1.19
19
1. INTRODUCTION
Solution:
( ) ( ) ( )
4
4
4
3
4
3
4
2
4
2
4
1
T T T T T T q
T
1
= 100 C + 273 = 373 K
T
4
= 0 C + 273 = 273 K
Then:
4
3
4
1
4
2
2 T T T +
4
4
4
2
4
3
2 T T T +
4
4
4
3
4
2
2 T T T
and
( )
4
3
4
1
4
4
4
3
2 2 T T T T +
4
3
4
1
4
4
4
3
2 4 T T T T +
4
4
4
1
4
3
2 3 T T T +

4
3
3T (373)
4
+ 2 (273)
4

3
T
317.45 K = 44.45 C
4
4
4
3
4
2
2 T T T = 2 (317.45)
4
(273)
4

2
T 348.53 K = 75.53 C
1.16. Two large, black, horizontal plates are spaced a distance L from one another. The
top is warm at a controllable temperature, T
h
, and the bottom one is cool at a
20
1. INTRODUCTION
specified temperature, T
c
. A gas separates them. The gas is stationary because it is
warm on top and cold on the bottom. Write the equation q
rad
/q
cond
= fn (N,
c
h
T
T
), where N is dimensionless group containing , k , L, and T
c
. Plot as a
function of for q
rad
/q
cond
= 1, 0.8, and 1.2 (and for other values if you wish).
Now suppose that you have a system in which L = 10 cm, T
c
= 100 K, and the gas
is hydrogen with an average k of 0.1 W/m.K. Further suppose that you wish to
operate in such a way that the conduction and radiation heat fluxes are identical.
Identify the operating point on your curve and report the value of T
h
that you must
maintain.
Solution:
( )
4 4
c h rad
T T q
( )
L
T T k
q
c h
cond

( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
4 4
c h c h
c h
c h
cond
rad
T T T T
k
L
T T
T T
k
L
q
q
+ +



1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+ 1 1
2
3
c
h
c
h
c
cond
rad
T
T
T
T
T
k
L
q
q
( )[ ] ( )[ ] 1 1 1 1
2 2
3
+ + + + N T
k
L
q
q
c
cond
rad

where
k
LT
N
c
3

c
h
T
T

N as a function of ;
( ) ( ) 1 1
2
+ +

cond rad
q q
N
(1)
1
cond
rad
q
q
( )( ) 1 1
1
2
+ +
N
21
1. INTRODUCTION
(2)
8 . 0
cond
rad
q
q
( )( ) 1 1
8 . 0
2
+ +
N
(3)
2 . 1
cond
rad
q
q
( )( ) 1 1
2 . 1
2
+ +
N
plot of N as a function of :
For the system:
L = 10 cm = 0.10 m
T
c
= 100 K
k = 0.1 W/m.K
For q
rad
/ q
cond
= 1.0
Then
( )( ) 1 1 1
2
+ + N
Solving for N:
k
LT
N
c
3

22
1. INTRODUCTION
= 5.67040 x 10
-8
W/m
2
.K
4
( )( )( )
10 . 0
100 10 . 0 10 6704 . 5
3 8

N = 0.056704
Then
( )( )( ) 1 1 056704 . 0 1
2
+ +
( )( ) 64 . 17 1 1
2
+ +
By trial and error:
= 2.145
Then: T
h
= T
c
= (2.145)(100 K) = 214.5 K
1.17. A blackened copper sphere 2 cm in diameter and uniformly at 200 C is introduced
into an evacuated black chamber that us maintained at 20 C.
Write a differential equation that expresses T(t) for the sphere, assuming lumped
thermal capacity.
Identify a dimensionless group, analogous to the Biot number, that can be used to
tell whether or not the lumped-capacity solution is valid.
Show that the lumped-capacity solution is valid.
Integrate your differential equation and plot the temperature response for the
sphere.
Solution:
(1) Assuming lumped thermal capacity
dt
dU
Q
( ) ( ) [ ]
ref
T T cV
dr
d
T T A


4 4
( ) t T T
( )
( )
4
4

T T
cV
A
dt
T T d

2
4 r A
3
3
4
r V
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
4
4
4
4
3
2
3
3
4
4

,
_

T T
cr
T T
r c
r
dt
T T d



Differential Equation,
( ) t T T
( )
( )
4
4
3

T T
cr dt
T T d

(2) Dimensionless group analogous to the Biot number


23
1. INTRODUCTION
b
k
L h
Bi
Equivalent h ,
( )

T T
T T
h
4
4

Biot number equivalent =


( )
( )


T T k
T T r
k
r h
A k
V h
b b b
3 3
4
4

(3) Showing that lumped-capacity solution is valid.


