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Material Models
Training Manual
In general, materials have a complex response to dynamic loading The following phenomena may need to be modelled
Non-linear pressure response Strain hardening Strain rate hardening Thermal softening Compaction (porous materials) Orthotropic behavior (e.g. composites) Crushing damage (e.g. ceramics, glass, geological materials, concrete) Chemical energy deposition (e.g. explosives) Tensile failure Phase changes (solid-liquid-gas)
No single material model incorporates all of these effects Engineering Data offers a selection of models from which you can choose based on the material(s) present in your simulation
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Material Models
Training Manual
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Material Models
Material Deformation
Training Manual
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Material Models
Principal Stresses
A stress state in 3D can be described by a tensor with six stress components
Components depend on the orientation of the coordinate system used.
Training Manual
When the coordinate system is chosen to coincide with the eigenvectors of the stress tensor, the stress tensor is represented by a diagonal matrix
The principal stresses may be combined to form the first, second and third stress invariants, respectively.
Because of its simplicity, working and thinking in the principal coordinate system is often used in the formulation of material models.
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Material Models
Elastic Response
For linear elasticity, stresses are given by Hookes law :
Training Manual
where l and G are the Lame constants (G is also known as the Shear Modulus)
The principal stresses can be decomposed into a hydrostatic and a deviatoric component :
Then :
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Material Models
Non-linear Response
Training Manual
Many applications involve stresses considerably beyond the elastic limit and so require more complex material models Hookes Law Generalized Non-Linear Response
Equation of State
Strength Model
Failure Model
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i (max,min) = f
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February 27, 2009 Inventory #002665
Material Models
Training Manual
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Material Models
Elastic Constants
Youngs Modulus E Poissons Ratio n E - 2G 2G 2G (1 + n) 9KG 3K + G E 2 (1+ n) 3EK 9K - E 3K (1 - 2n) 2 (1 + n) 3K - E 6K 3K - 2G 2 (3K + G)
Training Manual
Shear Modulus G Shear Modulus Youngs Modulus Shear Modulus Poissons Ratio Shear Modulus Bulk Modulus Youngs Modulus Poissons Ratio Youngs Modulus Bulk Modulus Poissons Ratio Bulk Modulus
E 3 (1 - 2n)
3K (1 - 2n)
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Material Models
Training Manual
The density property defines the initial Mass / unit volume of a material at time zero
This property is automatically included in all models
Specific Heat
This is required to calculate the temperature used in material models that include thermal softening
This property is automatically included in thermal softening models
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Material Models
Linear Elastic
Isotropic Elasticity
Used to define linear elastic material behavior suitable for most materials subjected to low compressions. Properties defined Youngs Modulus (E) Poissons Ratio () From the defined properties, Bulk modulus and Shear modulus are derived for use in the material solutions. Temperature dependence of the linear elastic properties is not available for explicit dynamics
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Training Manual
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Material Models
Linear Elastic
Orthotropic Elasticity
Used to define linear orthotropic elastic material behavior suitable for most orthotropic materials subjected to low compressions. Properties defined Youngs Modulii (Ex, Ey, Ez) Poissons Ratios (xy, yz, xz) Shear Modulii (Gxy, Gyz, Gxz) Temperature dependence of the properties is not available for explicit dynamics
Training Manual
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Material Models
Linear Elastic
Viscoelastic
Represents strain rate dependent elastic behavior Long term behavior is described by a Long Term Shear Modulus, G.
Specified via an Isotropic Elasticity model or Equation OF State
Training Manual
Viscoelastic behavior is introduced via an Instantaneous Shear Modulus, G0 and a Viscoelastic Decay Constant .
The deviatoric viscoelastic stress at time n+1 is calculated from the viscoelastic stress at time n and the shear strain increments at time n:
Deviatoric viscoelastic stress is added to the elastic stress to give the total stress
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Material Models
Training Manual
Stress
Strain
Time
Time
Stress Relaxation
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Creep
February 27, 2009 Inventory #002665
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Material Models
Hyperelastic
Several forms of strain energy potential () are provided for the simulation of nearly incompressible hyperelastic materials.
Training Manual
2.00
1.00
Need to verify the applicability of the model chosen prior to use. Currently hyperelastic materials may only be used for solid elements
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Material Models
Hyperelastic
Training Manual
Examples of Hyperelasticity
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Material Models
Plasticity
Training Manual
If a material is loaded elastically and subsequently unloaded, all the distortion energy is recovered and the material reverts to its initial configuration.
