فيزياء لغات ثانوية عامة أنجليزى-web

Book Sector
2011 - 2012
He
Arab republic of egypt Ministry of Education Book Sector
Table of Contents
Foreword: Unit 1: Waves: Chapter 1 : Wave Motion Chapter 2 : Sound Chapter 3 : Light Unit 2: Fluid Mechanics: Chapter 4 : Hydrostatics Chapter 5 : Hydrodynamics Unit 3 : Heat: Chapter 6 : Gas Laws Chapter 7 : Kinetic Theory of Gases Chapter 8 : Cryogenics (Low Temperature Physics) Unit 4 : Dynamic Electricity and Electromagnetism: Chapter 9 : Electrical Current and Ohm's Law Chapter 10 : Magnetic Effects of Electric Current and Measuring Instruments. Chapter 11 : Electromagnetic Induction. Unit 5 : Introduction to Modern Physics: Chapter 12 : Wave Particle Duality Chapter 13 : Atomic Spectra Chapter 14 : Lasers Chapter 15 : Modern Electronics General Revision : Appendixes : Appendix 1 : Symbols and Units of Physical Quantities Appendix 2 : Fundamental Physical Constants Appendix 3 : Standard Prefixes Appendix 4 : Greek Alphabet Appendix 5 : Gallery of Scientists Appendix 6 : Selected Physics Sites on the Internet 1 : 79 2 23 47 81 : 132 82 117 134 : 182 135 159 173 184 : 271 185 202 231 273 : 382 274 306 324 350 383 : 404 407:418 406 409 411 412 413 418
intensively. It is targeted to use genetics, atoms and lasers in the computer of the future. It is a limitless world, enriched by imagination, where sky is the limit. The scientific progress is a cumulative effort. This collective endeavor has led to where we are today. A scholar of physics must be acquainted with such accumulated knowledge in a short time, so that he could add to it within the limited span of his life. In studying what others have found, we must skip details and trials, and extract the end results and build on them.A global view is, therefore, more important at this stage than being drowned in minute details that could be postponed to a later stage of study. This book is divided into 5 units. Unit 1 deals with waves, which are the basis of communication in the universe. (Chapter 1) deals with wave motion, (chapter 2) with sound, and (chapter 3) with light. Unit 2 deals with fluid mechanics, : hydrostatics (chapter 4) and hydrodynamics (chapter 5). Unit 3 deals with heat, where (chapter 6) deals with gas laws, (chapter 7) with the kinetic theory of gases and (chapter 8) deals with low temperature physics. Unit 4 treats electricity, where (chapter 9) covers the electric current and Ohms law, (chapter 10) covers the magnetic effects of electric current and measuring instruments, while (chapter 11) covers electromagnetic induction. Unit 5 gives an introduction to modern physics, where (Chapter 12) deals
Foreword
Physics is the cornerstone of basic sciences. It deals with the understanding of nature and what goes around us, big and small in this universe. It is the root of all sciences. Interwined with it is chemistry which focuses on reactions between materials, biology which deals with living creatures, geology which is involved with the layers of the Earth, and astronomy which treats celestial objects. But in the end, physics remains the mother of all sciences and the basis for the tremendous present scientific and technological progress. Understanding physics means understanding the laws governing this universe. Such understanding has led to the current industrial development spearheaded by the West. The Arabs and Moslems were once the pioneers of civilization in the world when they realized the importance of understanding the laws of this universe. We owe them the discovery of most laws of physics centuries before the West. The foundations of medicine, physics, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics and music were all laid by Arab and Moslem scientists. In fact, understanding physics and its applications converts a poor, and underdeveloped society into an affluent and developed one. This has taken place in Europe, US, Japan and South East Asia. Computers, satellites, cellular (mobile) phones, and TV are all byproducts of physics. Genetics is currently being looked into
with wave particle duality, (Chapter 13) deals with atomic spectra, and (chapter 14) deals with lasers and their applications, while (chapter 15) covers modern electronics. Suzanne Mubarak Science Exploration Center has carried out the preparation, and the typing of manuscript as well as the design of the artwork. In the end, we want the student to take liking to physics. For this is the way to the future. We want the teacher to teach the subject of physics in an innovative way, to arouse the interest of the students by constantly referring to the use and applications of physics in the daily life. We hope that one day we will have great inventors and industrialists among today's students.
Committee for the preparation of this new version of the textbook. Prof. Mustafa Kamal Mohammad Yussef,Ph.D. Prof. Mohammad Sameh Said ,Ph.D. Mustafa Mohammad El-Sayed ,Ph.D. Tarik Mohammed Tala'at Salama,Ph.D. Karima Abdel-Alim Sayed Ahmad
electromagnetic waves spreading in space and the surrounding medium . When received by the mobile antenna at the receiver, electromagnetic waves are transformed back into electrical signals and then to sound or even to an image. We can see water waves but we cannot see the radio, TV or mobile waves. However, we can detect them. Water waves are mechanical waves, so are sound waves and waves in vibrating strings. But radio, TV, and mobile waves are electromagnetic waves. Among these electromagnetic (em) waves, there are, for example, light waves and X-rays which are used in radiology. Mechanical waves require a medium to propagate through, while (em) waves do not require a medium. They can propagate in space.
Unit 1: Waves
Mechanical Waves
Mechanical waves require the following :1 ) a vibrating source. 2 ) a disturbance transmitted from the source to the medium. 3 ) a medium that carries a vibration. There are many forms of vibrating sources : 1 ) a simple vibrating pendulum (Fig 1 - 2). 2 ) a tuning fork (Fig 1 - 3). 3 ) a vibrating stretched wire (or string) (Fig 1- 4). 4 ) a plumb (bob) attached to a vibrating spring (Yoyo) (Fig 1 - 5).
Chapter 1: Wave Motion

3
Wave Motion
Chapter 1
Overview :
Wave Motion
Many of us enjoy watching waves on the surface of water pushing a fishing float or a boat up and down, or even making waves by throwing a pebble in a pond or still water. Each pebble becomes a source of disturbance in the water, spreading waves as concentric circles (Fig 1-1). Hence, waves are disturbances that spread and carry along energy.
Chapter 1:
Waves
Waves spreading from a point source
Fig (1 -1)
Waves are not only water waves. There are, for example, radio waves. We often hear the
Unit 1:
2
announcer say: "This is Radio Cairo on the medium wave 366.7 m". Also, TV stations transmit both sound and image in the form of waves which are received by the aerial (antenna) . Such waves are transformed into electrical signals in the receiver, where they are eventually converted back to sound (audio) and image (video). Also, the mobile phone runs on waves. Sound signals are transformed into electrical signals then into
Chapter 1:
Amplitude (A) (meter): is the maximum displacement of the vibrating object or the
distance between two points along the path of the object, where the velocity at one point is maximum and zero at the other.
A pendulum
Fig (1 -2)
A tuning fork
Fig (1 -3)
A vibrating string
Fig (1 -4)
Unit 1:
Complete Oscillation: is the motion of a vibrating body in the interval between the
instants of passing by one point along the path of its motion twice successively with motion in the same direction and same displacement, i.e., at the same phase, relative to the
rest position
Waves
Waves
starting point of motion.
amplitude
Frequency () (Hertz or Hz): is the number of complete oscillations made by

a vibrating body in one second.
Fig (1 -5) Yoyo
Unit 1:
To studyoscillation, vibrations, or we need define relevantbody physical quantities such as: complete the timeto taken by some the vibrating to pass by the same point displacement, complete oscillation, periodic time and follows:and the along the pathamplitude, of motion twice successively with motion in frequency the same as direction
Periodic Time (T) (seconds): is the time taken by a vibrating body to make one
Chapter 1:
same displacement.
T position or its equilibrium origin. It is a vector quantity.
(1-1) body at any instant from its rest Displacement (meter): is the distance = 1 of a vibrating
Simple Harmonic Motion:

A vibrational motion in its simplest form is called a simple harmonic motion, e.g., a swing (Fig 1-6) or a simple pendulum (Fig 1-7). The vibration starts from point "a" then increases to a positive maximum at "b" then to zero at "a" then to negative maximum at "c" then to zero at "a". and the cycle is repeated continually (Fig 1-7 a ).
A swing as an example of a simple harmonic motion
Wave Motion
Fig (1-6)
Wave Motion
Wave Motion
Chapter 1:
A pendulum
Fig (1 -2)
A tuning fork
Fig (1 -3)
A vibrating string
Fig (1 -4)
Chapter 1:
A pendulum
Fig (1 -2)
A tuning fork
Fig (1 -3)
A vibrating string
Fig (1 -4)
rest position amplitude
Waves
rest position
Waves
Fig (1 -5) Yoyo
Unit 1:
amplitude
To study vibrations, we need to define some relevant physical quantities such as: displacement, amplitude, complete oscillation, periodic time and frequency as follows: position or its equilibrium origin. It is a vector quantity. Yoyo
Fig (1 -3) Fig (1 -4) Fig (1 -5) Displacement distance of a vibrating body at any instant from its rest A tuning fork (meter): is theA vibrating string
nit 1:
To study vibrations, we need to define some relevant physical quantities
displacement, amplitude, complete oscillation, periodic time and frequency as follo
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Resonance
At a certain frequency, the amplitude of the mechanical vibration may get out of hand, e.g., the crushing of a glass cup due to nearby sound waves (Fig 1-8), and the collapse of Tacoma bridge (USA) due to strong winds in November 1940 (Fig 1-9). This condition is called resonance. It is the cause of the collapse of many buildings. It occurs when a simple harmonic motion is set at the natural (or resonant) frequency of the building. Similar to mechanical resonance, there is also Fig (1-8) electrical resonance which is the basis of tuning a radio A glass cup crushed due to nearby sound waves or a TV receiver to a certain station, where one out of many electrical signals picked up by the aerial is amplified and made to coincide with the resonant frequency of the amplifier in the receiver when tuned to that particular station.
Unit 1: Waves Chapter 1: Wave Motion
Collapse of Tacoma bridge (USA) due to the wind causing the vibration of the bridge at the natural (resonant) frequency of the bridge
Fig (1-9)
Amplitude (A) (meter): is the maximum displacement of the vibrating object or the
Wave Motion
distance between two points along the path of the object, where the velocity at one point is maximum and zero at the other.
Unit 1:
Complete Oscillation: is the motion of a vibrating body in the interval between the
instants of passing by one point along the path of its motion twice successively with motion in the same direction and c same displacement, b i.e., at the same phase, relative to the a starting point of motion.
Waves
Chapter 1:
Frequency () (Hertz or Hz):Fig is the of complete oscillations made by (1-7number a)

a vibrating body in one second.
rest position
Periodic Time (T) (seconds): is the time taken by a vibrating body to make one
complete oscillation, or the time taken by the vibrating body to pass by the same point along the path of motion twice successively with motion in the same direction and the same displacement. (1-1) =1 T
Displacement of a pendulum bob as time goes by
Chapter 1:
Waves
Simple Harmonic Motion:

A vibrational motion in its simplest form is called a simple harmonic motion, e.g., a swing (Fig 1-6) or a simple pendulum (Fig 1-7). The vibration starts from point Fig "a" (1-7 thenb)
Wave Motion
Unit 1:
Displacement of a pendulum bobthen at different phases A, D are of the increases to a positive maximum at "b"
to zero at "a" then negative maximum at same direction but not the B,C areto not of the same phase (the Fig (1-6) displacement) "c" then to zero at "a". and same the cycle is A swing as an example of repeated continually (Fig 1-7 a ).
a simple harmonic motion
same phase (same displacement and direction)
Chapter 1:
Wave Motion
Imagine a mass m on a smooth horizontal surface attached to one end of a spring whose other end is attached to a vertical wall. If we pull the mass in the direction of the spring and let it go, the mass moves around its rest position in an oscillatory motion toward the spring and away (Fig 1-10). This is a simple harmonic motion. If we draw the curve that the center of gravity of the mass makes with respect to its rest position, we will obtain a sine wave (Fig 1-11). This is what distinguishes a simple harmonic motion from any other type of motion.
Longitudinal Waves:
rest position
Waves
pulling the spring
Unit 1:
releasing the spring
Fig (1-10)
A vibrating spring
Fig (1-11)
A sine wave resulting from a simple harmonic motion
Unit 1:
vertical displacement
distance
Waves
Fig (1-13 b)
Vertical displacement as a sine wave
You can do this experiment yourself by using a long stretched rope. The far end is attached to a vertical wall while the near end is in your hand. When you move your hand up and down in the form of a pulse, you note that the wave spreads in a pulse form along the rope. This is known as a traveling wave (Fig 1-14).
Chapter 1:
Wave Motion
A pulse resulting from part of a simple harmonic motion spreading along a stretched rope
Fig (1-14)
11
Wave Motion Chapter 1: Unit 1: Waves
Thus, a vibrating source making a simple harmonic motion may generate a wave propagating at velocity v. Each particle of the medium performs, in turn, a simple harmonic motion about its equilibrium position. An example of this motion is the longitudinal waves of sound in air.
Transverse Waves:
Imagine a mass m attached to a vertical spring. A long horizontal taut (stretched) rope is also attached to this mass at the near end, while the other (far) end of the rope is attached to a vertical wall. When the mass m performs a simple harmonic motion in the vertical direction, then the near end of the rope performs the same motion. Consequently, the following parts of the rope do the same thing successively. Then the motion transfers horizontally along the rope in the form of a wave at velocity v, while the other parts of the rope oscillate vertically in a simple harmonic motion about their rest positions. This wave is called a transverse wave (Fig 1-13 ).
Fig (1-13 a)
Vertical displacement in a simple harmonic motion
10
Unit 1:
A vibrating spring forming a longitudinal wave
Fig (1-16)
Waves Chapter 1:
A vibrating spring forming a transverse wave
Fig (1-17)
In conclusion, we may classify mechanical waves into two types: 1 ) Transverse waves 2 ) Longitudinal waves In transverse waves, the particles of the medium oscillate about their equilibrium positions in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of the wave. In longitudinal waves, the particles of the medium oscillate about their equilibrium positions along the direction of the propagation of the wave. The work done by the oscillating source is converted to the particles of a string (or a stretched rope) in the form of potential energy stored as tension in the string and kinetic
Wave Motion
13
Chapter 1:
Wave Motion
Fig (1-15)
A train wave spreading in a taut (stretched) rope due to a continuous simple harmonic motion at the near end
A wave may also be continuous (called a traveling wave train) as long as the simple
Waves Unit 1:
12
harmonic motion of the source keeps on(Fig 1-15). The stretched rope may be replaced by a spring in which a longitudinal wave (Fig 1-16) or a transverse wave (Fig 1-17) may be generated . We conclude that as a source oscillates , the particles of the medium oscillate successively in the same way. The vibration transfers first from the source to the particle of the medium next to it, then into the one connected to it, then into the following ones and so on. Thus, the vibration or disturbance forms a wave, since the wave is nothing but a disturbance (or energy) on the move along which energy is carried through .
wavelength
amplitude direction of vibration
direction of propagation
crest rest position
Unit 1: Waves
Wavelength in a transverse wave
Fig (1-19)
Thus, the wavelength is the distance between two successive points of the same phase (Fig 1-21). Alternatively, it is the distance which the wave travels during one periodic time (Fig 1-22).
Chapter 1:
displacment
Wave Motion
Fig (1-20)
Wavelength in a longitudinal wave
The number of waves passing by a certain point along the wave path in one second is called frequency.
15
energy manifested in the vibration of the particles of
direction of wave propagation
Wave Motion Chapter 1: Waves
the string. Referring to (Fig 1-18), the points at maximum upward displacement in the positive direction are called crests, while the points of maximum downward displacement are called troughs. Observing any part of a vibrating string carrying a transverse wave, we find that it has one crest and one trough during one complete oscillation .
Frequency () (Hertz) and wavelength () (meter):

The distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs in a transverse wave is called wavelength (Fig 1-19). Similarly, the distance between two successive contractions (compressions) or two successive rarefactions in a longitudinal wave is called wavelength (Fig 1-20). of the two distances (AC) and (BD)(Fig 1-19 ). It is to be noted that the two successive pairs of points (A,C) and (B, D) move in the same way at the same time. We say they have the same phase, i.e.,the same displacement in the same direction. Fig (1-18)
Thus, we may represent the wavelength by either a wave (crest) or at bottom (trough)
A piece of foam floating on the top of
Unit 1:
14
Unit 1: Waves
A train of waves at velocity v generated by a vibrator
Fig (1-22b)
The relation between frequency,wavelength and velocity of propagation: If a wave travels at velocity v, a distance equal to the wavelength , then the wave takes time equal to the periodic time T to travel this distance. v= h T
Chapter 1:
p = 1 T T= 1 p
Wave Motion
v =
This is a general relation for all types of waves. In all cases , within a periodic time T a wave travels a wavelength. Frequency is the number of oscillations in one second or the number of wavelengths traveled by a wave propagating in a certain direction in one second.
17
Wave Motion
rest position
at the end of 1/4 period
Chapter 1:
amplitude
at the end of one period
The distance after each one full vibration completed in one period T is the wavelength
Fig (1-21)
Waves
at time t
at time t + T
Unit 1:
The distance which a wave moves in a periodic time T is the wavelength
Fig (1-22a)
16
.A wave is a disturbance which spreads and carries energy along. .Displacement is the distance of an object at any instant from its rest(equilibrium) position. . The amplitude of oscillation A is the maximum displacement of an oscillating object . .
In a Nutshell
Unit 1: Waves
from its rest position, or the distance between two points along the path of the oscillating object where the velocity at one point is maximum and at the other is nil. A complete oscillation is the movement of a continuously vibrating body ( e.g. a simple pendulum) is the interval between the instants of time as it passes by a certain point along its path twice successively with motion in the same direction. Frequency is the number of complete oscillations produced by a vibrating object in one second and is equal to the inverse of the periodic time. Frequency =
1 Periodic time
Chapter 1:
It is also the number of waves passing by a certain point along the path of a wave in one second. Periodic time T is the time taken by a continuously vibrating body to perform one complete oscillation, or the time taken by a continuously vibrating body ( e.g. a simple pendulum ) to pass by a point along its path twice successively with motion in the same direction. Mechanical waves are either: 1 ) transverse waves. 2 ) longitudinal waves. Transverse waves are waves in which the particles of a medium oscillate about their equilibrium positions in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. Longitudinal waves are waves in which the particles of a medium oscillate about their equilibrium positions along the same path of propagation of the wave. Transverse waves comprise crests and troughs in succession.
. . . . .
Wave Motion
19
Wave Motion
1) If the wavelength of a sound wave produced by a train is 0.6 m and the frequency is 550 Hz,what is the velocity of sound in air?
Solution:v= v = 0.6 x 550 = 330 m/s
Examples:-
2) If the number of waves passing by a certain point in one second is 12 oscillations and the wavelength is 0.1 m, calculate the speed of propagation.
Solution:v= v = 12 X 0.1 = 1.2 m/s
Chapter 1:
3) Light waves propagate in space at speed 300 000km/s (3x108m/s), and the wavelength of light is 5000 A .What is the frequency of this light ?
1 Angstrom(A ) =10-10 m
0
Waves
Solution:c = v = 3 x 108 m/s = 5 x 103 x 10-10 = 5 x10-7 m c=
Unit 1:
3 x 108 = 5 x 10-7 x
p =
3 x 10 8 14 Hz = 6 x 10 -7 5 x 10
18
Questions and Drills

I) Define Wave - Transverse Wave - Longitudinal Wave - Wavelength II) Complete: a) Displacement is ...... b) Amplitude of oscillation is ...... c) Complete oscillation is ...... d) Periodic time is ...... e) Frequency is ...... III) Essay question: Deduce the relation between frequency, wavelength and velocity of wave propagation. IV) Put a tick sign () next to the right choice in the following : 1) The relation between the velocity of propagation of the waves v in a medium , its frequency and wavelength is : a) v = b) v = / c) v = d) none (there is no correct answer) 2) Transverse waves are waves consisting of : a) Compressions and rarefactions b) Crests and troughs c) Crests and troughs, where the particles of the medium move short distances about their equilibrium positions in a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation. d) Compressions and rarefactions, where the particles of the medium move short distances about their equilibrium positions along the direction of propagation of the wave . 3) If the wavelength of a sound wave produced by an audio ( sound producing) source is 0 . 5 m , the frequency is 666 Hz ,then the velocity of propagation of sound in air is : a) 338 m / s b) 333 m / s c) 330 m / s d) 346 m / s
Unit 1: Waves Chapter 1: Wave Motion

21
Wave Motion Unit 1:

20
. Longitudinal waves comprise compressions and rarefactions in succession . . Wavelength is the distance between two successive points along the direction of .
propagation of the wave, where the phase is the same (same displacement and same direction). The relation between frequency, wavelength and velocity of a wave is given by: v =
Waves
Chapter 1:
Wave Motion
4) If the velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s, for a sound of frequency (tone) 225 Hz , the wavelength(m) is : a) 4/3 b) 3/4 c) 20 d) 3/2 5) Light of wavelength 6000 A(1A = 10-10m ) propagates in space at velocity 300 x 103km/s, its frequency is:
(a) 4 x 10 Hz (c) 5 x 10 Hz
14 10
(b) 4 x 10 Hz (d) 5 x 10 Hz
12
14
Unit 1:
22
Waves
Chapter 1:
6) Two waves whose frequencies are 256 Hz and 512 Hz propagate in a certain medium , the ratio between their wavelengths is a) 2/1 b) 1/2 c) 3/1 d) 1/3
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How does a bat see ?
Unit 1: Waves
A bat (ultrasonic radar)
Fig (2-1)
surroundings by the echo. It works in this fashion as a radar or rather sonar (radar using ultrasonic waves).
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A bat (Fig 2-1) does not see by its eyes. It transmits ultrasonic waves and detects the
considered the safest. Ultrasonic imaging depends on the reflections of sound (Fig 2-2 ).
Ultrasonic waves (not heard by human ear) are used to image an embryo. They are
Imaging the embryo
Chapter 2:
Sound
Use of ultrasonic waves for imaging an embryo
Fig (2-2)
25
Sound
Chapter 2
Overview :
Sound
Chapter 2: Waves Unit 1:

24
Sounds and tones are produced due to the vibration of objects. Such vibrations travel through air or any other medium in all directions. When these vibrations reach the ear, they are transmitted through the auditory nerve, then the brain translates them to sounds and tones
Reflection and Refraction of Sound:

When a loud sound is produced at a suitable distance from a wall or a mountain, a sound is heard back resembling the original one. It is generated due to the reflection from the wall or the mountain, appearing as if it were coming from behind the wall or the
Firstly: Reflection of Sound:
mountain. This sound is called echo. Hence, echo is the repetiton of sound produced due to reflection. Sound waves propagate in air in the form of concentric spheres of successive
compressions and rarefactions, whose center is the source of the sound . If these waves are obstructed by a large obstacle, they are reflected back also in the form of concentric spheres of compressions and rarefactions,whose center appears as if it lay behind the reflecting surface and at a distance equal to the distance of the original source from that surface. According to the laws of reflection: 1) the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. 2) the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence all lie in one plane normal to the reflecting surface. Note that: the sound ray is a straight line indicating the direction of propagation of the sound wave.
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The velocity of sound in the air depends on the temperature of the air, since sound waves propagate in hot air faster than in cold air. When sound travels between two layers of air of different temperatures, it undergoes refraction (Fig 2 - 4). The figure illustrates the decrease of sound intensity as heard by an observer at a certain distance due to the refraction of sound upwards (leaking away), due to the increase of temperature on a hot day. At night, the sound is heard for longer distances due to the decrease of the temperature of the air adjacent to the surface of the Earth compared to layers above. Therefore, sound at night is refracted more toward the surface of the Earth.
Why does sound travel easier at night than during the day ?
Unit 1: Waves
source cold air
observer at daytime
Chapter 2:
hot air ground hot air at night
cold air ground
Sound
Sound travels easier at night
Fig (2-4)
27
Secondly: Refraction of sound

Sound
medium according to the laws of reflection, while the rest is transmitted to the second medium, deviating from its original path (Fig 2-3 ). Refraction of sound - upon transmitting other words : from one medium to another - depends on the velocity of sound in these two media. In
When sound falls on a surface between two media, part of it is reflected back to the first
Chapter 2:
sin v1 = v2 sin
(2-1)
and vice versa. It is to be noted that the velocity of sound in gases decreases as their density increases, while in liquids and solids the velocity is affected by another factors,which is more effective than denisty.
Normal
velocity of sound in the second medium v2, the sound refracts nearer to the normal, i.e., >
This means that when the velocity of sound in the first medium v1 is greater than the
v1
Hot air
Normal
Waves
v2
Unit 1:
Cold air
Refraction of sound
Fig (2-3)
26
source (Fig 2-5). The connected arcs in the figure represent the positions of the maxima of between any two successive arcs or any two successive dashed arcs is the wavelength.
Such sources may be obtained, for example, using two speakers for the same electrical
Unit 1: Waves
compressions, while the dashed arcs represent the maxima of rarefactions. The distance Due to the combination of two waves of equal frequency and amplitude (Fig 2-6), some
points or regions exist where the compressions of the first source intersect the rarefactions of the second source. In both cases, the path difference must equal m , where
compressions of the second source, and the rarefactions of the first source intersect the m is an integer . Therefore, at such positions we have constructive interference, where the
intensity of the wave increases (Fig 2-6 a). There are also points or regions where the compressions of the first source intersect rarefactions of the second source or vice versa. destructive interference and the intensity of the wave diminishes to zero (Fig 2-6 b).
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2
Therefore, the path difference equals (m + 1 ) , where m is an integer, then we have
The experiment of sound interference is similar to the ripple tank experiment, where two sources vibrate and produce mechanical waves. These waves interfere producing regions of constructive interference and regions of destructive interference ( Fig 2-7).
Can we see the interference of sound waves ?
Chapter 2:
Sound
Interference fringes between two waves
Fig (2-7 a)
Interference pattern
Fig (2-7 b)
29
Interference and diffraction of sound

Sound
Chapter 2:
Interference is a combination of two waves or more of the same frequency, amplitude, and direction of propagation. Interference may be constructive (strengthing the intensity) or destructive (weakening the intensity or eliminating it altogether). Fig(2-5) demonstrates the interference of sound waves, which are longitudinal waves consisting of compressions and rarefactions. The two sources S1 and S2 emit waves of the same frequency and amplitude.
source 1 source 2
Firstly: Interference of sound
lines of constructive interference (maximum sound intensity)
Waves
Formation of constructive and destructive fringes due to two sound sources first wave second wave of the same phase resultant wave
Fig (2-5)
lines of destructive interference (minimum sound intensity)
Unit 1:
Constructive interference of the waves first wave second wave at 180 phase shift resultant wave
Fig (2-6 a)
Destructive interference of the waves
Fig (2-6 b)
28
3) It refracts upon traveling from one medium to another due to the difference in velocity (Fig 2 - 4) : sin v where is the angle of incidence and in the angle of refraction, v1 is velocity of sound in the first medium and v2 is the velocity of sound in the second medium. 4) Sound waves of equal frequency and amplitude interfere to produce regions of constructive interference (increase of intensity) and regions of destructive interference (decrease of intensity). 5) Sound diffracts when passing through a small aperture or a sharp edge, provided that the discontinuity is comparable to the wavelength.
v2 sin
Unit 1:
Waves
Superposition of waves
Waves combine such that the resultant wave has intensity equal to the sum of intensities of the individual waves (Fig 2-9 a). When the frequencies are slightly different while the amplitude is the same, this combination (superposition) leads to beats (Fig 2-9 b , c , d ). If we move a tight wire or rope such that one pulse is generated (Fig 2-10 a ), then this pulse continues until it reaches the far end. If this end is attached to a sliding ring, then the reflected wave is positive ,i.e., in the same direction as the incident pulse. Whereas if this end is fixed such that it cannot move, then the reflected wave is always reversed (Fig 2-10 b). When the reflected wave meets the incident wave, constructive interference is produced in the first case (Fig 2-10 c ),and destructive interference is produced in the second case (Fig 2-10 d).
displacement first wave
Chapter 2:
resultant wave
Sound
distance
The resultant wave is the sum of two waves
Fig (2-9 a)
second wave
31
Secondly: Sound Diffraction

