Chemistry Folio Chapter 9 SPM

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CHEMISTRY FOLIO chapter 9: Manufacture Substances in industry
SULPHURIC ACID
USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

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Figure 1:- Uses of Sulphuric Acid,

H2SO4
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MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC
ACID
• The manufacture of sulphuric acid in industry is

through the contact process.
• The raw materials used to manufacture the acid are
sulphur, air and water.
• The acid is produced in 3 stages:-
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STAGE 1:
THE PRODUCTION OF SULPHUR
DIOXIDE
a) This can be obtained through two methods:-

a) Heating liquid sulphur with hot air in a furnace.
S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)
b) Heating sulphides in air, for example:
4FeS2 (s) + 11O2 (g) 2Fe2O3 (s) + 8SO2 (g)
SO2 is a side-product in the extraction of the
metal, iron. [Fe2O3 is reduced to iron with coke]
Zinc pyrites can also be heated in air as follows:
2ZnO (s) + 3O2 (g) 2SO2 (g) + 2ZnO (s)
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STAGE 2:
FORMATION OF SULPHUR
TRIOXIDE
a) Pure, dry sulphur dioxide is mixed with dry oxygen in

excess and passed over vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5 as
catalyst at a temperature of 450˚C - 550˚C and a
pressure of 1 atmosphere. The conditions ensure the
maximum production of sulphur trioxide:
2SO2 (g) + O2(g) 2SO3 (g)
b) The reaction takes place in a heat converter.
c) Excess air is used to ensure higher percentage of SO3
produced.
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STAGE 3:
FORMATION OF SULPHURIC ACID
a) The sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated

sulphuric acid to form a product called oleum, H2S2O7.
This is carried out until the concentrated sulphuric
acid has reached a concentration of 99.5%.
SO3 (g) + H2SO4 (aq) H2S2O7 (l)
b) The product, oleum will not show any property of an
acid. This is because, oleum will ‘not ionise’ without
the presence of water.
c) Water is then added to the oleum to produce
concentrated sulphuric acid.
H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (l)
d) The reaction in (a) and (b) is equivalent to dissolving
sulphur trioxide in water.
SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq)
e) However, this reaction is not carried out in industry.
This is because the reaction is too vigorous.
f) It produces a large cloud of sulphuric acid mist. This
mist is corrosive and pollutes the air.
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CONTACT PROCESS:
Water
Concentrated H2SO4
O2 , V2O5, 450˚C, 1
atm
Burnt in air
Figure 2:- Flow chart of Contact

Process
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The industrial
process in the
Manufactured of
Sulphuric Acid
USES OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY:

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Examples are ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate and urea. The first two are
prepare through neuralisation
Havingbut urea
a low is produced
melting point, by the reaction of ammonia
with carbon dioxide. Theliquefied
reaction ammonia
involved are as the
makes a following:
a) 2NH3 (g) + H2SO4(aq) good cooling
(NH4)2SO 4(s) in ammonium sulphate
agent
b) NH3 (g) + HNO3(aq) refrigerators
NH4NO (aq)
and air
3 ammonium nitrate
c) 2NH3 (g) + CO2(g) (NH2)2CO (s) + H2O (l) urea
conditioners.
It neutralizes the organic acids

formed by microorganisms in latex,
thereby preventing coagulation
and preserving the latex in liquid
form.
Ammonia is converted to nitric acid in the Ostwald

process:
1) ammonia is first oxidised to nitrogen

monoxide, NO, by oxygen in the presence of
platinum as catalyst at 900˚C.
4NH3 (g) + 5O2(g) Pt/900˚C 4NO (aq) + 6H2O (l)
2) nitrogen monoxide is further oxidised to
nitrogen dioxide.
2NO (g) + O2(g) 2NO2 (g)
3) Nitrogen dioxide and oxygen are dissolved in
water to produced nitric acid.
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + H2O (l) 4HNO3 (aq)
a) Nitric acid is manufactured from
ammonia before being used to make
explosive like trinitrotoluene (TNT).
b) Nitric acid, in this case, is reacted with
organic substances like toluene.
EXPERIMENT TO INVESTIGATE
THE PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA
Aim:-
• To investigate the properties of ammonia
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Material:-
• 0.1 mol dm ammonia solution, 0.1 mol dm sodium
hydroxide solution, ammonia chloride, calcium
hydroxide, concentrated hydrochloric acid, soda lime,
distilled water, red litmus paper, Ph paper.
Apparatus:-
• Test tubes, beaker, U-tube, Bunsen burner, glass rod,
delivery tube, stoppers.
Procedure:-
a) Preparation of ammonia gas:
1. Some ammonium chloride is mixed with some
calcium hydroxide.
2. The apparatus as shown in Figure 3 is set up
3. The mixture is heated