If the distortion is too great a material will reach its elastic limit and begin to distort plastically. In Explicit Dynamics, plastic deformation is computed by reference to the Von Mises yield criterion (also known as PrandtlReuss yield criterion) . This states that the local yield condition is
or (since )
Thus the onset of yielding (plastic flow), is purely a function of the deviatoric stresses (distortion) and does not depend upon the value of the local hydrostatic pressure unless the yield stress itself is a function of pressure (as is the case for some of the strength models).
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Material Models
Plasticity
If an incremental change in the stresses violates the Von Mises criterion then each of the principal stress deviators must be adjusted such that the criterion is satisfied.
If a new stress state n + 1 is calculated from a state n and found to fall outside the yield surface, it is brought back to the yield surface along a line normal to the yield surface by multiplying each of the stress deviators by the factor
Training Manual
By adjusting the stresses perpendicular to the yield circle only the plastic components of the stresses are affected.
Effects such as work hardening, strain rate hardening, thermal softening, e.t.c. can be considered by making Y a dynamic function of these
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Material Models
Plasticity
Bilinear Isotropic / Kinematic Hardening
Used to define the yield stress (Y) as a linear function of plastic strain, p
Training Manual
Properties defined Yield Strength (Y0) Tangent Modulus (A) Isotropic Hardening
Total stress range is twice the maximum yield stress, Y
Kinematic Hardening
Total stress range is twice the starting yield stress, Y0 Models Bauschinger effect Often required to accurately predict response of thin structure (shells)
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Material Models
Training Manual
Isentropic Hardening (3 = 0)
Kinematic Hardening (3 = 0)
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Material Models
Plasticity
Multilinear Isotropic / Kinematic Hardening
Used to define the yield stress (Y) as a piecewise linear function of plastic strain, p
Training Manual
Kinematic Hardening
Can only be used with solid elements
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Material Models
Plasticity
Johnson Cook Strength
Used to model materials, typically metals, subjected to large strains, high strain rates and high temperatures.
Defines the yield stress, Y, as a function of strain, strain rate and temperature
Training Manual
p = effective plastic strain p* = normalized effective plastic strain rate (1.0 sec-1) TH = homologous temperature = (T - Troom) / (Tmelt - Troom)
The plastic flow algorithm used with this model has an option to reduce high frequency oscillations that are sometimes observed in the yield surface under high strain rates. A first order rate correction is applied by default. A specific heat capacity must also be defined to enable the calculation of temperature for thermal softening effects
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Material Models
Plasticity
Effects of Strain Hardening (Johnson-Cook Model)
Hypervelocity Impact
Training Manual
Normal impact of tungsten sphere on thick steel plate at 10 kms-1 Lagrange Parts used with erosion Johnson-Cook strength model used to model effects of strain hardening, strain-rate hardening and thermal softening including melting
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Material Models
Plasticity
Cowper Symonds Strength
Used to define the yield strength of isotropic strain hardening, strain rate dependant materials.
Training Manual
Hardening term is same as that used in the Johnson Cook Model Strain rate dependent term has different form No thermal softening term
The plastic flow algorithm used with this model has an option to reduce high frequency oscillations that are sometimes observed in the yield surface under high strain rates. A first order rate correction is applied by default. Strain rate properties should be input assuming that the units of strain rate are 1/second.
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Material Models
Training Manual
subject to Y0 [1 + ]n Ymax = effective plastic strain t = temperature (degrees K) = compression = v0 / v Primed parameters (with subscripts P and ) are derivatives with respect to pressure and temperature
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Material Models
Plasticity
Zerilli Armstrong Strength
Used to model materials subjected to large strains, high strain rates and high temperatures. Based on dislocation dynamics.
Applicable to a wide range of bcc (body centered cubic) and fcc (face centered cubic) metals.