What is meant by diffraction? Diffraction is a change (or bending) of the wave path when passing through a slit or an aperture, small enough compared to the wavelength, or when passing by sharp edges in the same medium. We observe sound diffraction in our daily life. For example, if you speak in one room and a window or a door is open, someone in the next room may overhear you , although he is not standing right next to the window or the door (Fig 2-8). The sound intensity in the neighboring room depends on the position of a listener in that room, being maximum of course directly next to the opening. The spreading of sound in the neighboring room is attributed to diffraction .
Sound
Chapter 2:
audio source
Waves
spreading of sound in the form of concentric spheres
door
room
Diffraction of sound through a door opening to a nearby room
Fig (2-8)
Unit 1:
30
Sound as a wave motion

1) It propagates in a medium in straight lines in all directions. 2) It undergoes reflection when falling on a surface, and the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. From above, we conclude that sound has wave properties :
Harmonic tones resemble two nearly equal interleaved combs incident pulse
Fig (2-9d)
Waves
string and hand at rest

far end free to move (attached to a sliding ring) reflected pulse
Unit 1:
hand moves up pulling the string upwards

reflected pulse hand moves down
far end fixed to the wall
Unit 1:
Reflection of a pulse
firstly
hand at rest
Fig (2-10b)
middle of the pulse
Waves
Formation of an incident pulse
Fig (2-10a)
thirdly
32
secondly incident pulse fourthly
far end free to move (attached to a sliding ring)
Combination of two positive pulses propagating in opposite directions

far end fixed to the wall reflected pulse reflected pulse
Fig (2-10c)
Unit 1: Waves Chapter 2: Sound
firstly
secondly
thirdly
firstly
Reflection of a pulse
Fig (2-10b)
fourthly
Combination of two pulses one positive and the other thirdly negative moving in opposite directions
fourthly
Fig (2-10d)
secondly
33
Fig (2-10c)
time
1
time distance 1
distance
Sound
Sound
0 -1 1 0 -1 2
-1 1 0 -1 2 1
Chapter 2:
Chapter 2:
0 -1 -2
0 -1 -2
destructive interference
Formation of harmonic tones with distance Formation of harmonic tones with distance
time
1 0 -1 1 0 -1 2 1 0 -1 -2
Fig (2-9b)
Fig (2-9b)
Formation of harmonic tones Formation of harmonic tones with time
Fig (2-9c)
Fig (2-9c)
distance
distance
Sound
Harmonic tones resemble two nearly equal interleaved combs Harmonic tones resemble two nearly equal interleaved combs
Fig (2-9d)
Fig (2-9d)
Unit 1:Chapter Waves 2:
Waves
ation of harmonic tones with distance Formation of harmonic tones with distance
Fig (2-9b)
Fig (2-9b)
Formation of harmonic tones with time Formation of harmonic tones time hand moves upwith pulling the
hand moves up pulling the string upwards string upwards
destructive destructive interference string and hand at destructive rest interference interference string and hand at rest Fig (2-9c)
Fig (2-9c)
Unit 1:
hand moves down middle of the pulse hand at rest
hand moves down middle of the pulse
aves
Harmonic tones resemble two nearly equal interleaved combs Fig (2-10a) Fig (2-10a) Harmonic tones resemble two nearly equal interleaved combs Formation of an incident pulse Formation of an incident pulse
Fig (2-9d)
hand at rest
Fig (2-9d)
32
32
hand moves up pulling the hand moves up pulling the string upwards
Standing ( Stationary ) Waves:

Sound
Waves
( string, spiral spring, or rope) in one direction and a continuous train of waves reflected in the opposite direction. These two wave trains interfere, giving a pattern of particles of the waves reflected from tension medium which appears localized, i.e., not moving or to the left but moving both fixed ends to the right, tension perpendicularly to the wire. This effect may be visualized by moving a spiral spring, (string Fig (2-11c) or rope) up and down in reciprocity from both ends (Fig 2-11 a), or fixing it from one end A string fixed at both ends and and moving the other end in a simple harmonic motion (Fig 2-11 b), or pulling a string pulled in the middle fixed from both ends - from the middle, such that waves are transmitted in both directions Melde's Experiment and get reflected, and hence interfere (Fig 2-11 c). Melde's experiment best illustrates standing waves on strings or wires. The apparatus is s in shown (Fig 2-12). It consists of a vibrating connected to a soft string whose length two wavesource, ctions e ir d e it s o p p o end of the string passes over a smooth pulley and is ranges from 2 to 3 meters. The other connected at its free end to appropriate weights. When the source vibrates, a wave train is node node produced in the string, which reflects upon reaching the pulley.The reflected and incident antinode node waves are combined (superposed or superimposed) to form standing waves. These standing antinode waves have nodes and antinodes (Fig 2-13), provided the source frequency has a certain Fig (2-11a) value compared to the string (wire) length.
A spiral spring oscillating from both ends in reciprocity
waves generated at the middle and Standing waves are formed when there is a propagating continuous in train waves in a tight wire bothof directions
Unit 1:
Chapter 2:
Waves Chapter 2:
pulley
antinode
vibrator
node
Unit 1:
weights
generator
Sound
A spiral spring oscillating in a simple harmonic motion at Melde's one end apparatus while fixed at the other
Fig (2-11b) Fig (2-12)
34
35
sliding ring)
reflected pulse reflected pulse
reflected pulse reflected pulse
far end fixed to the wall
Chapter 2:
Standing waves are formed when Reflection there is a of continuous a pulse train of waves in a tight wire Fig (2-10b) ( string, spiral spring, or rope) in one direction and a continuous train of waves reflected in Reflection of a pulse the opposite direction. These two wave trains interfere, giving a pattern of particles of the medium which appears localized, i.e., not moving to the right, or to the left but moving firstly thirdly perpendicularly to the wire. This effect may be visualized by moving a spiral spring, (string firstly or rope) up and down in reciprocity from both ends (Fig 2-11 a), or fixing it from one end thirdly and moving secondly the other end in a simple harmonic motion (Fig 2-11 b), or pulling a string fixed from both ends - from the middle, such that waves are transmittedfourthly in both directions secondly and get reflected, and hence interfere (FigFig 2-11 c). (2-10c)
Standing ( Stationary ) Waves: Fig (2-10b)
Sound
Combination of in positive pulses es two av two wFig (2-10c) tions irec propagating opposite directions opposite din Combination of two positive pulses propagating in opposite directions node
node antinode antinode
fourthly
firstly
Waves
node
secondly secondly fourthly
firstly thirdly thirdly
Fig (2-11a)
Unit 1:
Combination of two pulses one positive and the other Fig in (2-10d) negative moving opposite directions Combination of two pulses one positive and the other negative moving in opposite directions
Fig (2-11b)
antinode Fig (2-10d) node
fourthly
A spiral spring oscillating in a simple harmonic motion at one end while fixed at the other
34
A string fixed at both ends and pulled in the middle
Fig (2-11c)
Unit 1: Waves
Melde's Experiment
Melde's experiment best illustrates standing waves on strings or wires. The apparatus is shown (Fig 2-12). It consists of a vibrating source, connected to a soft string whose length ranges from 2 to 3 meters. The other end of the string passes over a smooth pulley and is connected at its free end to appropriate weights. When the source vibrates, a wave train is produced in the string, which reflects upon reaching the pulley.The reflected and incident waves are combined (superposed or superimposed) to form standing waves. These standing waves have nodes and antinodes (Fig 2-13), provided the source frequency has a certain value compared to the string (wire) length.
pulley vibrator Fig (2-14)
Waves Chapter 2:
Nodes and antinodes
weights
generator
Chapter 2: Sound
The distance between two successive nodes or two Melde's apparatus successive antinodes is half a wavelength
Fig (2-15)
Fig (2-12)
35
Sound
37
Waves
Fig (2-11a)
Sound
antinode
node
Fig (2-13a)
Unit 1:
Chapter 2:
A vibrating string showing a standing wave pattern
A spiral spring oscillating in a simple harmonic motion at one end while fixed at the other
Fig (2-11b)
Waves
waves generated at the middle and propagating in both directions

Fig (2-13b) waves reflected standing wavefrom patterns with the tension tension Variation of both fixed ends ratio of the string length to the wavelength as time goes on
Unit 1:
The node is the position where theFig amplitude of the vibration is zero, while the antinode (2-11c) is the position where the amplitude of theat vibration is maximum. Nodes and antinodes are A string fixed both ends and pulled in the middle spaced at equal distances apart (Fig 2-14). The wavelength of a standing wave is twice the distance between any two successive Melde's Experiment antinodes or two successive nodes. As the weight in the experiment is increased, the tension Melde's best illustrates standing on strings or frequency wires. The apparatus in theexperiment wire is increased, so is the velocity ofwaves propagation, and the for the same is shownwire (Figlength 2-12). consists of (Fig a vibrating is It also increased 2-15). source, connected to a soft string whose length
Unit 1:
Waves
36
ranges from 2 to 3 meters. The other end of the string passes over a smooth pulley and is connected at its free end to appropriate weights. When the source vibrates, a wave train is produced in the string, which reflects upon reaching the pulley.The reflected and incident
v=
FT / m
(2-2)
where m is the mass per unit lengh of the sting material Since the arc small Vibration of is strings:
Waves Unit 1: Chapter Waves 2:

Sound Chapter 2: Sound
If we have a tight string fixed = l/ 2on both ends and pulled R fundamental tone from the middle then released to vibrate freely, we note (1st harmonic) 2 2FT l/ 2 FT l that the particles of the perpendicularly string = Mv to = Fc = vibrate R R R its length, i.e., perpendicularly direction of FT l to Fthe 2= FT / m = T is = transverse, propagation of the wave. vSuch a vibration M /l M first overtone i.e., transverse waves propagate on both halves of the (2nd harmonic) v= /m (2-2) T fixed ends, string in bolh directions until they reachFthe then theym are back in the opposite direction. By where is reflected the mass per unit lengh of the sting material multiple reflections, the incident and reflected waves, second overtone . (3rd harmonic) interfere producing standing waves, where an antinode is Vibration of strings: formed at the middle, and a node is formed at each of the If we have a tight string fixed on both ends and pulled fixed ends. fundamental tone from the middle then released to vibrate freely, we note third overtone (1st harmonic) A string vibrating in this way may produce different tones. that the particles of the string vibrate perpendicularly to (4th harmonic) The fundamental tone (the lowest frequency the string may its length, i.e., perpendicularly to the direction of Fig (2-17) vibrate at on its own) will produce one antinode and two propagation of the wave. Such a vibration is transverse, first overtone Formation of harmonics nodes (as above). The string may vibrate in many other ways. i.e., transverse waves propagate on both halves of the (2nd harmonic) We may divide the wire into segments. string in bolh directions until they reach the fixed ends, For example, we may have two segments (3 nodes and 2 antinodes), or 3 segments (4 nodes and then they are reflected back in the opposite direction. By 3 antinodes) (Fig 2-17). When the string has one segment ( = 2 l), it produces the fundamental multiple reflections, the incident and reflected waves, second overtone frequency (first harmonic). When the string has two segments, it produces the first overtone (3rd harmonic) interfere producing standing waves, where an antinode is formed at the middle, and a node is formed at each of the fixed ends.
third overtone A string vibrating in this way may produce different tones. (4th harmonic) The fundamental tone (the lowest frequency the string may Fig (2-17) vibrate at on its own) will produce one antinode and two Formation of harmonics nodes (as above). The string may vibrate in many other ways. We may divide the wire into segments. For example, we may have two segments (3 nodes and 2 antinodes), or 3 segments (4 nodes and 3 antinodes) (Fig 2-17). When the string has one segment ( = 2 l), it produces the fundamental frequency (first harmonic). When the string has two segments, it produces the first overtone
39
39
Sound
Chapter 2:
A vibrating string showing a standing wave pattern
Fig (2-13a)
Waves
Variation of standing wave patterns with the ratio of the string length to the wavelength as time goes on
Fig (2-13b)
The node is the position where the amplitude of the vibration is zero, while the antinode is the position where the amplitude of the vibration is maximum. Nodes and antinodes are spaced at equal distances apart (Fig 2-14). The wavelength of a standing wave is twice the distance between any two successive antinodes or two successive nodes. As the weight in the experiment is increased, the tension in the wire is increased, so is the velocity of propagation, and the frequency for the same wire length is also increased (Fig 2-15).
Unit 1:
36