4. The ammonia gas produced is collected in a few
test tubes. The test tubes containing ammonia
gas must be closed with stoppers.
b) Alkalinity of ammonia:
1. 5.0 cm of 1 mol ammonia solution and 5 cm of
0.1 mol dm sodium hydroxide solution are
poured into two separate test tubes.
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2. A piece of pH paper is dipped into the solution in

each test tube.
3. The pH values of both solution are recorded.
c) Colour, physical state, smell and solubility of

ammonia:
1. The colour and physical state of ammonia are
observed.
2. The stopper of a test tube containing ammonia
gas is removed and the smell of the gas is
identified.
3. A test tube containing ammonia gas is inverted
into a beaker of water.
4. All observation are recorded.
d) Density of ammonia:
1. A test tube containing ammonia gas is held
upright and another test rube containing
ammonia gas is held upside down.
2. The stopper of the two test tubes are removed.
3. After 20 seconds, a piece of moist red litmus
paper is put at the mouth of each test tube as
shown in figure 5.
4. The colour of the red litmus paper is recorded.
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e) Chemical property of ammonia:

1. One end of a glass rod is dipped into
concentrated hydrochloric acid.
2. The glass rod is then put on top of a test tube of
ammonia gas.
3. Any change taking place is observed.
Observation :-
Section Observation Inference
• pH of
• ammonia is
ammonia
weak alkali
solution is 10
b) • sodium
• pH of sodium
hydroxide is a
hydroxide
strong alkali
solution is 14
c) • colourless • ammonia is a
gas colourless
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• pungent gas with a

smell pungent
• water rushed smell
up and fills • ammonia is
up the whole very soluble
test tube in water
• moist red
litmus paper
on top of the
• Ammonia gas
upright test
has escaped
tube does not
from the
change
upright test
d) colour.
tube and thus
• Moist red
is slightly less
litmus paper
dense than
under the
air
inverted test
tube turns
blue
• Ammonia
react with
• Dense white hydrogen
e) fumes are chloride gas
formed to form
ammonium
chloride
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Discussion:-
• Ammonia is a weak alkali and has a pH of 10
• Ammonia is a colourless gas with a pungent smell
• Ammonia is very soluble in water, ionize partially in
water to form ammonium ions and hydroxide
NH3 (g) + H2O (l) = NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
• Ammonia is slightly less dense than air
• Ammonia react with hydrogen chloride gas to form
ammonium chloride
NH3 (g) + HCl (g) = NH4Cl (s)
Conclusion:-
• Ammonia is an alkaline, colourless gas with a
pungent smell. It is very soluble in water and is less
dense in than air. It react with hydrogen chloride gas
to form dense white fumes of ammonium chloride
HABER PROCESS
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The
man
ufac
ture
of
am
mon
ia
thro
ugh
the
Hab
er
Proc
ess
PREPARATION OF AMMONIA
FERTILISER
Aim:-
• To prepare ammonium sulphate.
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Material:-
• 1 mol dm-2 sulphuric acid, 2 mol dm-3 ammonia
solution, methyl orange, filter paper
Apparatus:-
• 25.0 cm pipette, burette, conical flask, white tile,
retort stand and clamp, beaker, glass rod,
evaporating dish, filter funnel, Bunsen burner, tripod
stand, wire gauze.
Procedure:-
a) Determining the volume of sulphuric acid that will
neutralize 25.0 cm of ammonia solution:-
-3
1. 25.0 cm of 2 mol dm ammonia solution is
transferred by a pipette to a clean conical flask.
2. Three drops of methyl orange indicator are
added to the alkali. The solution turns yellow.
3. A clean burette is filled with 1 mol dm-2 sulphuric