Training Manual
bcc
fcc
For fcc metals (e.g. Copper, Nickel, Platinum ), set C1 = 0 For bcc metals (e.g. Iron, Chromium, Tungsten, Vanadium), set C2 = 0
A specific heat capacity must also be defined to enable the calculation of temperature for thermal softening effects
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Material Models
Brittle / Granular
Drucker-Prager Strength
Yield stress is a function of Pressure Used for dry soils, rocks, concrete and ceramics where cohesion and compaction cause increasing resistance to shear up to a limiting value of the yield stress. Three forms
Linear
Original Drucker-Prager model
Training Manual
Stassi
Constructed from yield strengths in uniaxial compresion and tension
Piecewise
Yield stress is a piecewise linear function of pressure
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Material Models
Brittle / Granular
Training Manual
Johnson-Holmquist Strength
Use to model brittle materials (glass, ceramics) subjected to large pressures, shear strain and high strain rates
Fully cracked material still retains some strength in compression due to frictional effects in crushed grains
Yield reduced from intact value to fractured value via a Damage function Damage accumulates due to effective plastic strain
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Material Models
Brittle / Granular
Johnson-Holmquist Strength Continuous (JH2)
Strength is modeled as smoothly varying functions of intact strength, fractured strength, strain rate and damage via dimensionless analytic functions
Training Manual
Damage is accumulated as ratio of incremental plastic strain over a pressure-dependant fracture strain
Two methods for application of damage
Gradual (default)
Damage is incrementally applied as it accumulates
Instantaneous
Damage accumulates over time, but is only applied to failure when it reaches 1.0
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Material Models
Brittle / Granular
Johnson-Holmquist Strength Segmented (JH1)
Strength is modeled using piecewise linear segments
Training Manual
Can be used with a Linear or Polynomial Equation of State The gradual softening in the more recent continuous model (JH2) has not been supported by experimental data, so this earlier variant is still commonly used
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Material Models
Brittle / Granular
Training Manual
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Material Models
Brittle / Granular
RHT Concrete Strength
Advanced plasticity model for brittle materials developed by Riedel, Hiermaier and Thoma at the Ernst Mach Institute (EMI) Models dynamic loading of concrete and other brittle materials such as rock and ceramic. Combined plasticity and shear damage model in which the deviatoric stress in the material is limited by a generalised failure surface of the form:
Training Manual
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Material Models
Brittle / Granular
RHT Concrete Strength Examples
Training Manual
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Material Models
Brittle / Granular
MO Granular
Extension of the Drucker-Prager model
Takes into account effects associated with granular materials such as powders, soil, and sand. In addition to pressure hardening, the model also represents density hardening and variations in the shear modulus with density.
Training Manual
Yield stress has two components, one dependent on the density and one dependent of the pressure
Where Y , p , and denote the total yield stress, the pressure yield stress and the density yield stress respectively.
The un-load / re-load slope is defined by the shear modulus which is defined as a function of the density of the material at zero pressure The yield stress is defined by a yield stress pressure and a yield stress density curve with up to 10 points in each curve.
The shear modulus is defined by a shear modulus density curve with up to 10 points.
All three curves must be defined.
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Material Models
Equation of State
Equation of State Properties
Bulk Modulus
A bulk modulus can be used to define a linear, energy independent equation of state
Training Manual
Combined with a Shear modulus property, this material definition is equivalent to using an Isotropic Linear Elastic, model
Shear Modulus
A shear modulus must be used when a solid or porous equation of state are selected.
To represent fluids, specify a small value.
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Material Models
Equation Of State
Mei-Gruneisen form of Equation of State
Training Manual
Covers entire (p,v=1/,e) space using a 1st order Taylor expansion from a reference curve
Reference Curves
The shock Hugoniot A standard adiabat The 0 K isotherm The isobar p = 0 The curve e = 0 The saturation curve
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Material Models
Equation of State
Polynomial EOS
A Mie-Gruneisen form of equation of state that expresses pressure as a polynomial function of compression (density)
Training Manual
> 0 (compression):
< 0 (tension):
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Material Models
Equation of State
Shock EOS
A Mie-Gruneisen form of EOS that uses the shock Hugoniot as a reference curve
The Rankine-Hugoniot equations for the shock jump conditions defining a relation between any pair of the variables (density), p (pressure), e (energy), up (particle velocity) and Us (shock velocity).
Training Manual
Us = C1 + S1up
Gruneisen Coefficient, G, is often approximated using
G = 2s1 - 1
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Material Models
Equation of State
Shock EOS Linear
Lets you define a linear or a quadratic relationship
Training Manual
Us = C1 + S1Up
Us = C1 + S1Up + S2Up2
Shock EOS Bilinear
Lets you define a bilinear relationship
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Material Models
Porosity
Some materials exhibit irreversible compaction due to pore collapse
Examples
Foam Powders Concrete Soils
Training Manual
Porous materials are extremely effective in attenuating shocks and mitigating impact pressures.
Compact to solid density at relatively low stress levels Volume change is large Significant amount of energy is irreversibly absorbed
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Material Models
Porosity
Crushable Foam
Relatively simple strength model designed to represent the crush characteristics of foam materials under impact loading conditions (non-cyclic loading). Must be used with Isotropic Elasticity
automatically included
Training Manual
Compaction curve is defined as a piecewise linear principal stress vs volumetric strain curve. Youngs Modulus, E, is used for unloading / re-loading Maximum Tensile Stress provides a tension cutoff
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Material Models
Porosity
Compaction EOS Linear
Plastic compaction path is defined as a piecewise linear function of Pressure vs Density The elastic unloading / reloading path is defined via a piecewise linear function of Sound Speed vs Density
The Bulk Modulus of the material is calculated from
Training Manual
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Material Models
Porosity
Compaction EOS Non-Linear
Plastic compaction path is defined as a piecewise linear function of Pressure vs Density Elastic unloading / reloading path is defined via a piecewise linear function of Bulk Modulus vs Density For non-linear unloading, if the current pressure is less than the current compaction pressure, the pressure is obtained from the bulk modulus using:
Training Manual
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Material Models
Porosity
P-alpha EOS
Crushable Foam and Compaction EOS give good results for low stress levels and for materials with low initial porosities, but they may not do well for highly porous materials over a wide stress range Herrmanns P- alpha EOS is a phenomenological model which gives the correct behavior at high stresses but at the same time provides a reasonably detailed description of the compaction process at low stress levels. Principal assumption is that specific internal energy is the same for a porous material as for the same material at solid density at identical conditions of pressure and temperature.