I) Essay questions
Unit 1:
1) State the laws of reflection of sound. 3) Explain : Sound is a wave motion.
2) Show how to demonstrate the interference of sound. II) Define:
1) an antinode.
2) a node.
3) the wavelength of a standing wave.
Waves
III) Complete :
1) The velocity of propagation of a transverse wave in a string is given by: v = ......................................
= .....................................
2) The fundamental frequency produced in a string is given by:
3) Keeping tension constant, the frequency of a string is.......................proportional to its length . 4) Keeping the length of a string constant, the fundamental frequency is directly proportional to .................................
Chapter 2:
5) Keeping the length of the string and tension constant, the fundamental frequency is inversely proportional to ................................ IV. Choose the right answer: a) in the same direction.
1) Standing waves are formed by the combination of two waves propagating b) in opposite directions provided they have equal frequency and intensity. d) in two perpendicular directions.
Sound
c) in opposite directions without necessarily having equal frequency and intensity.
45
oscillating magnetic field
Fig (3 2)
An electromagnetic wave consists of an electric field and a magnetic field perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation of the wave
Reflection and refraction of light
Light propagates in straight lines in all directions, unless met by an obstructing medium.
If so, it undergoes reflection, refraction and partial absorption depending on the nature of the medium. When a light ray falls on a surface separating two media - which are different absorption. We note from Fig (3-3) that each of the incident ray, reflected ray and refracted ray as well as the normal to the surface at the point of incidence all lie in one plane perpendicular to the separating surface. In the case of reflection : the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection In the case of refraction : the ratio between the sine of the angle of incidence in the first medium to the sine of the angle of refraction in the second medium is equal to the ratio
angle of incidence reflected ray
incident ray
first medium (air)
angle of refraction refracted ray
Reflection and refraction of light
Fig (3 3)
Unit 1:
49
second medium (glass)
Waves
in optical density - then part of light is reflected and the rest is refracted, neglecting
Chapter 3:
oscillating electric field
Light
Chapter 3
Overview :
Light
Unit 1: Waves Chapter 3: Light

48
us. The energy from the Sun is almost divided between heat and light. Thanks to the light from the Sun, the plants perform photosynthesis, hence make their own food. Man depends on plants and animals, which in turn feed on plants. We have seen before that sound has a wave nature. It propagates from a source causing
Light is an indispensible form of energy. The Sun is the main natural source of energy to
mechanical waves in the medium. Light also has a wave nature. It is subject to the laws of does not require a medium to propagate in. Light is part of an extensive range of waves while varying in frequency. This range of waves is called the electromagnetic spectrum (Fig 3-1). It includes, for example, radio waves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, electromagnetic waves, but of different frequencies (and wavelengths).
reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction. But light is different from sound in that it called electromagnetic waves, which all travel at a constant speed in space equal to 3 x 108 m/s,
X- rays and Gamma rays. They all share common features. They are all transverse Electromagnetic waves consist of time varying electric and magnetic fields. Both
oscillate at equal frequency at the same phase, and are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation (Fig 3-2), hence called transverse waves.
Fig (3 1)
Electromagnetic spectrum
2) The refraction of light is attributed to the difference in the speed of light, when light is v= n
v1 n = n2 v2 1 (3-3) c
medium. Substituting equation (3-3) in (3-1), we have:

n 2 sin = n1 sin
n1 sin = n2 sin This is Snells law
(3-4)
incidence is equal to the absolute refractive index of the medium of refraction times the 3) We can use refraction in analysing a bundle of light into its components of different light may be decomposed into its components. This can be seen, for example, in soap bubbles.
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The absolute refractive index for the medium of incidence times the sine of the angle of
sine of the angle of refraction.
muddy soil, while the other is free on the paved road. The wheel that goes into the mud
becomes slower. Therefore, the car changes direction (Fig 3-4). The opposite is also true, as in refraction from a more dense material to a less dense one. The refracted ray deviates away from the normal (Fig 3-5).
Unit 1:
51
approaches the normal. This resembles a car in which one of its wheels goes through a
If light falls from a less dense medium onto a more dense medium ,the refracted ray
Why refraction ?
Waves
wavelengths, since the absolute refractive index varies with wavelength. Therefore, white
Chapter 3:
where v1 is the speed of light in the first medium, v2 is the speed of light in the second
Light
transmitted from one medium to another.
of the speed of light in the first medium to the speed of light in the second medium. This ratio is constant for these two media, and is called relative refractive index from the first medium to the second medium, denoted by 1n2 : Sin sin q = v 1 = n Sin sin O v2 1 2 (3-1)

50
1) The speed of light in space ''c'' is one of the physical constants of the universe and is equal to 3 x 108 m/s. It is larger than the speed of light in any medium ''v''. The ratio
c = n is called the absolute refractive index for the medium and is always > 1. v c (3-2) n= v
Important facts
The absolute refractive indices of some materials are listed below
Air Water Benzine Carbon tetrachloride Ethyl alcohol Crown glass Rock glass Quartz Diamond
refractive index
1.00293 1.333000 1.501000 1.461000 1.361000 1.52000 1.660000 1.4850000 2.419000
medium
incident reflected ray ray
paved road
incident reflected ray ray
muddy soil
2) If the absolute refractive index of water is 4 and glass 3 , find 3 2 a) the relative refractive index from water to glass b) the relative refractive index from glass to water.
Solution
a) The relative refractive index from water to glass
52
glass glass muddy soil air paved road
Refraction from a less dense medium to a more dense medium
Fig (3 4)
Refraction from a more dense medium to a less dense medium
Fig (3 5)
1) If a light ray falls on the surface of a glass slab whose refractive index is 1.5 at an angle 30, calculate the angle of refraction.
Solution
Examples
s 30 1.5 = Sin
Sin s q n= s Sin s O
sin O=
0.5 = 0.333 1.5
Sin s O
= 19 28
reaching the double slit have the same phase, hence, are coherent (having the same frequency, amplitude and phase). Waves emanating from S1 and S2 are cylindrical and spread toward the observation screen C. On such a screen, waves coming from S1 and S2 combine and produce an interference pattern, appearing as a sequence of bright and dark straight parallel regions, which are the interference fringes (Fig 3-7). The distance between two successive fringes y is given by:
y = R L d (3-5)

54
where is the wavelength of the monochromatic source, R is the distance between the double slit and the observation screen and d is the distance Fig (3 7) Interference between S1 and S2. fringes Therefore, this experiment may be used to determine the wavelength for any monochromatic light source.
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obtain fringes as in Fig (3-8a). We may interpret the
If light were not to manifest interference, we would
Interpretation of interference in Thomas Youngs experiment

monochromatic Firest light soure slit dark fringes b a
formulas of constructive and destructive interference
pattern in Youngs experiment as follows. If the distance of the screen from the double slit R is large relative to the distance d between the two slits of the
emanating from the double slit on their way to the
double slit, then we may consider the two rays r 1, r2
Second slit
bright fringes
observation screen as nearly parallel. If is the
inclination angle of the two rays, then the path
difference between these two rays is r (Fig 3-9). This
interference (b) if there were no interference
Fringes (a) resulting from
Fig (3 8)
When a monochromatic light falls on a circular aperture in a screen, we expect that light should form a circular bright spot on an observation screen, considering that light propagates in straight lines. But careful examination of the bright spot (called Airys disk), i.e., studying the light intensity, reveals the existence of bright and dark fringes (Fig 3-12).
Airys disk central bright spot parallel rays first secondary bright spot
Light Diffraction
Fig (3 12) Fig (3-13) demonstrates diffraction from a rectangular slit, while Fig (3-14) shows the diffraction pattern at a sharp edge of matter. In general, diffraction is evident when the wavelength of the wave is comparable to the dimensions of the aperture, and vice versa (Fig 3-15). In fact, there is no big difference between the mechanisms of interference and diffraction. In both cases, combination (superposition) of waves is involved (Fig 3-16).
center of the central bright fringe slit light intensity
Diffraction in a circular aperture
light ray
Diffraction from a rectangular aperture
Fig (3 13a)
Distribution of light intensity on a screen with the succession of fringes resulting from diffraction from a rectangular aperture
Fig (3 13b)
Unit 1:
57
Waves
Chapter 3:
Light
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rectangular slit. At an appropriate distance, there is a white parallel observation screen. sources of secondary wavelets. Light emanating from these secondary sources fall on the
Fig (3-17) shows a plane wave advancing toward a screen in which there is a
According to the wave theory, points on the wave front at the slit may be considered as observation screen at a point corresponding to the center of the slit as a lens collimates the rays. In this case, wavelets have the same phase. Constructive interference results in a bright fringe (Fig 3-17 a).
Formation of the central bright fringe
Fig (317b)
Succession of the fringes
Unit 1:
59
Waves
Fig (3 17a)
Chapter 3:
Light
Interpretation of diffraction

58
sphere
the dimensions of the obstacle are small incomparison with incident wave
plane edge
razor edge Diffraction patterns from different obstacles
Fig (314)
circular aperture
0.8d
0.2d
the dimensions of the obstacle are medium in comparison with
Fig (3 15)
the dimensions of the obstacle are large in comparison with
diffraction is more evident from a narrow slit in comparison with
observation screen
Fig (3 16) (a)

Diffraction is the interference of secondary wavelets from different points in the slit
(b)
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Diffraction places a limit on resolving details in an image. This limit is called the limit of resolution. If we have two point sources, and light is emitted from each through a circular aperture, then each source forms separate fringes. When the distance between the two sources decreases, the fringes get closer, and it becomes difficult to identify one from the other. It is found that the angle between the centers of the two fringes under this condition is given by the approximate relation = , where D is the aperture diameter. D Thus, the ability to resolve two small objects is inversely proportional to the aperture diameter and directly to the wavelength (Fig 3-19). In the case of a microscope, the lens takes the place of the aperture and the wavelength limits the ability of the microscope to distinguish between small objects. As decreases, we can discern details that were not seen before. This is the advantage of the electron microscope (Chapter 12).
a)as the two sources get closer to each other it becomes difficult to separate them visually because of diffraction
b) the resolution is nil as the objects get too small and too close together.
Resolving power
d) bacteria appearing through an electron microscope and not appearing through an optical microscope
Fig (319)
Unit 1:
61
c) if the two sources are drawing near to the observer, then he can separate them visually
Waves
Chapter 3:
Light
Resolving power
Light as a wave motion

62
From above, we conclude that light 1) propagates in straight lines . 2) reflects according to the laws of reflection . 3) refracts according to the laws of refraction . 4) light interferes, and as a result, light intensity increases in certain positions (bright fringes)and diminishes to zero in other positions (dark fringes). 5) light diffracts if obstructed by an obstacle . These are the same general properties of waves. Hence, light is a wave motion
When a light ray travels from an optically dense medium (as water or glass) to a less dense medium (as air), then the refracted ray deviates away from the normal (Fig 3-20). As the angle of incidence increases in the more dense medium (of high absolute refractive index), the refraction angle in the less dense medium (of low absolute refractive index) increases.
Total reflection and the critical angle
(a)
(b) Fig (320)
(c)
(d)
Incidence of light from a more optically dense medium to a less optically dense medium
maximum, which is 90. Then,the refracted ray becomes tangent to the surface.
a critical value c when the angle of refraction in the less dense medium reaches its
A point is reached when the angle of incidence in the more dense medium approaches
b) In the case of water
Sin sin q c =
from glass onto water
2)Using the information in the example above, find the critical angle for light falling
c = 48 45
1 1 = = 0.7518 n1 1.33

64
Solution
Using Snells law,

n2 sin 90 = n1 sin c 1.33 x 1 = 1.6 sin c
sin q c = 1 x 1.33 = 0.8313 1.6
Some Applications of Total Reflection I. Fiberoptics (Optical Fibers)

Fig (3-21) shows an optical fiber. It is a
thread-like tube of transparent material. When light falls at one end, while the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, it undergoes successive multiple reflections until it emerges from the other end (Fig 3-22). Fig (3-23) shows a bundle of fibers which can be bent while containing light lines to parts hard to reach otherwise. so that light can be made to travel in non straight Fig (321)
Optical fibers contain the rays despite bending
much losses, and are widely used nowadays.
Fibers can be used to transmit light without
Optical fibers
Fig (3 22)
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The bears fur does not provide the bear with thermal isolation only, but the fur hairs are massive optical fibers which reflect ultraviolet rays. The fur appears white (Fig 3-26). because visible light reflects inside the hollow transparent optical fibers, while the skin itself absorbs all rays reaching it. Therefore, it is actually black.
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Fig (326)
The bears fur
How an optical fiber works
If we have a hollow tube and look through it to see a bright object on the other end, then the object is easily seen. If the tube is bent, then the object cannot be seen. Yet, we may be able to see it, if we use reflecting mirrors in the path of rays. Similarly, by using optical reflections take place, until the ray emerges from the other end, despite the bending of the fibers.
II. The reflecting prism

prism whose angles are 90, 45, 45 is used to change the path of the rays by 90 or 180. Such a prism may be used in optical instruments, as periscopes in submarines and binoculars in the field (Fig 3-27).
Unit 1:
67
The critical angle between glass (refractive index 1.5) and air is 42. Therefore, a glass
Waves
fibers, while the ray is incident at an angle greater than the critical angle, then multiple
Chapter 3:
Light
The Bears fur

Optical fibers used to carry electrical signals Endoscope lens
Fig (324b)
Endoscopes
Fig (324c)
An image of esophogus by optical fibers
Fig (324d)
Fig (325)
66
of the Earth are heated, their density decreases. Hence, their refractive index becomes smaller than that of the upper layer. If we follow a light ray reflected off a palm tree, this ray is traveling from an upper layer to one below. Therefore,if refracts away from the more than the critical angle, it undergoes total reflection and the curve goes up. To the eye of the observer, the ray appears as if coming from under the surface of the Earth. The observer thinks that there is a pond. normal, and keeps deviating taking a curved path. When its angle of incidence reaches
Deviation of light in a prism

When a light ray such as " a b " falls on the surface xy of a prism, it refracts in the prism 3-29). We notice from the figure that the light ray in the prism refracts twice. As a result, the ray deviates from its original path by an angle of deviation . The angle of deviation is the angle subtended by the directions of the extension of the incident ray and the emerging ray. If the angle of incidence is , the angle of refraction emergence is and the apex angle of the prism is A, we note from the geometry (Fig 3-29).
2 1 2
Unit 1:
69
on the first surface is , the angle of incidence on the second surface is , the angle of
Waves
taking the path " bc ", until it falls on the surface xz and emerges in the direction "cd" (Fig
Chapter 3:
Light
This can be explained as follows. On very hot days, the air layers adjacent to the surface
Unit 1:
a) a reflecting prism changing the light path by 90
b) a reflecting prism changing the light path by 180
A reflecting prism
Fig (327)
c) prisms in binoculars
Waves Chapter 3: Light