Dimensionless group must be << 1 =
( )
( )

T T k
T T r
b
3
4
4

i
T
= 200 C + 273 = 473 K

T
= 20 C + 273 = 293 K
= 5.6704 x 10
-8
W/m
2
.K
4
r = (1/2)(2 cm) = 1 cm = 0.01 m
For copper:
= 8,954 kg/m
3
c
p
= 384 J/kg.K
k
b
= 389 W/m/K @ 200 C, Table A-1, App. A.
( )
( )

T T k
T T r
b
3
4
4

=
( )( )( )
( )( ) 293 473 389 3
293 473 01 . 0 10 6704 . 5
4 4 8



= 0.00012 << 1 , therefore valid.
(4) Integrating and plotting differential equation.
( )
( )
4 4
3

T T
cr dt
T T d

( )
4 4
3

T T
cr dt
dT

cr
dt
T T
dT

3
4
4


cr
t
T T
dT
T
T
i

3
4 4


Note:


4 4
a x
dx
:
24
1. INTRODUCTION
( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 4 4
2
1 1
a x a x a
a x a x
a x a x a x +
+

( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4
2
1
2
1 1
a x a a x a a x +

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 4 4
2
1
) ( 2 2
1 1
a x a a x a x a
a x a x
a a x +

1
]
1

+
+

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 4 4
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 1
a x a a x a a x a a a x +

1
]
1

( )
2 2 2 3 4 4
2
1 1 1
4
1 1
a x a a x a x a a x +

1
]
1

1
]
1

+
,
_

1
]
1

1 2
1 1 1
4
1 1
2
4
3 4 4
a
x
a
a x a x a a x
1
]
1

,
_

1
]
1

1 2
1
1 1
4
1 1
2
3
3 4 4
a
x
a
a
a x a x a a x
Then,


4 4
a x
dx
=
C
a
x
Arc
a a x
a x
a
+
,
_


,
_

tan
2
1
ln
4
1
3 3
Applying:
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

,
_


T
T
Arc
T
T
Arc
T T T
T T
T T
T T
T T T
dT
i
i
i
T
T
i
tan tan
2
1
ln ln
4
1
3 3 4
4
Substitute values:
( ) ( )
1
]
1

,
_


,
_

1
]
1

,
_


,
_


293
473
tan
293
tan
293 4
2
293 473
293 473
ln
293
293
ln
293 4
1
3 3 4 4
Arc
T
Arc
T
T
T T
dT
T
T
i
( ) cr
t T
Arc
T
T
T T
dT
T
T
i

3
48062 . 3
293
tan 2
293
293
ln
293 4
1
3 4 4

1
]
1

+
,
_


,
_


( )
( )
( )( )( ) 01 . 0 384 8954
10 6704 . 5 3
48062 . 3
293
tan 2
293
293
ln
293 4
1
8
3
t T
Arc
T
T

1
]
1

+
,
_


,
_

( )
t
T
Arc
T
T
0004978 . 0 48062 . 3
293
tan 2
293
293
ln
293 4
1
3

1
]
1

+
,
_


,
_

Tabulation:
25
1. INTRODUCTION
T, C T, K T, s
200 473 0
182 455 93.5
164 437 206.8
146 419 346.1
128 401 520.9
110 383 745.8
92 365 1046
74 347 1468.5
56 329 2119.8
38 311 3340.6
Plot :
26
1. INTRODUCTION
1.18. As part of space experiment, a small instrumentation packaged is released from a
space vehicle. It can be approximated as a solid aluminum sphere, 4 cm in
diameter. The sphere is initially at 30 C and it contains a pressurized hydrogen
component that will condense and malfunction at 30 K. If we take the surrounding
space to be at 0 K, how long may we expect the implementation package to
function properly? Is it legitimate to use the lumped-capacity method in solving
the problem? (Hint: See the directions for Problem 1.17).
Solution:
Properties of aluminum, Table A.1
= 2707 kg/m3
c
p
= 905 J/kg.K
k
b
= 237.2 W/m.K @ 30 C
From Prob. 1.17, using
i
T
= 30 C + 273 = 303 K

T
= 0 K
T = 30 K
= 5.6704 x 10
-8
W/m
2
.K
r = (1/2)(4 cm) = 2 cm = 0.02 m
Check for the legitimacy of lumped-capacity method.
( )
( )