acid and clamped to a retort stand. The initial
burette reading is recorded.
4. The conical flask with its content is placed on a
white tile below the burette as shown in figure 6
below.
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5. The sulphuric acid is added slowly into the

conical flask. The conical flask is swirled gently
throughout the titration.
6. The addition of sulphuric acid is stopped when
the indicator changes from yellow to orange. The
final burette reading is recorded.
7. The volume of acid needed to completely
neutralize the 25.0 cm of 2 mol dm-3 ammonia
solution is calculated. Let this volume V cm.
b) Preparation ammonium sulphate salt:-

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1. 25.0 cm of 2 mol dm-3 ammonia solution is

pipetted into a clean conical flask. No indicator is
added.
2. V cm of 1 mol sulphuric acid is added from the
burette to the ammonia solution.
3. The mixture in the conical flask is transferred to
an evaporating dish and heated until a saturated
solution is formed.
4. The hot, saturated salt solution is left to cool for
crystallization to occur.
5. The crystal of ammonium sulphate formed are
filtered, ashed and dried between sheets of filter
paper.
Observation:-
• A colourless solution is formed when sulphuric acid is
added to ammonia solution.
• The crystal obtained are white in colour
Discussion:-
• The equation for the reaction is:
H2SO4 (aq) + 2NH4OH (aq) (NH4)2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O
(l)
• Methyl orange is an acid-base indicator used to
determine the end point of the titration.
• The first titration is carried out to determine the
exact volume of sulphuric acid required to
completely neutralize the 25.0 cm of ammonia
solution.
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• The salt solution in the first titration is discarded

because it is contaminated by methyl orange.
• The ammonium sulphate solution should not be
heated until dryness because ammonium sulphate
decomposes when it is overheated.
• The weight of ammonium sulphate obtained from the
activity is always less than the theorical value. This is
because some of the salt is not fully crystallized out
and still remains in the solution.
• Other ammonium salt such as ammonium nitrate can
be prepared from the reaction between nitric acid
and ammonium solution.
Conclusion:-
• Ammonium sulphate and other ammonium fertilizers
can be prepared by neutralizing ammonia solution
with the respective acids.
THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

PURE METAL
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PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA
• Ammonia turns
the damp red
litmus paper
blue.
• The gas is less
dense than air
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• Aqueous solutions of
ammonia react with
metal ions (except Na+,
K+, and Ca2+) to produce
precipitate of metal
hydroxide
• Ammonia is weak alkali

which reacts with dilute
acids in neutralization to
produce salt.
• An inverted filter funnel
is used to prevent
sucking back of water
• Ammonia gas burns in

oxygen to produce
nitrogen monoxide gas
4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O
ALLOY
Meaning and purpose of making alloy:-

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• Alloying is a process of mixing two or more metals

(or mixing metals with element such carbon) which
cannot be separated using physical way
Arrangement of atoms in alloys:-
Pure metal A Pure metal B
COMPARE THE HARDNESS OF A Alloys
PURE METAL AND ITS ALLOYS
Aim:-
• To compare the hardness of a pure metal and its
alloy.
Problem Statement:-
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• Are alloys harder than pure metal ?

Hypothesis:-
• Bronze is harder than cooper.
Variables:-
• Manipulated: Different types of materials (cooper &
bronze)
• Responding: diameter of the dent
• Controlled: diameter of steel ball bearing, height of
the weight, mass of the weight.
Operational definition:-
1)If the diameter of the dent is smaller, then the
material is harder
Materials:-
2)Cooper block, bronze block, cellophane tape
Apparatus:-
3)Retort stand and clamp, 1-kg weight, metre ruler,
steel ball bearing, thread.
Procedure:-
1)A steel ball bearing is taped onto a cooper block
using cellophane tape.
2)A 1-kg weight is hung at a height of 50 cm above the
cooper block as shown in the figure 8.
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3)The weight is allowed to drop onto the ball bearing.