68
reflects from such a prism, while it is seldom to find a metallic reflecting surface whose efficiency is 100%. Secondly, a metallic surface eventually loses its luster,and hence its ability to reflect decreases. This does not happen in a prism. The surface at which light rays fall on a prism or the surface from which the rays emerge may be coated with non reflective layer of material like cryolite (Aluminum fluoride and magnesium fluoride) whose refractive index is less than that of glass, to avoid any reflection losses on the prism, even little as they are. This is a familiar phenomenon observable on hot days, as paved roads appear as if wet (Fig 3-28 a). Also, an image of the sky is made on desert plains, where palm trees or hills appear inverted giving the illusion of water (Fig 3-28 b).
Prisms are better for this purpose than reflecting surfaces, first, because light totally
III.Mirage
Paved roads appear as if wet
Fig (328a)
Reflection of the sky in the desert gives the illusion of water
Fig (328b)
But
relation
Substituting for and we find that the refractive index can be determined from the
sin | 0+ A Sin 2 n= A Sin sin 2
(3 - 10)
Experiment to determine the ray path through a glass prism and its refractive index: Tools:
An equilateral triangular prism (A = 60), pins, a protractor, a ruler.
2) Remove the prism and the pins, join b and c to locate the path of the ray (a b c d) from air to glass to air again.
Determination of light ray path in a prism
Fig (3 31)
Unit 1:
71
Place two other pins c and d between the prism and the eye such that they appear to be in line with the two pins a and b,i.e., the four pins appear to be in one straight line.Locate the positions of the four pins.
emerging ray
Waves
and mark its position with a fine pencil line. Place two pins such that one of them (a) is very close to one side and the other (b) is about 10 cm from the first. The line joining them represents the incident ray. Look at the other side of the prism to incident ray see the image of the two pins, one behind the other.
1) Place the glass prism on a sheet of drawing paper with its surface in a vertical position
Procedure:
Chapter 3:
Light
sin q 0 n = Sin Sin sin e 0
Note also that the refractive index (n) depends on up the wavelength , then the falls on a prism set at the minimum angle of deviation, then the emerging light disperses into spectral colors as illustrated in Fig(3-32). From this figure, it is concluded that the violet ray has the largest deviation ( maximum refractive index). The visible spectral colors green, blue, indigo and violet. into which the white light is dispresed are arranged by the order: red, orange, yellow,
The thin prism:

A thin prism is a triangular glass prism. Its apex angle is a few degrees and is in the position of minimum deviation:
+ A | Sin sin 0 2 n= A Sin sin 2
Thus,
sin | 0+ A Sin = | 0+ A 2 2
(radians)
prism is determined by
Substituting from (3-10), we find that the refractive index of the material of the thin
n = 0 +A A (3 - 11) (3 - 12)
0 = A (n - 1)
Unit 1:
73
and
sin A Sin = A (radians) 2 2
Waves
Since:
0+ A | 2
and A 2
are small angles.
Chapter 3:
Light
minimum angle of deviation depends also on the wavelength. Thus, if a beam of white light
3) Extend dc to meet extended ab .The angle between them is the angle of deviation .
4) Measure the angle of incidence 1, the angle of refraction 1, the inner incidence angle 5)
2, the angle of emergence 2 and the angle of deviation ().

72
the results.
Repeat the previous steps several times changing the angle of incidence and tabulate
angle of Angle of inner angle of Angle of the angle of Angle of emergence prism A incidence refraction incidence 2 deviation 1 2 1
Find the minimum angle of deviation and the corresponding angles and . - Then obtain the refractive index from equation (3-10).
The dispersion of light by a triangular prism:

minimum deviation, the refractive index may be determined from the relation:
Sin s | 0+ A 2 n= Sin s A 2 where (n) is the refractive index,o is minimum angle of
It has been proven previously that in the case of
deviation, and (A) is the angle of the prism.
so the minimum angle of deviation changes by changing the minimum angle of deviation increases and vice versa.
Since the angle of the prism is constant for a certain prism, Fig (332)
spectrum
refractive index. As the refractive index increases, the
A prism disperses the
media v1 & v2
.Laws of refraction of light :
1) The ratio between the sine of the angle of incidence in the first medium, to the sine of the angle of refraction in the second medium is constant, and is known as the refractive index 1n2 sin 1n2 = sin
1 n2 =
The absolute refractive index for a medium is given by :

c C v V where c is the velocity of light in free space and v is the velocity of light in the medium. , Snell s law :
v1 V v2 V
n=
n1sin = n2 sin
ll 75
Unit 1:
Waves
in the second medium 2) The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the surface of separation at the point of incidence, all lie in one plane normal to the surface of separation. The relative refractive index between two media is the ratio between the velocity of light in the first medium v1 and the velocity of light in the second medium v2
where is the angle of incidence in the first medium, and is the angle of refraction
Chapter 3:
.Light refracts between two media because of the different velocities of light in the two
1) Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection 2) The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence, all lie in one plane perpendicular to the reflecting surface.
Light
.Laws of reflection of light :
In a Nutshell
Dispersive Power
74
variation of the refractive index with wavelength.

(0)r = A (nr - 1) (0)b = A (nb - 1)
When white light falls on a prism, the light disperses into its spectrum due to the
where nr is the refractive index for red and nb for blue. Subtracting,
(0)b - (0)r = A (nb - nr) ( 3 - 13)
between blue and red), the angle is :
The LHS represents the angular dispersion between blue and red. For yellow (middle
(0)y = A (ny - 1) (3 - 14)
nyis the average of nr and nb. We define as :

= ( 0)b ( 0)r = n b - n r (0)y ny - 1
where ny is the refractive index for yellow. If (0)y is the average of (0)r and (0)b, then
( 3 - 14)
where is the dispersive power, and is independent of the apex angle.
n=
s Sin
where n is the refractive index, is the minimum angle of deviation. The minimum angle of deviation in a thin prism is : The angular dispersion for a thin prism is :
= (n - 1)
(0)b - (0)r= (nb -nr)
where ( )b is the minimum deviation angle of the blue ray, and ( )r is the minimum
0 0
n b-nr = t n y -1
(_ 0 )b< (_ 0r)r t= b (_ 0y )y
index for the yellow light.
where (0)y is the minimum angle of deviation of the yellow light, and ny is the refractive
Unit 1:
77
Waves
The dispersive power :
deviation angle of the red ray.
Chapter 3:
0+ A | 2 A Sin s 2
Light
Refractive index of the prism material is given by:
The distance between two successive similar fringes (either bright or dark) is :
y = R
d

76
and the screen, and d is the distance between the two slits. Light is a wave motion.
where is the wavelength of light employed, R is the distance between the double slit
The critical angle is the angle of incidence in the more dense medium, corresponding to The absolute refractive index is equal to the reciprocal of the sine of the critical angle when light travels from this medium into air or vacuum. n = 1 Sin s qc an angle of refraction in the less dense medium equal to 90.
Total internal reflection takes place when the angle of incidence in the more dense The mirage is a phenomenon that can be explained by total internal reflection. The angle of the apex of the prism is given by: The angle of deviation is given by:
A = 1 + 2
medium is greater than the critical angle.
In the case of minimum deviation :
where 1 is the angle of incidence 2 is the angle of emergence
= (1 + 2) - A
1 = 2 = 0 1 = 2 = 0

78

I) Essay questions 1) Explain why light is considered to be a wave motion . 2) Describe an experiment to demonstrate the interference of light. 3) Explain how mirage is formed. a) the relative refractive index between two media. b) the absolute refractive index for a medium. c) the critical angle. d) the angle of deviation. a) The distance between two successive bright fringes is given by .................................... b) Snells law states that : ...................................................... c) The angle of deviation in a thin prism is given from relation :..................... d) The dispersive power is: ......................................................
II) Define :
III) Complete :
IV) Choose the right answer : 1) When light reflects : a) the angle of incidence is less than the angle of reflection. b) the angle of incidence is greater than the angle of reflection. c) the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. d) there is no right answer above . sin 2) When light refracts, the ratio ,where is the angle of incidence and is the angle sin of refraction is:
a) constant for the two media. b) variable for the two media.
7) The angle of incidence in a medium is 60 and the angle of refraction in the second medium is 30. Then the relative refractive index from the first to the second medium is : a) 3 b) 2 c) 1 d) 2 2 (n =1.5), the angle of refraction is : b)30

80
8) An incident ray at an angle 48.5 on one of the faces of a glass rectangular block a)20 c) 35 d) 40
9) In an experiment it was found that the minimum angle of deviation is 48.2 Given that the angle of the prism is 58.8, the refractive index of the material of the prism is : a) 1.5 b) 1.63 c) 1.85 d) 1/1.85
10) If the critical angle for a medium to air is 45, then the absolute refractive index is : a) 1.64 b)2 c)1.7 d) 2
11) A thin prism has an angle of 5. Its refractive index is 1.6. It produces a minimum angle a) 5 of deviation equal to : b) 6 c) 8 d) 3
12) A ray of light falls on a thin prism at an angle of deviation 4 and its apex angle 8.Its a) 1.5 refractive index is : b)1.4 c) 1.33 d) 1.6
Unit 2:
Chapter 4
Overview
Hydrostatics
Fluid Mechanics
liquids in compressibility. Gases are compressible, while liquids are incompressible. Thus, volume of the container.
Fluids are materials which can flow. They are liquids and gases. Gases differ from
liquids occupy a certain volume, while gases can fill any volume they occupy, i.e., the
Density
Density is a basic property of matter. It is the mass per unit volume (kg / m 3)
= m l V vol
Chapter 4:
(4 -1)
where Vol is the volume Density varies from one element to another due to:
1) difference in atomic weights
Hydrostatics
2) difference in interatomic or intermolecular distances or molecular spacings. shows density for different material.
We know that bodies of less density float over more dense liquids. The following table
83
2) Measuring density is used in clinical medicine, such as measuring blood and urine higher concentrations of blood cells and lower concentrations indicate anemia. urine density to increase.
Unit 2: Fluid Mechanics
densities. Normal blood density is 1040 kg / m3 1060 kg / m3. High density indicates
The normal urine density is 1020 kg / m3. In some diseases, salts increase and cause the
Pressure
force F is normal to a surface of an area A, then the affected pressure P on the surface is determined by the following relation: F A Pressure at a point is the average force which acts normal to unit area at that point. If
P=
(4 - 3)
Learn at Leisure
Chapter 4:
pressure due to a pointed high heel is greater than the pointed heel is very small (Fig 4 1).
Because the pressure is the force per unit area, the
Elephants foot vs human foot
pressure due to an elephants foot, since the area of the
Hydrostatics
Meaning of pressure
Fig (41)
85
Hydrostatics
Material Solids: Aluminum Brass Coper Glass Gold Ice Iron Lead Platinum Steel Suger Wax Liquids: Ethyl Alchol Benzene Blood Gasoline
Density kg/m3 2700 8600 8890 2600 19300 910 7900 11400 21400 7830 1600 1800 790 900 1040 690
Material Kerosene Mercury Glycerin Water Gases: Air Ammonia Carbon dioxide Carbon mono oxide Helium Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen
Density kg/m3 820 13600 1260 1000 1.29 0.76 1.96 1.25 0.18 0.090 1.25 1.43
Chapter 4: Fluid Mechanics
The ratio of density of any material to that of water at the same temperature is called the relative density of the material (no units). The relative density of a material, is equal to : = the density of the material at a certain temperature the density of water at the same temperature (4 - 2)
= the mass of a certain volume of matter at a certain temperature the mass of the same volume of water at the same temperature 1)Measuring density is of great importance in analysis, such as measuring the density of the electrolyte in a car battery. When the battery is discharged, the density of the electrolyte (dilute sulfuric acid) is low due to chemical reaction with the lead plates and the formation of lead sulfate. When the battery is recharged, the sulfate is loosened from the lead plates and go back to the electrolyte, and the density increases once more. Thus, measuring the density indicates how well the battery is charged.
Applications to density
Unit 2:
84
acted upon by two forces: its weight downwards and the force due to the pressure of the liquid around it. As the depth of the liquid increases, the pressure increases (Fig 4 3).
pressure Po
pressure P
Fig (4 3)
Pressure increases with liquid depth
To calculate the pressure (P), we imagine a horizontal plate x of area A at depth h inside a liquid of density (Fig 4 4). This plate acts as the base of a column of the liquid. The force acting on the plate x is the weight of the column of the liquid whose height is h and whose cross section is A. Because the liquid is incompressible, the force resulting from the liquid pressure must balance with the weight of the column(of the liquid. The volume of this column is Ah and its mass Ah, hence its weight Fg is given by : Fg = Ahg
Calculation of the pressure of a column of liquid
Chapter 4:
Fig (4 4)
Hydrostatics
liquid from under the plate x (acting upwards) must be : Ahg P= F = A A ... P = hg
where g the acceleration due to gravity. The pressure due to the
(4 4)
87
Hydrostatics Chapter 4:
Pressure at a point inside a liquid and its measurement.