Solid EOS
Training Manual
Porous EOS
where V is the specific volume of the porous material and Vs is the specific volume of the solid material
= g (p,e)
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Material Models
Failure
Material failure has two components
Failure initiation
When specified criteria are met within a material, a post failure response is activated
Training Manual
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Material Models
Failure
Plastic Strain Failure
Models ductile failure Failure occurs if the Effective Plastic Strain in the material exceeds the Maximum Equivalent Plastic Strain
Material fails instantaneously
Training Manual
This failure model must be used in conjunction with a plasticity or brittle strength model
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Material Models
Failure
Principal Stress / Strain Failure
Models brittle failure or ductile failure (Strain only) Failure is based on one of two criteria
Maximum Tensile Stress / Principal Strain Maximum Shear Stress / Shear Strain
from the maximum difference in the principal stresses / strains
Training Manual
If used in conjunction with a plasticity model, deactivate Maximum Shear Stress / Strain criteria
specify a value of +1.0e20 then shear response is handled by the plasticity model.
Crack Softening Failure can be combined with these model for fracture energy based softening
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Material Models
Failure
Stochastic Failure
Real materials have inherent microscopic flaws, which cause failures and cracking to initiate. Stochastic Failure reproduces this numerically by randomizing the Failure stress or strain of a material
Can be used with most other failure models
Training Manual
Distribution Type
Fixed
The same random distribution is used for each Solve
Random
A new distribution is calculated for each Solve
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Material Models
Failure
Stochastic Failure
Example: Fragmenting Ring
Training Manual
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Material Models
Failure
Tensile Pressure Failure
Used to represent dynamic spall (or cavitation) Tensile pressure is limited by
Training Manual
If the pressure (P) becomes less than the Maximum Tensile Pressure (Pmin), failure occurs
Material instantaneously fails.
If Material also uses damage evolution, the Maximum Tensile Pressure is scaled down as the damage, D, increases from 0.0 to 1.0 Can only be applied to solid bodies. Can be combined with Crack Softening Failure to invoke fracture energy based softening
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Material Models
Failure
Crack Softening Failure
Fracture energy based damage model which provides a gradual reduction in the ability of an element to carry tensile stress.
Primarily used to investigate failure of brittle materials Applied to other materials to reduce mesh dependency effects. Failure initiation based on any of the standard tensile failure models
Training Manual
On failure initiation, a linear softening slope is used to reduce the maximum possible principal tensile stress in the material as a function of crack strain
Softening slope is defined as a function of the local cell size and the Fracture Energy Gf Fracture energy is related to the fracture toughness by Kf2 = EGf
After failure initiation, a maximum principal tensile stress failure surface is defined to limit the maximum principal tensile stress in the cell and a Flow Rule is used to return to this surface and accumulate the crack strain Flow Rule:
No-Bulking (Default) Associative in -plane only Good results for impacts onto brittle materials such as glass, ceramics and concrete Radial Return Non-associative in - and meridional planes Bulking Associative Associative in - and meridional planes
Can only be used with Solid elements Can be used in combination with any solid equation of state, plasticity model or brittle strength model.
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Material Models
Failure
Example : Impact on Ceramic Target
1449m/s impact of a 6.35mm diameter steel ball on a ceramic target Johnson-Holmquist Strength model used in conjunction with Crack Softening
Training Manual
Simulation
Experiment (Hazell)
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Material Models
Failure
Johnson Cook Failure
Used to model ductile failure of materials experiencing large pressures, strain rates and temperatures. Consists of three independent terms that define the dynamic fracture strain (f) as a function of pressure, strain rate and temperature:
Training Manual
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Material Models
Failure
Grady Spall Failure
Used to model dynamic spallation of metals under shock loading. Critical spall stress for a ductile material is calculated using:
Training Manual
r is the density c is the bulk sound speed Y is the yield stress ec is a Critical Strain Value
If maximum principal tensile stress exceeds the critical spall stress (S), instantaneous failure of the element is initiated.
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