T T k
T T r
b
3
4
4

=
( )( )( )
( )( ) 0 303 2 . 237 3
0 303 02 . 0 10 6704 . 5
4 4 8



= 0.000044 << 1 , therefore valid.
Then,
T
= 0 K
cr
t
T T
dT
T
T
i

3
4 4


( )
( )( )( ) 02 . 0 905 2707
10 6704 . 5 3
8
4
t
T
dT
T
T
i

( )
( )( )( ) 02 . 0 905 2707
10 6704 . 5 3
3
1
8
3
t
T
T
T
i

1
]
1

( )
( )( )( ) 02 . 0 905 2707
10 6704 . 5 3
3
1
3
1
8
3 3
t
T T
i



( ) ( )
( )
( )( )( ) 02 . 0 905 2707
10 6704 . 5 3
30 3
1
303 3
1
8
3 3
t



t = 3,552,427 seconds

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

days
week
hrs
day
s
hr
s 7
1
24
1
min 60
1
sec 60
min 1
= 5.88 weeks
27
1. INTRODUCTION
1.19. Consider heat calculation through the wall as shown in Fig. 1.20. Calculate q and
the temperature of the right-hand side of the wall.
Fig. 1.20
Solution:
( )
( )



T T h
L
T T k
q
2
2 1
1
T = 200 C

T
= 0 C
k = 2 W/m
2
.K
L = 0.5 m
h = 3 W/m
2
.K
( )( )
( )( ) 0 3
50 . 0
200 2
2
2


T
T
q
2 2
3 4 800 T T
T
2
= 114.286 C
q = (3)(114.286 0) = 343 W/m
2
.
1.20. Throughout Chapter 1 we have assumed that the steady temperature distribution
in a plane uniform wall is linear. To prove this, simplify the heat diffusion
equation to the form appropriate for steady flow. Then integrate it twice and
eliminate the two constant using the known outside temperatures T
left
and T
right
at x
= 0 and x = wall thickness, L.
28
1. INTRODUCTION
Solution:
Eq. 1.14, one dimensional heat diffusion equation,
t
T
t k
T c
x
T

1
2
2
Use
2
2
x
T

= 0 for steady flow.


1
C
dx
dT

2 1
C x C T +
at T = T
left
, x = 0
T
left
= 0 + C
2
C
2
= T
left
At T = T
right
, x = L
T
right
= C
1
L + T
left
L
T T
C
left right

1
Then,
( )
left
left right
T x
L
T T
T +

L
T T
x
T T
left right left

, therefore linear.
1.21 The thermal conductivity in a particular plane wall depends as follows on the wall
temperature: k = A + BT, where A and B are constants. The temperatures are T
1
and T
2
on either side of the wall, and its thickness is L. Develop an expression for
q.
Solution:
dx
dT
k q
( )
dx
dT
BT A q +
( )dT BT A qdx +
29
1. INTRODUCTION
( )

+
L T
T
dT BT A dx q
0
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
T
T
BT AT qL
1
]
1

,
_

+
( ) ( )
1
]
1

+
2
1
2
2 1 2
2
1
T T B T T A qL
( ) ( )
L
T T B T T A
q
1
]
1

2
1
2
2 1 2
2
1
1.22 Find k for the wall shown in Fig. 1.21. Of what might it be made?
Figure 1.21.
Solution:
L = 0.08 m
( )
( )
left
right left
T T h
L
T T
k q



( )
( )( ) 20 100 200
08 . 0
0 20

k
k = 64 W/m.K
30
1. INTRODUCTION
From Table A.1, @ 10 C, k = 64 W/m.K
This might be Steel, AISI 1010, k = 64.6 W/m.K
1.23 What are T
i
, T
j
, and T
r
in the wall shown in Fig. 1.22?
Fig. 1.22.
Solution:
L
1
= 2 cm = 0.02 m
k
1
= 2 W/m.C
L
2
= 6 cm = 0.06 m
k
2
= 1 W/m.C
L
3
= 4 cm = 0.04 m
k
3
= 5 W/m.C
L
4
= 4 cm = 0.04 m
k
4
= 4 W/m.C
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
25
25 100
L
T T k
L
T k
L
T k
L
T k
q
r j j
i i

( ) ( )
2
2
1
1
25 100
L
T k
L
T k
i i

( ) ( ) ( )( )
06 . 0
25 1
02 . 0
100 2

i i
T T
25 6 600
i i
T T
i
T
=89.29 C
( )
( )
3
3
1
1
25
100
L
T k
L
T k
j
i

( )( )
( )( )
04 . 0
25 5
02 . 0
29 . 89 100 2
j
T

j
T
= 16.43 C
31
1. INTRODUCTION
( )
( )
4
4
1
1
100
L
T T k
L
T k
r j
i

( )( ) ( )( )
04 . 0
43 . 16 4
02 . 0
29 . 89 100 2
r
T

( )( ) ( )( )
04 . 0
43 . 16 4
02 . 0
29 . 89 100 2
r
T

r
T = 5.72 C
1.24 An aluminum can of beer or soda pop is removed from the refrigerator and set on
the table. If h is 13.5 W/m
2
.K, estimate when the beverage will be at 15 C.
Ignore thermal radiation. State all of your other assumptions.
Solution:
Properties of aluminum, Table A.1, App. A
= 2707 kg/m
3
c
p
= 905 J/kg.K
k = 237 W/m.K
= 9.61 x 10
-5
m
2
/s
Assume size of can is 50 mm diameter x 100 mm height
i
T
= 0 C, and room at
T
= 20 C
Time constant,