If you push a piece of foam under water and let it go, it will rise and float. This indicates that water pushes the immersed foam by an upward force. This force is due to the pressure difference across this piece of foam. At any point inside a liquid, the pressure acts in any direction. The direction of the force on any surface is normal to that surface. The pressure on a body is the same as the pressure on a volume of the liquid that has the same shape of the body in case this body were removed. In other words, the liquid occupying the same size which a body would occupy is
PdA PdA
Fluid Mechanics
PdA
a) pressure inside a liquid is perpendicular to any surface inside the liquid b) pressure is perpendicular to the surface of an immersed body at every point
Unit 2:
c) pressure on the surface of an object is equal to the pressure on the surface of a similar size of the liquid of the same volume and shape
Pressure in a liquid
Fig (4 2)
d) in a certain size of a liquid there is equilibrium between two forces: the weight of the liquid and the pressure due to the remainder of the liquid.
86
Balance of liquids in a U - shaped tube

Let us take a U - shaped tube filled with an appropriate amount of water. Let us add a quantity of oil in the left branch of the tube, until the level of oil reaches level C at a height ho over the separating surface AD between water and oil, noting that both liquids do not Because the pressure at A = pressure at D mix. Let the height of the water in the right branch be hw above level AD (Fig 4 7). ... Pa + ogho = Pa + wghw where Pa is the atmospheric pressure, o the density of oil, w the density of water. Thus, ho o = hww or
o hw w = h o
oil water
(4 -6) Fig(4 7)
density of oil, knowing the density of water.
Measuring ho and hw, we may determine practically the
Chapter 4:
Balance of liquids in a U - shaped tube
Atmospheric Pressure
Torcelli invented the mercury barometer to measure the atmospheric pressure. He took a 1 m long glass tube and filled it completely with mercury and turned it upside down in a tank of mercury. He noticed that the level of mercury went down to a certain level that measured 0.76 m from the surface of mercury in the tank. The void above the column of mercury in the tube is vacuum (neglecting mercury vapor) is called Torcelli vacuum.
Hydrostatics
89
Hydrostatics
Taking into consideration the fact that the free surface of the liquid is subject to by: atmospheric pressure Pa ,then the total pressure at a point inside a liquid it depth d is given P =Pa + h g (4 5)
Practical observations show indeed that the liquid pressure at a point inside it increases with increasing depth and with increasing density at the same depth. Thus, we conclude : 1) All points that lie on a horizontal plane inside a liquid has the same pressure. 2) The liquid that fills connecting vessels rise in these vessels to the same height, regardless of the geometrical shape of these vessels provided that the base is in a horizontal plane (Fig 4 5). Therefore, the average sea level is constant for all connected seas and oceans. 3) The base of a dam must be thicker than that the top to withstand the increasing pressure at increasing depths (Fig 4 6). Fig (4 6)
Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 4:
Water rises to the same level in connecting vessels
Fig (4 5)
Unit 2:
Dams must be thicker at the base to withstand the pressure at increasing depths
88
Hydrostatics
From Fig (4 8), the height h of the mercury column in the tube is constant, wether the tube is upright or inclined. Taking two points A, B in one horizontal plane (Fig 4 9), such that A is outside the tube at the surface of mercury in the tank, while B is inside the tube. The pressure at B = the pressure at A. Thus: Pa = gh (4 - 7)
vacuum atmospheric pressure mercury
Chapter 4:
Fluid Mechanics
Mercury height in a barometer is not affected by the tilting of the manometer
Fig (4 8)
This means that the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to the weight of a column of mercury whose height is 0.76 m and cross sectional area 1m2 at OC at sea level. This is known as S.T.P. (standard temperature and pressure). Since the density of mercury at O C is 13595 kg/m3 and g = 9.8 m/s2
Unit 2:
Pa = 1 Atm = 0.76 x 13595 x 9.81 = 1.013 x 105 N/m2
A simple barometer
Fig (4 9)
90
Unit 2:
Applications to Pressure
1) Blood is a viscous liquid pumped through a complicated network of arteries and veins by the muscular effect of the heart. This is called steady flow (chapter 5). In the case of turbulent flow (chapter 5), there is noise which can be detected by a stethoscope. There are two values for blood pressure: the systolic pressure, as blood pressure is maximum (normally 120 Torr). This occurs when the cardiac muscle contracts and blood is pushed from the left ventricle to the aorta onto the arteries. The diastolic pressure is the minimum blood pressure (normally 80 Torr) when the cardiac muscle relaxes.
Fluid Mechanics
2) When a tire is well inflated (under high pressure) the area of contact with the road is as small as possible, while an underinflated (low pressure) tire has large contact area. As the area of contact with the road increases, friction increases and consequently, the tire is heated. Air pressure in a tire can be measured by a pressure gauge (Fig 4 12).
Chapter 4:
graduated scale
Hydrostatics
intake from the tire
Measuring tire pressure with a pressure gauge
Fig (4-12)
93
Hydrostatics Chapter 4:
Manometer
The manometer is a U - shaped tube containing a proper amount of liquid of a known density. One end is connected to a gas reservoir. The level of the liquid in the manometer may rise in one branch and go down in the other. Taking two points A,B in one horizontal plane in the same liquid (Fig 4 11 a), we have the pressure at B = the pressure A
a) when gas pressure > atmospheric pressure
Manometer
Fig (4-11)
b)when gas pressure < atmospheric pressure
Fluid Mechanics
When P- the pressure of the gas enclosed in the reservoir - is greater than Pa, gh is the weight of a column the liquid in the free end of the manometer above point B and is the difference between P and Pa (Fig 4 -11a), P = Pa + gh In the case P < Pa (Fig 4 11 b), i.e., the level of the liquid in the free end branch is lower than the level of the liquid in the end connected to the gas reservoir by a height h. In many cases, it suffices to measure the pressure difference, (4 - 8) P = P - Pa = gh Knowing the liquid density in the manometer and the height difference h between the liquid levels in the two branches and the acceleration due to gravity g,we can calculate P. Knowing Pa ,we may determine P of the gas enclosed in the reservoir. P = Pa - gh
Unit 2:
92
Hydrostatics
1) A solid parallelepiped (5cm x 10cmx 20cm) has density 5000kg /m3 is placed on a horizontal plane. Calculate the highest and lowest pressure. (g = 10 m/s2)
Solution
Examples
For the highest pressure it is placed on the side with the least area (5 cm x 10 cm), where the force is the weight.
P=
F Fg 5 x 10 x 20 x 10 -6 x 5000 x 10 4 N/ m 2 ) = = 10 A 5 x 10 x 10 -4 F Fg 5 x 10 x 20 x 10 -6 x 5000 x 10 = = 2500 N/m 2 -4 A 10 x 20 x 10
Chapter 4:
For the lowest pressure, it is placed on the side of the greatest area (10 cm x 20cm)
P=
2) Find the total pressure and the total force acting on the base of a tank filled with salty
Fluid Mechanics
water of density 1030 kg/m3. If the cross-section of the base is 1000 cm2 , the height of atmospheric pressure = 1 Atm = 1.013 x 105N/m2
Solution
the water is 1cm and the surface of the water is exposed to air. Take g = 10 m/s2 and the
Total pressure P = Pa + g h = 1.013 x 105 + 1030 x 10 x 1 = (1.013 + 0.103) x 105 = 1.116 x 105 N/m2 F = P x A = 1.116 x 105 x 1000 x 10-4 = 1.116 x 104 N
Unit 2:
94
Total force
subsequently, to the surface of the large piston. If the force applied to the small piston is f be the same at equilibrium at the same horizontal plane, then :
If pressure P is exerted to the small piston, this pressure is transmitted to the liquid and,
and the force affecting the large piston is F, and because the pressure on both pistons must P= f = F a A F = A ff (4 - 9) a From this relation, it is clear that if force f affects a small piston, a large force F is
by:
generated on the large piston. The mechanical advantage of the hydraulic press is given
= F = A f a (4 - 10)
large piston to the small piston. Referring to Fig (4 15), it is clear that if the small piston distance y under the effect of F. According to the law of conservation of energy, the work done in both cases must be the same (for 100% piston efficiency), fy =Fy f = y2 F y1
F= y 1 f y
2
Thus, the mechanical advantage of a hydraulic press is determined by the ratio of the
1
Chapter 4:
moves down a distance y under the influence of f, then the large piston moves up a
2
f
y
y
1
Hydrostatics
(4 - 11)
liquid
cylinder
piston may alternatively be expressed as the ratio
This shows that the mechanical advantage of the
y /y
1 2
Mechanical advantage
(Fig 4-15)
97
Hydrostatics Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4:
Pascals principle
Consider a glass container (Fig 4 13) partially filled with liquid and equipped with a piston at the top. The pressure at a point A inside the liquid at depth h is P =P + hg where P1 is 1 the pressure immediately underneath the piston, which results from the atmospheric pressure, as well as the weight of the piston and the force applied on the piston. If we increase the pressure on the piston by an amount P, by placing an additional weight on the piston. We note that the piston does not move inside because the liquid is incompressible. But the pressure underneath the Fig (4-13) piston must increase in turn by P. This raises the pressure at Increase of weight on the piston increases the point A by P. This make the pressure P =P1 + gh + P . pressure in the liquid Pascal formulated this result as follows : When pressure is applied on a liquid enclosed in a container, the pressure is transmitted in full to all parts of the liquid as well as to the walls of the container. This is known as Pascals principle or Pascals rule.
Application to Pascals rule : hydraulic Press

The hydraulic press (Fig 4 14) consists of a small piston whose cross sectional area is a and a large piston whose cross sectional area is A. The space between the two pistons is filled with an appropriate liquid.
cross sectional area a 1kg 100kg
Unit 2:
a) force to the left is transmitted to the right
Hydraulic Press
Fig (4-14)
cross sectional area A
b) a weight of 1 kg to the left generates a force equivalent to 100 kg to the right if the ratio of the two cross sectional areas is 1:100
96
3) The caterpillar also uses Pascals rule (Fig 4 19). 4) A diver wears a diving suit and a helmet to protect him from pressures at large depths. At low (shallow) depths, the diver - without the helmet - blows air in his sinuses to balance the external pressure (Fig 4 20). At large depths, the diving suit is appropriately inflated with air, and the helmet protects the divers head from crushing pressures (Fig 4 21).
A hydraulic caterpillar
Fig (4-19)
Diving at low depths
Fig (4-20)
Diving at large depths (500 m)
Fig (4-21)
Chapter 4:
Solution
A hydraulic press has cross sectional area 10cm2 which is acted on by a force of 100N. The large cross sectional area is 800 cm2. Taking g = 10m/s2 ,calculate : a) the largest mass that can be lifted by the press b) the mechanical advantage of the press c) the distance traveled by the small piston so that the large piston moves a distance of 1cm The force acting on the large piston :
F
Examples
Hydrostatics
F A 3 F = 100 x 800 = 8 x 10 N 10
99
Hydrostatics
Learn at Leisure
Applications to Pascals rule

1) The hydraulic brake in a car uses Pascals rule as the braking system uses a brake fluid. Upon pushing on the brake pedal with a small force and a relativeley long stroke (distance), the
Chapter 4:
pressure is transmitted in the master brake cylinder, hence, onto wheel cylinder outwardly, and finally to the brake shoes and the
the liquid and the whole hydraulic line, then to the piston of the brake drum. A force of friction results, which eventually stops the car. This type of brakes is called drum brake (rear brake) (Fig 4 16). In the case of the front (disk) brake (Fig 4 17), the forces produce friction enough to stop the wheel. It should be noted that
Rear brakes
Fig (4-16)
resulting from the braking action press on the brake pads which the distance traveled by the brake shoes in both cases is small because 2) In another application to Pascals rule, a hydraulic lift uses a liquid to lift up cars in gas stations (Fig 4 18). the force is large. Fig (4-17)
Fluid Mechanics
Front brakes
Unit 2:
hydraulic liquid
A hydraulic lift
Fig (4-18)
98
1) Horizontal forces cancel each other out , because each two opposite forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. 2) As to forces in the vertical direction, we find that the weight of the liquid enclosed in volume Vol in which (Fg) = Vol g acts downwards. Since this liquid is static, the liquid must exert L on the enclosed liquid an equal force Fb upwards , which is equal to the weight of the enclosed liquid. This force results from the difference of the pressure on the upper and lower surfaces of the parallepiped which is P x A Fb = P X A P = P1 - P2 = h1g - h2g
Substituting, noting that Ah is the volume:
Fb = Ahg
(4 - 12)
P = hg
= (h1 - h2) g
Fb = Volg = (Fg)
Chapter 4:
where (Fg) is the weight of the displaced liquid. l We see that Fb is equal to the weight of the parallepiped of the enclosed liquid. Equilibrium requires that the force Fb works upwards, and it is named buoyancy (buoyant force-upthrust).
If we substitute the virtual parallepiped by a solid parallepiped of the same shape and volume and of density s (Fig 4 22 b), the buoyancy (upthrust or buoyant force) which the liquid exerts on the solid Fig (4-22b) parallepiped remains the same Fb acting upwards. The liquid is displaced a distance h. The weight of the parallepiped representing Archimedes rule using a real parallepiped instead of a virtual parallepiped the immersed body (Fg)s acts downwards. The resultant force on
The relation between the weight of a body in air and the weight when immersed in a liquid
Hydrostatics
101
Hydrostatics
a)To calculate the largest mass that can be lifted by the large piston, 3 F 8 x 10 m= = = 800 kg Kg g 10 b)To calculate the mechanical advantage, F A = 800 = 80 = = f a 10 c)To calculate the distance traveled by the small piston, y = 8000 x 1 = 80 cm Cm 1 100
fy1 = F y 2
Chapter 4:
100
We are familiar with the following observations: 1)An object can be easily lifted if immersed under water level, whereas it might be difficult to lift at in air. 2) A piece of foam floats when immersed in water. 3) An iron nail sinks in water while a large steel ship floats. 4) Balloons filled with helium rise up. We can interpret the above observations as follows : When an object is immersed under the liquid surface then the object exerts a force on the liquid. Consequently, the fluid (liquid or gas) pushes back by an equal and opposite force (Newtons third law). This force is called buoyancy. It acts in all directions,but the net effect is upwards. The buoyancy is given by the weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed body. To show this, let us imagine the existence of a volume Vol of the Fig (4-22a) liquid as a virtual parallepiped whose cross sectional area is Archimedes rule considering A and height h.This parallepiped is acted upon by forces in all a virtual parallepiped directions (Fig 4 22 A). This part of the liquid (like any other part of stable liquid) does not move, so it is in equilibrium:
Buoyancy and Archimedes Principle
Unit 2:
Fluid Mechanics
difference between the bodys weight in air and the buoyancy of the liquid (Fg)s = (Fg)s - Fb where (Fg)s is the weight of the body while totally immersed in the liquid, (Fg)s is its weight in air and Fb is the buoyancy (Fig 4 24). Concluding from above, we may formulate Archimedes principle as follows: A body partially or fully immersed in a fluid (liquid or gas) is pushed upwards by a force equal to the weight of the volume of the fluid displaced partially or fully by the body.
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Archimedes rule and Newtons law