4)The diameter of the dent made by the ball bearing
on the cooper block is measured.
5)Steps 1-4 are repeated twice on the other parts of
the cooper block in order to obtain an average value
for the diameter of dents formed.
6)Steps 1-5 are repeated using a bronze block to
replace the cooper block.
7)The reading are recorded in the table.
Results:-
DIAMETER OF THE DENT (mm)

METAL 1 2 3 average
Cooper 2.9 2.8 2.9 2.9

Bronze 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.2
Discussion:-
1) The smaller the diameter of the dent, the harder and
stronger is the material.
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2)The average diameter of the dent made on the

surface on the cooper block is bigger than the bronze
block.
3)Based on the result, bronze is harder than cooper.
Conclusion:-
• The hypothesis is accepted.
EXAMPLE OF ALLOYS
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Bronze steel
Pewter Stainless steel
THE RATE OF RUSTING OF IRON,

STEEL, AND STAINLESS STEEL
Aim:-
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• To compare the rate of rusting of iron, steel and

stainless steel.
Problem statement:-
• How does the rate of rusting of iron, steel and
stainless steel differ?
Hypothesis:-
• Iron rust faster than steel, and steel rust faster than
stainless steel.
Variables:-
• Manipulated variable: Different types of nails
• Responding variable: Intensity & amount of blue
colour
• Controlled variable: Size of nails, concentration of
solution used, durations for rusting.
Operational definition:-
• The more intense the blue colour formed, the higher
is the rate of rusting.
Materials:-
• Iron nail, steel nail, stainless steel nail, jelly solution,
potassium hexacyanoferrate(lll) solution, water,
sandpaper.
Apparatus:-
• Test tubes, test tube rack.
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Procedure:-
1) The nails are rubbed using sandpaper to remove the
rust from the surface of the nails.
2)The iron nail placed in the test tube A, the steel nail
in test tube B and the stainless steel nail in test tube
C.
3) A 5% jelly solution is prepared by adding 5 g of jelly
into 100 cm of boiling water. A few drops of
potassium hexacyanoferrate(lll) solution are then
added to the jelly solution.
4)The hot jelly solution is poured into the three test
tubes until all the nails are fully immersed.
5)The test tubes are placed in a test tube rack and left
aside for three days. The intensity of the blue colour
is observed.
6)All observation are recorded in the table.
Observation:-
Test Intensity of blue
Inference
tube colour
A Very High Rusting occurs very fast
B Low Rusting occurs slowly
C Nil No rusting occurs
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Discussion:-
1) When iron rust, each iron atom loses two electrons to
form an iron(ll) ion, Fe2+.
Fe (s) = Fe2+ (aq) + 2e- (aq)
2)Potassium hexacyanoferrate(lll) solution is added to
the jelly solution as an indicator to detect iron(ll)
ions.
3)When there is iron(ll) ion, potassium
hexacyanoferrate(lll) solution will form dark blue
colouration.
4)The higher the intensity of the blue colour, the higher
is the rate of rusting.
5) Solidified jelly solution is used to trap and see the
blue colouration clearly. This is because diffusions
occurs the slowest in solids.
6)Based on the observation, iron rust faster than steel.
Stainless steel does not rust.
7)The nail made from stainless steel does not rust. This
is because this nail is an alloy of iron with carbon,
chromium and nickel.
8)The nail made from steel will rust slowly. The

presence of carbon atoms will make the steel
stronger than iron but does not prevent it from
rusting.
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9)Rusting of iron is an example of corrosion. When

corrosion occurs, the metal loses electrons to form
metal iron.
Conclusion:-
• Iron rust faster than steel. Stainless steel does not
rust. Hypothesis is accepted.
COMPOSITONS OF ALLOYS &

THEIR USES
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Compositi Properties Uses