,
_

,
_


DL
D
h
L
D
c
A h
cV
T

2
4
2
2
( ) L D h
cDL
T
2 2 +


D = 0.05 m
L = 0.10 m
h = 13.5 W/m
2
.K
( )( )( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )

+

10 . 0 2 5 . 0 5 . 13 2
10 . 0 05 . 0 905 2707
T
648.1 ns
Eq. 1.22.
T
t
i
e
T T
T T

at T = 15 C
32
1. INTRODUCTION
1 . 648
20 0
20 15
t
e

t = 898.5 s = 15 minutes
1.25. One large, black wall at 27 C faces another whose surface is 127 C. The gap
between the two walls is evacuated. If the second wall is 0.1 m thick and has a
thermal conductivity of 17.5 W.m.K, what is its temperature on the back side?
(Assume steady state).
Solution:
T
3
= temperature on the back side.
( )
( )
L
T T k
T T q
2 3
4
1
4
2


L = 0.1 m
T
1
= 27 C + 273 = 300 K
T
2
= 127 C + 273 = 400 K
= 5.6704 x 10-8 W/m
2
.K
k = 17.5 W/m.K
( )( )
( ) ( )
10 . 0
400 5 . 17
300 400 10 6704 . 5
3 4 4 8



T
q
T
3
= 405.67 K = 132.67 C.
1.26. A 1-cm diameter, 1 % carbon steel sphere, initially at 200 C, is cooled by natural
convection, with air at 20 C. In this case, h is not independent of temperature.
33
1. INTRODUCTION
Instead, h =3.51(t C)
1/4
W/m
2
.K. Plot T
sphere
as a function of t. Verify the lumped-
capacity assumption.
Solution:
Properties of 1% carbon steel, Table A.1
= 7801 kg/m
3
c
p
= 473 J/kg.K
k = 42 W/m.K
= 1.17 x 10
-5
m
2
/s
Verify the lumped-capacity assumption:
k
L h
Bi
t = 200 C 20 C = 180 C
h =3.51(180)
1/4
W/m
2
.K = 12.86 W/m
2
.K
3 4
3
4
2
3
r
r
r
A
V
L

r = (1/2)(1 cm) = 0.005 m


L = 0.005 m / 3 = 0.001667 m
( )( )
42
001667 . 0 86 . 12
Bi = 0.00051 << 1, therefore valid.
Use Lumped-Capacity Method

T
= 20 C
i
T
= 200 C
dt
dU
Q
( )
( ) [ ]
dt
T T cV d
T T hA
ref

or
( ) ( )
cV
T T hA
dt
T T d

( ) ( ) K m W T T K m W T h . / 51 . 3 . / 51 . 3
2 4 / 1 2 4 / 1


( ) ( )
cV
T T A
dt
T T d

4 / 5
51 . 3

( )
( ) cV
Adt
T T
T T d

51 . 3
4 / 5

( ) ( )
cV
Adt
T T d T T

51 . 3 4 / 5

34
1. INTRODUCTION
( ) ( )
cV
At
T T
T
T
i

51 . 3
4
4
1

1
]
1

( )
cV
At
T T
T
T
i

51 . 3
1
1
1
4
5
4
5

1
]
1

,
_

+
+

( ) ( ) cV
At
T T T T
i

8775 . 0 1 1
4 / 1 4 / 1


r V
A 3

Then,
( ) ( )
( )
cr
t
t
r c T T T T
i

6325 . 2 3 8775 . 0 1 1
4 / 1 4 / 1

,
_


Substitute value,
( ) ( ) ( )( )( ) 005 . 0 473 7801
6325 . 2
20 200
1
20
1
4 / 1 4 / 1
t
T

( )
273012 . 0 000143 . 0
20
1
4 / 1
+

t
T
( )
273012 . 0 000143 . 0
1
20
4 / 1
+

t
T
( )
1909
6993
20
4 / 1
+

t
T
C
t
T 20
1909
6993
4
+

,
_

Tabulation:
t,s T, C
0 200
100 166.8
200 140.9
300 120.4
400 104.7
500 91
600 80.4
800 64.4
1000 53.4
1200 45.6
1400 40
1600 35.8
1800 32.6
2000 30.2
Plot:
35
1. INTRODUCTION
1.27. A 3-cm diameter, black spherical heater is kept at 1100 C. It radiates through an
evacuated space to a surrounding spherical shell of Nichrome V. The shell has a 9
cm inside diameter and is 0.3 cm thick. It is black on the inside and is held at 25 C
on the outside. Find (a) the temperature of the inner wall of the shell and (b) the
heat transfer, Q. (Treat the shell as a plane wall.)
Solution:
Properties of Nichrome V, Table A.1, Appendix A.
= 8,410 kg/m
3
c
p
= 466 J/kg.K
k = 10 W/m.K
= 0.26 x 10
-5
m
2
/s
Radiation
( )
4
2
4
1 1
T T A Q
rad