The immersed body replaces an equal size of the liquid. Because liquids are incompressible, such a body displaces a volume of the liquid equal to the volume of the immersed body (or part of it that is immersed). This displaced liquid acts as a mass placed on the surface of the liquid. Its weight presses on the surface of the liquid. Thus, the pressure on each point of the liquid increases by this amount. Because we calculate the buoyancy on the body as the difference between two forces acting on the surface of the immersed body, then this difference stays the same. Hence, buoyancy on the immersed body is unchanged by the displacement. It is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid (Fig 4 12). We can understand what happens as that the weight of the immersed body acts on the liquid as a whole, then the liquid acts back with buoyancy as a reaction equal in magnitude and opposite in direction (Newtons third law). In the case when the weight balances out with buoyancy, we have equilibrium, and the body remains suspended in the liquid. If the weight of the body exceeds buoyancy, the body sinks to the bottom where it settles there. If the weight of the body is less than buoyancy, the body floats on top of the surface where it settles afloat, while the weight of the displaced liquid whose volume is equal to the volume of the immersed part of the body, which is then equal to the weight of the floating body.
Chapter 4: Hydrostatics
103
(displacement of the liquid). In the case of gases, there is buoyancy force as well, and it acts upwards. But it is not mandatory that the volume of the displaced gas is equal to the volume of the immersed body, since gases are compressible. But buoyancy must be equal to the weight of the displaced gas. This is why balloons filled with helium rise up (Fig 4 27).
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The story of Archimedes and the crown

Archimedes was one of the most celebrated scientists of Ancient Greece. There is an interesting story of Archimedes discovery of his rule. When Heron-king of Syracuse (one of ancient Greek cities)- doubted that his new crown might not have been made of pure gold, he summoned Archimedes to seek his counsel as to whether or not the crown was rigged, without destroying the crown of course. Archimedes was first at a loss. But one day, he was bathing in a tub. He noticed that as he dipped himself in the tub the water level rose.
Archimedes brought the crown and submerged it in a water filled tub and measured the displaced (overflown) water. He then calculated the density of the material of the crown. He then repeated the experiment on a similar block of pure gold of the same mass, and measured the volume of the displaced water. He found that this volume was different. He concluded that the maker cheated and used less dense and hence cheaper materials. It is often told that Archimedes was euphoric with joy as he got this idea. He came out from the tub, and ran out naked shouting: Eureka Eureka (I found it I found it)". This expression has been ever since coined as a motto for scientific discovery. Question: was the displaced water for the rigged crown more or less than that for equal mass of pure gold? (Fig 4-28). Fig (4-28)
Chapter 4: Hydrostatics
The crowns story
105
Hydrostatics
Fluid Mechanics
1) Hydrotherapy technique is prescribed to patients who are unable to lift limbs because of disease or injury in the associated muscles or joints. When a body is immersed in water it becomes, in effect, nearly weightless. As a result, the force required to move the limb is greatly reduced, and the therapeutic exercise becomes possible. 2) Weightlessness experiments may involve immersion in containers filled with a liquid whose concentration is adjusted so that buoyancy cancels out the weight. 3) A submarine floats when its tanks are filled with air, and submerges when those tanks are filled with water. Fish and Wales also fill air sacs with air to enable them to float, and empty them from air when they go under. 4) A diver breathes air under compression when diving to shallow depths, to equate the pressure. At larger depths, the diver adjusts the pressure in the diving suit to control the buoyancy force (Fig 4 26).
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Application to buoyancy
Chapter 4:
A submarine floats and sinks by emptying or filling water tanks
Fig (4-25)
A diver floats or dives depending on the varying density of the diving suit
Fig (4-26)
Unit 2:
In the case of liquids, the volume of the displaced liquid equals the volume of the immersed body, because liquids are incompressible. Then, the force acting on the body upwards is equal to the weight of the displaced liquid as a reaction to the immersion
Is there buoyancy for gases ?
A balloon filled with helium
Fig (4-27)
104
Hydrostatics
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Chapter 4:
It is noted that a ship is of large mass but contains large voids and spaces, which cause it to displace plenty of water, hence large buoyancy pushes the ship upwards. Part of the ship (hull) remains submerged in water for the ship to be afloat. This submerged part is what causes the displacement of water of an equal volume causing buoyancy to balance out with the weight of the ship (4 29). As the cargo on the ship increases, the submerged part increases to build up more buoyancy enough to keep the ship afloat (Fig 4 30a). The iron nail sinks because the buoyancy force on it is small due to its small volume (Fig 4 30 b).
Why does a ship float while an iron nail sinks ?
Fluid Mechanics
The part of the boat that is submerged depends on the weight
Fig (4-30a)
A ship floats despite its massive weight
Fig (4-29)
A ship floats despite its massive weight while a nail sinks
Fig (4-30b)
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Unit 2:
pools? The Dead Sea in Jordan is enclosed. It is not connected to any sea or ocean. The salt concentration is very high. No one drowns in the dead sea (why ?)
Have you noticed the difference between swimming in the sea, the Nile, and swimming
The Dead Sea
106
Hydrostatics
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Chapter 4:
It is noted that a ship is of large mass but contains large voids and spaces, which cause it to displace plenty of water, hence large buoyancy pushes the ship upwards. Part of the ship (hull) remains submerged in water for the ship to be afloat. This submerged part is what causes the displacement of water of an equal volume causing buoyancy to balance out with the weight of the ship (4 29). As the cargo on the ship increases, the submerged part increases to build up more buoyancy enough to keep the ship afloat (Fig 4 30a). The iron nail sinks because the buoyancy force on it is small due to its small volume (Fig 4 30 b).
Why does a ship float while an iron nail sinks ?
Fluid Mechanics
The part of the boat that is submerged depends on the weight
Fig (4-30a)
A ship floats despite its massive weight
Fig (4-29)
A ship floats despite its massive weight while a nail sinks
Fig (4-30b)
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Unit 2:
pools? The Dead Sea in Jordan is enclosed. It is not connected to any sea or ocean. The salt concentration is very high. No one drowns in the dead sea (why ?)
Have you noticed the difference between swimming in the sea, the Nile, and swimming
The Dead Sea
106
In a Nutshell
I.Definitions and Basic Concepts
The density () is the mass per unit volume (kg/m3) The pressure P at a point is the normal force acting on a unit surface area (N/m2). All points lying in the same plane have the same pressure. The atmospheric pressure is equivalent to the pressure produced by the weight of a The units of atmospheric pressure are :
c)cm Hg. b) Bar (10 N / m 2). a) Pascal (1 N / m 2).
5
mercury column of height about 0.76 m and base area 1m2 at 0C
inside a container and the outer atmospheric pressure.
The manometer is an instrument for measuring the difference in the pressure of a gas Pascals principle :
Chapter 4:
The pressure applied on an enclosed liquid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the liquid and to the walls of the container.
d) Torr (mm. Hg).
Archimedes principle :
the body.
(buoyant force) in the vertical direction equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by
A body immersed wholly or partially in a fluid experiences an upthrust force
Hydrostatics
The weight of the volume displaced = volume of the immersed body x density of the The immersed body in the liquid is acted upon by two forces, the upthrust force Fb
the weight of the body (Fg) .
s b
liquid x the acceleration due to gravity.
and
If (Fg)s = F the body will be suspended in the liquid.
109
5) If the ratio between large and small piston diameters is 9:2. The ratio between the two a) 9:2 forces on the two pistons are : b) 2: 9 c) 4:18
Unit 2:
6) A body has mass 5 kg in air, its weight when immersed in liquid becomes 40 N. If the a) 10 kg d) 35 N acceleration due to gravity is 10 m / s2, then the upthrust force on the body is : b) 10 N e) 90 N c) 35 kg
d) 81 : 4
e) 4:81
Fluid Mechanics
7) A piece of wood floats on water such that 1/4 its volume appears over the water surface. a) 1333 kg / m3 If the water density is 1000 kg / m3 , the wood density is then : b) 250 kg / m3 e) 500 kg / m3 c) 750 kg/m3
8) The lead density is greater than the copper density, the copper density is greater than that water and weigh them then, compared to their weights in air: copper cube.
d) 1000 kg / m3
of aluminum. If we immerse a number of cubes with equal volumes of these metals in
Chapter 4:
a) the decrease of weight of the lead cube is greater than the decrease of weight of the b) the decrease of weight of the aluminum cube is greater than the decrease of weight of c) the decrease of weight of the aluminum cube is equal to the decrease of weight of the d) the decrease of weight of the aluminum cube is less than the decrease of weight of the e) the decrease of weight of the lead cube is less than the decrease of weight of the copper cube. lead cube. lead cube. the copper cube.
Hydrostatics
113
Hydrostatics

I) Put mark () to the correct statement: a) the liquid depth in the vessel. e) the area of the vessel base. barometer?
1) The following factors affect the pressure at the bottom of a vessel except one, tick it: c) the acceleration due to gravity. d) the atmospheric pressure. b) the density of the liquid
Chapter 4:
2) Which of the following factors have no effect on the height of mercury column in a a) the density of mercury c) atmospheric pressure. e) the temperature of mercury. b) the cross sectional area of the tube.
d) the acceleration due to gravity.
3) When a ship moves from river water to sea water,
Fluid Mechanics Unit 2:

112
which of the following statements is right ?
a) the water density increases and the ship sinks slightly.
b) the water density increases and the ship floats upwards slightly c) the water density decreases and the ship sinks slightly. d) the water density decreases and the ship floats slightly.
4) The water pressure at the bottom of the High Dam lake on the dam body depends on : a) the area of the water surface. b) the length of the dam. c) the depth of the water.
e) the water density does not change and nothing happens.
d) the thickness of dam wall.
e) the density of wall substance.
5) A vessel on a table contains two liquids: oil and water. A wooden cube is placed on the top surface of the upper liquid. Describe what happens to the two liquids, the wooden cube, the bottom of the vessel and the table. IV) Drills : 1) The pressure on the base of a cylinder containing oil with diameter 8 m is 1.5 x 103 N/m2. Find the total force on the base. 2) A difference in pressure of 3.039 x 105 N/m2 is recommended for air in a car tire. If the tire in atmospheric units. (4 Atm) 3) A fish tank of cross-sectional area 1000 cm2 contains water of weight 4000N. Find the pressure on its base. (0.4 x 104 N/m2) (7.54 x 104 N)
Unit 2: Fluid Mechanics Chapter 4:
atmospheric pressure is 1.013 x 105 N/m2 ,calculate the absolute pressure of air in the
4) The large and small piston diameters of a hydraulic press are 24cm and 2cm respectively. Calculate the force that must be applied to the small piston to obtain a force of 2000 N on the large piston. Then calculate the mechanical advantage. (13.9 N, 144) 5) A piece of aluminum has a mass of 250 gram in air. When immersed in water it has an an apparent mass of 160 gram and it has 180 gram in alcohol. Calculate the densities of aluminum and alcohol if the density of water is 1000 kg /m3 and g = 9.8 m / s 2 (2777.8 kg / m3, 777.8 kg/m3)
Hydrostatics
115
Hydrostatics
9) If the ice density is, 900 kg / m 3 and the water density is 1000 kg /m3 , then the ratio of a) 90 % the floating part of an ice cube is : b) 10 % e) 20 % c) 100 %
10) A body is immersed wholly in a liquid. If the body density is greater than the liquid density,then the upthrust force exerted by the liquid on the body will be : a) equal to the mass of liquid displaced by the body. b) equal to the mass of the immersed body.
d) 80 %
Chapter 4:
c) equal to the volume of the liquid displaced by the body. e) greater than the body weight. II) Define each of the following : 1. Density 3. Pascals principle d) equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.
4. Archimedes principle
2. Pressure at a point
Fluid Mechanics
III) Essay questions :
1) Prove that the pressure (P) at depth (h) in a liquid is determined from the relation. where Pa is the atmospheric pressure, the liquid density and g is the acceleration due to
P = Pa + gh
gravity.
2) Describe the manometer and show how it can be used for measuring a gas pressure 3) What is meant by Pascals principle ? Describe one of its applications. 4) Show that the resultant forces on an immersed body is given by :F = (l s) g Vol , inside a container.
Unit 2:
114
acceleration due to gravity and Vol is the volume of the body. Explain the consequences of this relation.
where l and s are the densities of the liquid and the body respectively,g is the
Hydrostatics
6)The atmospheric pressure on the surface of a lake is 1Atm. The pressure at its bottom is 3 Atm. Calculate the depth of the lake (density of water 1000 kg/m3, 1 Atm = 1.013x105 N/m2, g = 9.8 m/s2 ). (20.673 m) 7) A man carries a mercury barometer with readings 76 cm Hg and 74.15 cm Hg at the lower and upper floors, respectively. Calculate the average density of air between the two floors if mercury density is 13600 kg / m3, the building height is 200m and g = 9.8m/s2. (1.258 kg/m3) 8) A manometer containing mercury is attached to gas enclosed in a container. If the difference height in the manometer is 25 cm. Calculate the pressure difference and the absolute pressure of the enclosed air in units of N/m2 (1Atm = 1.013 x 105 N/m2, mercury density = 13600 kg/m3 and g=9.8 ms2) (0.3332x105 N/m2, 1.3462x105 N/m2). 9) The volume of a huge balloon filled with hydrogen is 14x104m3. Find the maximum lifting force acting on it, if the hydrogen density is 0.092 kg/m3, air density is1.29 kg/m3 and the mass of the balloon with its accessories is 8x104 kg. (g = 10m/s 2). (87.72x104 N)
116
Unit 2:
Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 4:
Unit 2 :
Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 5:
Hydrodynamics
2) In steady flow, the velocity of the liquid at each point is independent of time. 3) The flow is irrotational, i.e., there is no vortex motion. 4)If no forces of friction exist between the layers of the liquid the flow is nonviscous .If there is friction it is viscous.
Unit 2 : Unit 2:
Turbulent flow
flow changes to turbulent flow, which is characterized by the existence of vortices (Fig 52). The same thing happens to gases as a result of diffusion from a small space to a large space or from high pressure to low pressure (Fig 5 3). If the velocity of flow of a liquid exceeds a certain limit, steady
Fluid Mechanics Fluid Mechanics
Rate of flow and the continuity equation