Alloy
on
Cu 75% Hard, strong,
Cupronic
resist Coins
kel Ni 25%
corrosion
Al 95%
Duralumi Aeroplane part, electric
Cu 4% Light, strong
n cables racing bicycles
Mg 1%
Fe 99% Hard, strong, Vehicles, bridges,
Steel cheap
C 1% buildings
Fe 73%
Cr 18% Kitchen appliance,
Stainless Hard, rust
watches, knifes, fork,
steel Ni 8% resistant
spoons, machine parts
C 1%
Cu 90% Hard, strong, Decorative items,
bronze shining medals, artwork, pots &
Sn 10%
pans
Cu 70% Harder and Musical instrument, bell,
Brass cheaper than nails, screw, and pots
Zn 30%
Cu
Pb 50% Low melting
Solder point, strong Welding, soldering work
Sn 50%
Sn 91% Malleable,
ductile, rust Decorative
Pewter Sb 7%
resistant items,souvenirs
Cu 2%
Al 70% Tyre rim of racing car,
Magnaliu
Light, strong skeletal body of
m Mg 30%
aeroplane
Hafiz Akmal 33
POLYMER
NATURAL POLYMER
Hafiz Akmal 34
• Monomer • Monomer • Monomer

acid amino glucose isoprene
• Eg: in • Eg: in starch (2-methylbuta-1,3
muscle, skin, and cellulose diene)
silk, hairs, • Eg: in latex
wools, and
furs
SYNTHETIC POLYMER & IT USES

• Synthetic polymers are polymers made in industry
from chemical substances.
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• Many of the raw materials for synthetic polymers are

obtained from petroleum, after refining and cracking
process.
WHY USE SYNTETIC POLYMERS

IN DAILY LIFE?
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ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
RESULTING FROM THE DISPOSAL
OF SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
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GLASS
Glass:-
• The major component of glass is silica or silicon
dioxide, SiO2 which found in sand.ri
Hafiz Akmal 38
TYPES, COMPOSITION,
PROPERTIES, AND USES OF
GLASS
COMPOSITI
GLASS PROPERTIES USES
ON
• Low melting • Glass
point container
SiO2 – 70% • Mouldable into • Glass panes
shapes • Mirror
Na2O – 15%
Soda lime glass • Cheap • Lamps and
CaO – 10% • Breakable bulbs
Others – 4% • Can withstand • Plates and
high heat bowls
• Bottles
Lead glass SiO2 – 70% • High density • Containers for
Hafiz Akmal 39
and refractive drinks and

index food
• Glittering • Decorative
Na2O – 20% surface glass
(crystal)
PbO – 10% • Soft • Crystal
• Low melting glassware
point (600˚C) • Lens for
spectacles
• Resistant to • Glass
high heat apparatus in
SiO2 – 80% &chemical lab
reaction • Cooking
Borosilicate glass B2O3 – 13% • Does not break utensils
(Pyrex) Na2O – 4% easily
• Allow infra-red
Al2O3 – 2%
rays but no
ultra-violet
rays
• High melting • Scientific
point (1700˚C) apparatus like
• Expensive lens on
SiO2 – 99% • Allow spectrometer
Fused silicate
ultraviolet to • Optical lens
glass B2O3 – 1% pass through • Lab apparatus
• Difficult to melt
or mould into
shape
CERAMICS
Ceramics:-
Hafiz Akmal 40
• Ceramic is manufactured substances made from clay

that is dried, and heated in a kiln at a very high
temperature
• The main component of clay is aluminosilicate
(aluminum oxide and silicon dioxide) with small
quantities of sand and feldspar. Unlike glass, ceramic
cannot be recycled.
• Kaolinite is a high quality white clay that contains
hydrated aluminosilicate, Al2O3•2SiO2•2H2O.
THE DIFFERENT CLASES OF

CERAMIC
Hafiz Akmal 41
GROUP COMPOSITION
Mineral Quartz – SiO2
Calcite – CaCO3
Cement material Mixture of CaSiO3 and ammonium
silicate
Oxide of ceramic Aluminium oxide – Al2O3
Silicon dioxide – SiO2
Magnesium oxide – MgO
Non-oxides of Silicon nitride – Si3N4
ceramic
Silicon carbide – SiC
Boron nitride – BN
Boron carbide – B4C3
Hafiz Akmal 42
THE USES OF IMPROVED GLASS

AND CERAMICS FOR SPECIFIC
PURPOSES
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Hafiz Akmal 43
• A composite material is structural material

formed by combining two or more materials with
different physical properties, producing a
complex mixture.
• They are used to make various substances in
daily life because of the following reasons:-
a)Metals corrode and are ductile and malleable
b)Glass and ceramic break easily
c)Metal are good conductors but have high
resistant, leading to loss of electrical energy
as heat.
d)Plastic and glass can withstand heat to a
certain level only
COMPOSITE COMPONEN PROPERTIES PROPERTIES OF