T
1
= 1100 C = 1373 K
T
3
= 25 C + 273 = 298 K
= 5.6704 x 10-8 W/m
2
.C
Conduction
( )
L
T T kA
Q
cond
2 3 2

2
1 1
4 r A , r
1
= (1/2)(3 cm) = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
( )
2
1
015 . 0 4 A m
2
36
1. INTRODUCTION
2
2 2
4 r A , r
2
= (1/2)(9 cm) = 4.5 cm = 0.045 m
( )
2
1
045 . 0 4 A m
2
L = 0.3 cm = 0.003 m
Then
cond rad
Q Q
( )
( )
L
T T kA
T T A
3 2 2
4
2
4
1 1


( )( )( ) ( ) [ ]
( )( )( ) ( )
003 . 0
298 045 . 0 4 10
1373 015 . 0 4 10 6704 . 5
2
2
4
2
4 2
8



T
T

( ) ( ) 298 10 290632 . 5 1373


2
11
4
2
4
T T
By trial and error method.
(a) Inner Wall Temperature = T
2
= 304.7 K = 31.7 C
(b) Heat Transfer, Q
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] W T T A Q 4 . 568 7 . 304 1373 015 . 0 4 10 6704 . 5
4 4 2
8
4
2
4
1 1



1.28. The sun radiates 650 W/m2 on the surface of a particular lake. At what rate (in
mm/hr) would the lake evaporate if all of this energy went to evaporating water?
Discuss as many other ways you can think of that this energy can be distributed
(h
fg
for water is 2,257,000 J/kg). Do you suppose much of the 650 W/m
2
goes to
evaporation?
Solution:
q = 650 W/m
2
= 2,340,000 J/hr.m
2
Evaporation rate =
kg J
m hr J
/ 000 , 257 , 2
. / 000 , 340 , 2
2
= 1.036774 kg/hr.m
2
Density of water = 1000 kg/m
3
Evaporation rate =

,
_

m
mm
m kg
m hr kg
1
1000
/ 1000
. / 036774 . 1
3
2
=1.036774 mm/hr
There are other ways that this energy can be distributed such as cloud barrier,
heating up of the lake up to evaporation, haze or atmosphere.
Yes, much of the 650 W/m
2
goes to evaporation especially on a clear day.
37
1. INTRODUCTION
1.29. It is proposed to make picnic cups, 0.005 m thick, of a new plastic for which k =
k
o
(1 + aT
2
), where T is expressed in C, k
o
= 15 W/m.K, and a = 10
-4
C
-2
. We are
concerned with thermal behavior in the extreme case in which T = 100 C in the
cup and 0 C outside. Plot T against position in the cup wall and find the heat loss,
q.
Solution:
dx
dT
k q
( )dT aT k qdx
o
2
1+
( )

+
2
1
2
1
T
T
o
dT aT k x q
[ ]
2
1
3
3
1
T
T o
aT T k x q +
( ) ( ) [ ]
3
1 3
1
1
3
2 3
1
2
aT T aT T k x q
o
+ +
( ) ( )
3
1 3
1
1
3
2 3
1
2
aT T aT T
k
x q
o
+ +

( ) ( )
o
k
x q
aT T aT T

+ +
3
1 3
1
1
3
2 3
1
2
Solving for q if,
T
1
= 100 C
T
2
= 0 C
x = 0.005 m
( ) ( )
3
2 3
1
2
3
1 3
1
1
aT T aT T
k
x q
o
+ +

( )
( ) ( )( ) [ ] ( ) ( )( ) [ ]
3
4
3
1
3
4
3
1
0 10 0 100 10 100
15 . 0
005 . 0

+ +
q
q = 4000 W
Plotting:
Use T
1
= 100 C, a = 10
-4
C
-2
, q = 4000 W, k
o
= 0.15 W/m.K
( ) ( )
o
k
x q
aT T aT T

+ +
3
1 3
1
1
3
2 3
1
2
( ) ( ) [ ]
q
aT T aT T k
x
o
3
2 3
1
2
3
1 3
1
1
+ +

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
4000
100 10 100 15 . 0
3
2 3
1
2
3
4
3
1
aT T
x
+ +

( ) [ ]
4000
10 15 . 0 20
3
2
4
3
1
2
T T
x

+

38
1. INTRODUCTION
Tabulation:
T
2
, C x, m
100 0
80 0.00136
60 0.00248
40 0.00342
20 0.00424
0 0.00500
Heat loss , q = 4000 W
1.30. A disc-shaped wafer of diamond 1 lb is the target of a very high intensity laser.
The disc is 5 mm in diameter and 1 mm deep. The flat side is pulsed intermittently
with 10
10
W/m
2
of energy for one microsecond. It is then cooled by natural
convection from that same side until the next pulse. If h = 10 W/m
2
.K and
T
=30 C, plot T
disc
as a function of time for pulses that are 50 s apart and 100 s apart.
(Note that you must determine the temperature the disc reaches before it is pulsed
each time.)
Solution:
Properties of Diamond, Table A.2
= 3250 kg/m3
c
p
= 510 J/kg.K
k
b
= 1350 W/m.K
= 8.1 x 10-4 m
2
/s
39
1. INTRODUCTION
L = 1 mm = 0.001 m
b
k
L h
Bi
h = 10 W/m
2
.K

T
=30 C
( )( )
1350
001 . 0 10
Bi = 0.0000074 << 1
Therefore lumped capacity solution is valid.
T
t
i
e
T T
T T

For 50 s apart,
On the first pulse,
q
= 10
10
W/m
2
) (time A q Q
2
r A
, r = (1/2)(5 mm) = 2.5 mm = 0.0025 m
time = 1 s = 1 x 10
-6
s
Q = (10
10
W/m
2
)()(0.0025)
2
(1 x 10
-6
) = 1.9635 W
( ) C T cV Q
i
30
L r V
2

( )( )( )( ) ( )( ) C T Q
i
30 001 . 0 0025 . 0 510 3250
2

T
i
= 90.33 this is the initial temperature on the first pulse.
T = 90.33 C 30 C = 60.33 C
Then:
T
t
i
e
T T
T T

Time constant,
A h
cV
T

=
h
cL
=
( )( )( )
10
001 . 0 510 3250
= 165.75 s

T
=30 C
For 50 s pulse apart
First 50 s, T
i
= 90.33 C
t = 25 s
75 . 165
25
30 33 . 90
30

e
T
T = 81.88 C
40
1. INTRODUCTION
t = 50 s
75 . 165
50
30 33 . 90
30

e
T
T = 74.62 C
Second 50 s, T
i
= 60.33 C + 74.62 C = 134.95 C
t = 25 s
75 . 165
25
30 95 . 134
30

e
T
T = 120.26 C
t = 50 s
75 . 165
50
30 95 . 134
30

e
T
T = 107.62 C
Third 50 s, T
i
= 60.33 C + 107.62 C = 167.95 C
t = 25 s
75 . 165
25
30 95 . 167
30

e
T
T = 148.64 C
t = 50 s
75 . 165
50
30 95 . 167
30

e
T
T = 132.03 C
And so on.
Tabulation:
t, s T
disc
, C
1
st
50 s 0 90.33
25 81.88
50 74.62
2
nd
50 s 50 134.95
75 120.26
100 107.62
3
rd
50 s 100 167.95
125 148.64
150 132.03
41
1. INTRODUCTION
Plot:
For 100 s pulse apart
First 100 s, T
i
= 90.33 C
t = 50 s
75 . 165
50
30 33 . 90
30

e
T
T = 74.62 C
t = 100 s
42
1. INTRODUCTION
75 . 165
100
30 33 . 90
30

e
T
T = 63.00 C
Second 100 s, T
i
= 60.33 C + 63.00 C = 123.33 C
t = 50 s
75 . 165
50
30 33 . 123
30

e
T
T = 99.03 C
t = 100 s
75 . 165
100
30 33 . 123
30

e
T
T = 81.05 C
Third 100 s, T
i
= 60.33 C + 81.05 C = 141.38 C
t = 50 s
75 . 165
50
30 38 . 141
30

e
T
T = 148.64 C
t = 100 s
75 . 165
100
30 38 . 141
30

e
T
T = 112.38 C
And so on.
Tabulation:
t, s T
disc
, C
1
st
100 s 0 90.3.3
50 74.62
100 63.00
2
nd
100 s 100 123.33
150 99.03
200 81.05
3
rd
100 s 200 141.38
250 112.38
300 90.93
43
1. INTRODUCTION
Plot:
1.31 A 150 W light bulb is roughly a 0.006 m diameter sphere. Its steady surface
temperature in room air is 90 C, and h on the outside is 7 W/m
2
.K. What fraction
of the heat transfer from the bulb is by radiation directly from the filament
through the glass? (Stae any additional assumptions.)
Solution:
Assume black body radiation.
( ) ( )
4 4
a b a b
T T A T T A h Q +
( ) ( )
4 4
a b a b
T T T T h
A
Q
+
44
1. INTRODUCTION
b
T
= 90 + 273 = 363 K
h = 7 W/m
2
.K.