USES
MATERIAL T OF COMPOSITE
Hafiz Akmal 44
COMPONENT
• concrete • hard but • stronger • construction of
brittle • higher tensile road
• low tensile strength • rocket
strengh • does not launching pads
corrode easily • high-rise
• cheaper buildings
• steel • strong in • can be
Reinforced concrete tensile moulded into
strength shape
• expensive • can withstand
• can corrode very high
applied force
• can support
very heavy
load
• Cooper( • Insulator of • Conducts • Magnetically
ll) oxide electricity electricity levitated
• Yttrium without train
oxide resistance • Transformer
Superconductor
• Barium when cooled • Electric
oxide by liquid cable
nitrogen • Computer
parts
• Glass • Transparen • Reduce • Information
t refraction of display
• Not light panels
sensitive • Control the • Light
to light amount of detector
• Silver • Sensitive light passed device
chloride to light through it • Car
or silver auto. windshields
Photochromic glass bromid • Has the • Optical lens
e ability to
change
colour and
become
darker when
exposed to
ultraviolet
light
Fibre optics • Glass • Transparen • Low material • Transmit
with t cost data using
low • Does not • Reflect light light waves
refracti reflect rays and in
on light rays allow to telecommuni
Hafiz Akmal 45
index travel along cations

the fibre
• Can transmit
electronic
data or
• Glass signal, voice
with and image
higher
refracti
ve
index
• glass • high • high tensile • car bodies

density strength • helmets
• strong but • moulded and • skies
brittle shaped • rackets
• non- • inert to • furniture
flexible chemicals
• polyest • light • light, strong,
Fibre glass
er • flexible tough
plastic • inflammabl • non-
e flammable
• elastic but • impermeable
weak to water
• resilient
• flexible

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Hafiz Akmal 1

CHEMISTRY FOLIO chapter 9: Manufacture Substances in industry

USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

Figure 1:- Uses of Sulphuric Acid,

• The manufacture of sulphuric acid in industry is

a) This can be obtained through two methods:-

a) Pure, dry sulphur dioxide is mixed with dry oxygen in

a) The sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated

Figure 2:- Flow chart of Contact

USES OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY:

It neutralizes the organic acids

Ammonia is converted to nitric acid in the Ostwald

1) ammonia is first oxidised to nitrogen

3. The mixture is heated

2. A piece of pH paper is dipped into the solution in

c) Colour, physical state, smell and solubility of

e) Chemical property of ammonia:

• pungent gas with a

3. A clean burette is filled with 1 mol dm-2 sulphuric

5. The sulphuric acid is added slowly into the

b) Preparation ammonium sulphate salt:-

1. 25.0 cm of 2 mol dm-3 ammonia solution is

• The salt solution in the first titration is discarded

THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF

• Ammonia is weak alkali

• Ammonia gas burns in

4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O

Meaning and purpose of making alloy:-

• Alloying is a process of mixing two or more metals

Pure metal A Pure metal B

COMPARE THE HARDNESS OF A Alloys

PURE METAL AND ITS ALLOYS

• Are alloys harder than pure metal ?

3)The weight is allowed to drop onto the ball bearing.

DIAMETER OF THE DENT (mm)

Cooper 2.9 2.8 2.9 2.9

2)The average diameter of the dent made on the

Pewter Stainless steel

THE RATE OF RUSTING OF IRON,

• To compare the rate of rusting of iron, steel and

8)The nail made from steel will rust slowly. The

9)Rusting of iron is an example of corrosion. When

COMPOSITONS OF ALLOYS &

Compositi Properties Uses

• Monomer • Monomer • Monomer

SYNTHETIC POLYMER & IT USES

• Many of the raw materials for synthetic polymers are

WHY USE SYNTETIC POLYMERS

and refractive drinks and

• Ceramic is manufactured substances made from clay

THE DIFFERENT CLASES OF

THE USES OF IMPROVED GLASS

• A composite material is structural material

COMPOSITE COMPONEN PROPERTIES PROPERTIES OF

index travel along cations

• glass • high • high tensile • car bodies

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