= 5.6704 x 10
-8
W/m
2
.K
4
.
Q
= 150 W but change to 0.150 W as light bulb is very small. It may be a typographical
error.
2 2
4 r D A
D = 0.006 m
Then:
( )
( )( ) ( )( )
4 4 8
2
363 10 6704 . 5 363 7
006 . 0
150 . 0
a a
T T +

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
4
4 8
363 10 6704 . 5 363 7 1326
a a
T T +

By Trial and Error Method:
T
a
= 270.5 K = -2.5 C
Fraction =
( )
( ) ( )
4 4
4 4
a b a b
a b
T T T T h
T T
A
Q
+

=
( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
4 4 8
4 4 8
5 . 270 363 10 6704 . 5 5 . 270 363 7
5 . 270 363 10 6704 . 5
+

Fraction = 0.5126
1.32 How much entropy does the light bulb in Problem 1.31 produce?
Solution:
( )
,
_

,
_


363
1
5 . 270
1
15 . 0
1 1
b a
Un
T T
Q S

= 0.0001413 W/K
1.33 Air at 20 C flows over one side of a thin metal sheet ( h = 10.6 W/m
2
.K).
Methanol at 87 C flows over the other side ( h = 141 W/m
2
.K). The metal
functions as an electrical resistance heater, releasing 1000 W/m
2
. Calculate (a) the
heater temperature, (b) the heat transfer from the methanol to the heater, and (c)
the heat transfer from the heat of the air.
Solution:
(a) q = 1000 W/m
2
( ) ( ) C T h C T h q
h h
87 20
2 1
+
( )( ) ( )( ) 87 141 20 6 . 10 +
h h
T T
= 1000
T
h
= 88.9 C
45
1. INTRODUCTION
(b)
( ) ( )( ) 87 9 . 88 141 87
2

h m
T h q
m
q
= 267.9 W
(c)
( ) ( )( ) 20 9 . 88 6 . 10 20
1

h a
T h q
a
q
= 730.3 W
1.34 A planar black heater is simultaneously cooled by 20 C air ( h =14.6 W/m
2
.K) and
by radiation to a parallel black wall at 80 C. What is the temperature of the heater
if it delivers 9000 W/m
2
?
Solution:
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
4 4
273 80 273 20 + + + T T h q = 9000 W/m
2
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
4 4 8
353 273 10 6704 . 5 20 6 . 14 + +

T T q = 9000 W/m
2
By Trial and error method.
T = 294.3 C
1.35 An 8-oz. can of beer is taken from a 3 C refrigerator and placed in a 25 C room.
The 6.3 cm diameter by 9 cm high can is placed on an insulated surface ( h =7.3
W/m
2
.K). How long will it take to reach 12 C? Ignore thermal radiation and
discuss your other assumption.
Solution:
T
t
i
e
T T
T T

Assume aluminum material for the can of beer,


Properties of aluminum, Table A.1, Appendix A
= 2707 kg/m
3
c
p
= 905 J/kg.K
k = 237 W/m.K
Then,

T
= 25 C
i
T
= 3 C
T = 12 C
46
1. INTRODUCTION
Time constant:
A h
cV
T

L D V
2
4

,
_


D = 6.3 cm = 0.063 m
( ) ( ) 09 . 0 063 . 0
4
2

,
_


V
= 2.8055 x 10
-4
m
3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) 09 . 0 063 . 0 2 063 . 0
4
2
4
2 2

+
,
_

+
,
_

DL D A
= 0.02405 m
2
( )( )( )
( )( ) 02405 . 0 3 . 7
10 8055 . 2 905 2707
4

T
= 3915 s
3915
25 3
25 12
t
e

t = 2314 sec = 38.6 min


1.36 A resistance heater in the form a thin sheet runs parallel with 3 cm slabs of cast
iron on either side of an evacuated cavity. The heater, which releases 8000 W/m
2
,
and the cast iron are very nearly black. The outside surfaces of the cast iron slabs
are kept at 10 C. Determine the heater temperature and the inside slab
temperatures.
Solution:
q = 8000 W/m
2
47
1. INTRODUCTION
Properties of cast iron, Table A.1, Appendix A
= 7272 kg/m3
c
p
= 420 J/kg.K
k
b
= 52 W/m.K
L = 3 cm = 0.03 m
Inside slab temperature,
( )
L
T C
k q


10
= 8000 W/m
2
( )
( )
03 . 0
10
52
T
q


T = 14.62 C
Heater temperature,
( )
4
4
T T q
h
= 8000 W/m
2
( ) ( ) ( ) [ ]
4 4
8
273 62 . 14 273 10 6704 . 5 + +

h
T q = 8000 W/m
2
T
h
= 347.2 C
1.37 A black wall at 1200 C radiated to the left side of a parallel slab of type 316
stainless steel, 5 mm thick. The right side of the slab is to be cooled convectively
and is not to exceed 0 C. Suggest a convective proceed that will achieve this.
Solution:
1.38 A cooler keeps one side of a 2 cm layer of ice at 10 C. The other side is exposed
to air at 15 C. What is h just on the edge of melting? Must h be raised or
lowered if melting is to progress?
48
1. INTRODUCTION
Solution:
Melting point of ice = 0 C
Thermal Conductivity of ice at 0 C = 2.215 W/m.K
( )
( )
3 2
1 2
T T h
L
T T k
q


( )
( )
2 3
1 2
T T h
L
T T k

( )
( )
2 3
1 2
T T h
L
T T k

T
1
= -10 C
T
2
= 0 C
T
3
= 15 C
L = 2 cm = 0.02 m
Then,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 0 15
02 . 0
10 0 215 . 2


h
h = 73.83 W/m
2
.K
If the melting is to progress the thickness will reduce and h must be raised.
1.39 At what minimum temperature does a black heater deliver its maximum
monochromatic emissive power in the visible range? Compare your result with
Fig. 10.2.
Solution:
Figure 1.15 or Wiens Law, Eq. (1.29)
( )
max

e
T
= 2898 m.K
Minimum visible range, = 0.4545 m
Then:
(0.4545 m)(T
min
) = 2898 m.K
T
min
= 6376 K
From Fig. 10.2 , T = 5900 K
1.40 The local heat transfer coefficient during the laminar flow of fluid over a flat plate
of length L is equal to F / x
1/2
, where F is a function of fluid properties and the
flow velocity. How does h compares with h (x = L). (x is the distance from the
leading edge of the plate.)
49
1. INTRODUCTION
1.41 An object is initially at a temperature above that of its surroundings. We have
seen that many kinds of convection processes will bring the object into
equilibrium with its surroundings. Describe the characteristics of a process that
will do so with the least net increase of the entropy of the universe.
Solution:
b
b
T
bo
T
b
dT
T T
cV S

,
_

1 1

Determine b
T
for least net increase of the entropy of the universe.
b
T T
1 1

= 0

T T
b
1
]
1

,
_

bo
bo
T
T
T
T T
cV S ln
1
]
1

,
_

T
T
T
T T
cV S
bo bo
ln
The characteristic of the process is unsteady state conduction having Biot number
increasing from less than one to more than one when reaching equilibrium at
T T
b .
1.42 A 250 C cylindrical copper billet, 4 cm in diameter and 8 cm long is cooled in air
at 25 C. The heat transfer coefficient is 5 W/m
2
.K Can this be treated as lump-capacity
cooling? What is the temperature of the billet after 10 minutes?
Solution:
Check Biot Number
Properties of copper, Table A.1, App. A
= 8954 kg/m3
c
p
= 384 J/kg.K
k
b
= 398 W/m.K
Time constant:
A h
cV
T

L D V
2
4

,
_


D = 4 cm = 0.04 m, L = 8 cm = 0.08 m
( ) ( ) 08 . 0 04 . 0
4
2

,
_


V
= 1.0053 x 10
-4
m
3
50
1. INTRODUCTION
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) 08 . 0 04 . 0 2 04 . 0
4
2
4
2 2

+
,
_

+
,
_

DL D A
= 0.012566 m
2
( )( )( )
( )( ) 012566 . 0 5
10 0053 . 1 384 8954
4

T
= 5501 s
Biot Number
m L
k
L h
Bi
b
02 . 0

( )( )
398
02 . 0 5
Bi = 0.00025 << 1
Therefore lumped capacity cooling is valid.
T
t
i
e
T T
T T

t = 10 min = 600 s
5501
600
25 250
25

e
T
T = 226.75 C
1.43 The suns diameter is 1,392,000 km, and it emerges as if it were a blackbody at
5777 K. Determine the rate at which it emits energy. Compare with a value from
the literature. What is the suns energy output in a year?
Solution:
4
AT q

= 5.6704 x 10
-8
W/m
2
.K
2
r A
r = (1/2)(1,392,000 km) = 696,000 km = 6.96 x 10
8
m
( )( )( ) ( )
4 2
8 2 8
5777 10 96 . 6 4 . / 10 6704 . 5 K m K m W q

q = 3.8446 x 10
26
Watts
From http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/100/rad-temp.htm
q = 3.865 x 10
26
Watts
q = (3.8446 x 10
26
W)(8760 hr/yr)(3600 s/hr) = 1.212434 x 10
34
J/year
- End -
51

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