We shall focus on steady flow. Consider a flow tube such that: Fig (5-3) Smoke changes from steady 1) the liquid fills the tube completely. to turbulent flow 2) the quantity of the liquid entering the tube at one end equals the quantity of the liquid emerging out from the other end within the same time. 3) the velocity of the liquid flow at any point in the tube does not change with time. There is a relation that ties the rate of flow of the liquid with its velocity and cross sectional area. Fig (5-2) This relation is called the continuity equation. To Vortices due to turbulent understand what the continuity equation entails, we choose flow or a violent motion of a body through a liquid two perpendicular planes normal to the streamlines at the two sections (Fig 5 - 4). The cross sectional area at the first plane is A1 and the cross sectional area at the second plane is A2. The volume rate of flow is the volume of the liquid flowing through area A1 in unit time.We have Qv = A1v1, where v1 is the velocity of the liquid at section A1. The mass of the liquid (of density ) flowing in unit time is called the mass rate of flow Qm ,which is given by:
Chapter 5:5: Hydrodynamics Chapter Hydrostatics

119 119

Unit 2: Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5:Properties of Fluid dynamics
Chapter 5
Overview
Hydrodynamics
Hydrodynamics (Fluid dynamics) deals, with fluids in motion. We must distinguish between two types of fluid motion, steady flow and turbulent flow. If a liquid moves such that its adjacent layers slide with respect to each other smoothly, we describe the motion as a laminar flow or a streamline (steady) flow. In this type of flow, particles of the liquid follow continuous paths called streamlines.Thus, we may visualize the liquid as if it is in a real or virtual tube containing a flux of streamlines representing the paths of the different particles of the liquid (Fig 5 1). These streamlines do not intersect, and the tangent at any point along the streamline determines the direction of the instantaneous velocity of each particle of the liquid at that point. The number of streamlines crossing perpendicularly a unit area at a point (density of streamlines) expresses the velocity of flow of the liquid at that point. Therefore, streamlines cram up at points of high velocity and keep apart at points of low velocity.
Steady flow
Fluid Mechanics Fluid Mechanics Unit 2: 2: Unit
Conditions of Steady Flow
1)The rate of flow of the liquid is constant along its path, since the liquid is incompressible and the density of the liquid is independent of distance or time.
Streamlines
Fig (5-1)
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Unit 2 :
Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 5:
Hydrodynamics
121

Qm=Qv= A1 v1 Similarly, the mass rate of flow through area A2 is Qv = A2v2. Since the mass rate of flow is constant in steady flow
A1 v1 = A2 v2
A1 v1= A2 v2
(5-1)
This is the continuity equation leading to
Model for deducing the continuity equation
Fig (5-4)
inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the tube at that point. The liquid flows area A2 is small (Fig 5 5). To understand the continuity equation better, we consider a small amount of liquid m = V , where V = A x ,where x is the distance traveled by the liquid in time t . Thus, x1 = v1 t. Then Vol = A1v1 t. This same value must emerge from the other side of the tube, since the liquid is incompressible ,i.e, Vol = A2v2 t . Thus, we
ol ol 1 1 1
v1 A V 1 = 2 v2 V A1 2 (5-2) From this relation, we see that the velocity of the liquid at any point in the tube is
slowly where the cross sectional area A1 is large and flows rapidly, when the cross sectional
must emphasize that the rate of flow of the liquid is a volume rate Qv (m3/s), or a mass rate of conservation of mass, which leads to the continuity equation.
A2 A1
flow (kg/s). Both of these rates are constant for any cross section. This is called the
Unit 2: 2: Unit
Basis for the continuity equation
Fig( 5-5)
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Unit 2 : Unit 2:
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Hardening of the arteries

When these arteries contract, the radius of the artery decreases. From the continuity equation (5 1), the blood velocity must hence increase. When they relax, the blood of the arteries, and hence these muscles lose the ability to control the blood flow. As velocity decreases. With age, these muscles lose that elasticity, and this is called hardening cholestrol(fats) precipitates on the inner walls of these blood vessels, the radius decreases further which increases the possibility of coagulation (formation of a clot) which blocks the blood stream, leading to angina pectoris. The patient takes medication to ensure the might end up with hemorrhage or (internal bleeding). It is known that one of the bleeding. Thus, viscosity of the blood and its composition play a vital role is mans life. The body controls the blood flow in the arteries by muscles surrounding these arteries.
Fluid Mechanics Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5:5: Hydrodynamics Chapter Hydrostatics
liquidity of the blood to prevent the coagulation. However, if the dose is excessive, he constituents of blood is platelettes, which are responsible for normal coagulation to stop
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Measuring blood pressure

The sphygmomanometer is a type of manometer (Fig 5 9). It consists of a cuff in the form of an air bag wrapped around the patients arm. A hand pump is used to inflate the bag and a mercury manometer is used to measure the pressure in the bag. The pressure is increased in the air bag, until the blood flow ceases momentarily in the brachial artery. A stethoscope is used to indicate the soundness of the arterys muscle in pushing the blood. Measuring blood pressure is one of the ways to check on the performance of the heart.
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Blood circulation in human body

veins, down to capillaries (Fig 5 8) .The heart pumps blood through this network at a rate The pumping rate may reach 25 liters per minute or 180 pulse per minute with excessive activity .Calculating the velocity of flow in the aorta (2 cm diameter),we find that the blood the collective cross section is 0.25m2 (what is the velocity?).
brain lungs pulmonary artery aorta artery arteries veins trunk and organs legs veins arms and shoulders veins
The circulatory system consists of a huge network of blood vessels including arteries,
of 5 liters per minute (or 8.33x10-5 m3/s) with a normal pulse rate of 70 pulse per minute.
velocity is 26.5 cm/s (check the calculation). If we add up all the capillaries, we find that
heart
Unit 2: 2: Unit
veins
A simplified diagram for blood circulation
Fig (8-5)
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Unit 2 :
Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 5:
Hydrodynamics
125

The pressure in the air bag is decreased gradually, until the pressure exerted by the heart is sufficient to push the blood through, and open up the brachial artery. The sudden flow of the blood in the nearly closed artery causes a turbulent flow which produces a hiss, which the doctor can hear with the stethoscope, while the doctor monitors the reading on the manometer in mm Hg. This reading is the systolic pressure (normally 120 mm Hg). As the pressure in the air bag decreases, the hiss remains audible in the stethoscope, until the pressure in the air bag is equal to the lowest pressure exerted by the heart when the brachial artery is fully open (diastolic pressure). Then,blood flows steadily and the hiss disappears. The reading on the manometer in this case (when the heart is in rest or relaxation) is normally 80 mm Hg. If the systolic pressure exceeds 150 mm Hg, the patient has hypertension which might cause brain hemorrhage, and hence stroke. If the diastolic pressure exceeds 90 mm Hg, the heart-which is supposedly then at rest -has extra pressure, causing fatigue and eventually fibrosis in the heart muscle, leading to heart failure or cardiac arrest. Fig (5 - 9)
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Unit 2: 2: Unit
Sphygmomanometer
Solution
Unit 2 : Unit 2:
The aorta cross section is given by
2 2 A1 = / r 2 1 = / (0.007) m
The collective cross section for 30 main arteries is given by A2 = / r 2 2 x 30 A1 v1 = A2 v2

v2 =
= / (0.0035) 2 x 30 m 2
2 / (0.007) 2 (0.33) = / (0.0035) 2 (30) v2
Thus, the velocity of the blood in the main arteries is 0.044 m/s. Consequently, the blood velocity in capillaries is much smaller, which gives time for the tissues to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide as well as nutrients and excretion products. Divine wonder is countless.
Viscosity
4 0.33 m/s = 0.044 0.44m/s 30
We observe viscosity as follows : 1) We hang two funnels each on a stand and put a beaker under each. We pour alcohol in one funnel and a similar volume of glycerine in the other, and observe the velocity of flow of each. We notice that the flow velocity of alcohol is higher than that of glycerine. 2) Take two similar beakers, one containing a certain volume of water and the other an equal volume of honey .Stir the liquid in both beakers with a glass rod .Which of the two liquids is easier to stir ? Then, we remove the rod .We notice that :
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Examples
1) A water pipe 2 cm diameter is at the entrance of an apartment building. The velocity of the water in it is 0.1m/s. Then, the pipe tapers to 1cm diameter. Calculate a) the velocity of the water in the narrow pipe. b) quantity of the water (volume and mass) flowing every minute across any section of the pipe (density of water = 1000 kg/m3) .
Solution
a) A1 v1= A2 v2
(0.01m) (0.1 m/s) = (0.005m) v2
2 2
10-4 0.1 v2 = = 0.4m/s 2.5 10-5
b)The volume rate of flow (m3/s) is given by the relation = / x 10 -4 x 0.1 or / x 2.5 x 10 -5 x 0.4 Thevolume rate of flow (m3/min) is given by Q x 60 = 3.14 x 10 -5 x 60 = 188.4 x 10 -5 m 3 /min The mass flowing per minute Qm = 3.14 x 10 -5 x 10 3 = 3.14 x 10 -2 The mass rate of flow (kg/min) is given by
= 3.14 10-5 m 3 /s
Unit 2: 2: Unit
2) The average velocity of blood in aorta ( radius 0.7 am ) for an adult is 0.33 m/s From the aorta, blood is distributed to main arteries (each radius 0.35cm). If we have 30 main arteries, calculate the velocity of blood in each.
Qm= 3.14 x 10 -5 x 10 3 x 60 = 1.884 K
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Unit 2 : Unit 2: Fluid Mechanics Fluid Mechanics
a) Friction forces exist between the lower plate and the liquid layer in contact with it. This
force is due to the adhesive forces between the molecules of the solid surface and the contacting liquid molecules. This leads to zero velocity of the layer in contact with the stationary plate. Similarly, the upper layer moves at the same velocity of the upper plate.
b) The existence of another friction (shear) force between each liquid layer and the adjacent one, which resists the sliding of the liquid layers with respect to each other. This produces a relative change in velocity between any two adjacent layers. Thus, viscosity is the property responsible for resisting the relative motion of liquid layers .This type of vortices occur. flow is called nonturblent viscous laminar flow (or viscous steady flow), since no
Coefficient of Viscosity
Referring to Fig (5 6), we find that for the moving plate to maintains its constant velocity, a force F must exist. This force is directly proportional to both velocity and area of the moving plate A, and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates d. AV F| v d s
F =d
where dvs (Eta) is a constant of proportionality called viscosity coefficient, given by

dvs
Fd F = Av Av/d
(5 - 4)
Av vs d
(5 - 3)
The coefficient of viscosity ( Ns/m2 or kg/m s ) may be defined as : the tangential force acting on unit area, resulting in unit velocity difference between two layers, separated by unit distance apart .
129 129

a) Water is easier to stir, which means that water resistance to the glass rod is less than the resistance of honey. b) The motion in honey stops almost immediately after we remove the rod, while it continues for a little while longer in water . 3) We take two long similar measuring cylinders and fill them to the end, one with water and record the time each ball takes in each liquid to hit the bottom. We observe that the time in water is less. Thus, the glycerine resistance to the ball motion is greater . We, thus, conclude :1) Some liquids such as water and alcohol offer little resistance to the motion of a body in them, and are easy to flow. We say they have low viscosity 2) Other liquids such as honey and glycerine are not as easy to move through ,i.e.,they offer high resistance to body motion, and are said to have high viscosity.
the other with glycerine. Then , take two similar steal balls and drop one in each liquid, and
stationary and the other moving with velocity v (Fig 5 6). The liquid layer next to the stationary plate is stationary, while the layer next to the moving plate is moving at v. The layers in between move at velocities varying from o to v. The reason for this is as follow :
To interpret viscosity, imagine layers of liquid trapped between two parallel plates, one
liquid
Unit 2: 2: Unit
Force acting on the upper layer of a liquid
Layers of a liquid slide with respect to each other
Friction between layers of a liquid
Fig (6-5)
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Unit 2 : Unit 2:
Syphon:can a liquid go up ?
Suction of air from one end of a hose while the other end is submerged in a liquid causes the liquid to rise up to a certain head (vertical distance), then to flow downwards (Fig 5 13). People often use this technique to draw gasoline from a car tank. This seems contrary to gravity. This phenomenon is called syphon. It can be explained as follows. The liquid molecules attract each other as beads in a chain (Fig 5 14). The molecules may go up to a certain distance overcoming gravity, then come back down and flow from the free end of the hose. Liquids have another property, called surface tension, when the molecules of the liquid at the surface attract each other as a membrane. This is the same theory of the formation of air bubbles, in which the internal pressure balances out with the external pressure and the surface tension, so they do not blow up, unless this balance is Beads of liquid pulling each other disturbed. Another property is capillarity, where molecules of the container pull the molecules of the liquid by forces of adhesion. The surface of the liquid is curved due to the surface tension in the capillary. This property is responsible for drawing water in the stem of plants through the capillaries, so that the plant can obtain its water and nutrients from the soil and even out to the foliage. Fig (5-13) Fig (5-13)
Syphon
Fluid Mechanics Fluid Mechanics Chapter 5:5: Hydrodynamics Chapter Hydrostatics

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Chapter 5:5: Hydrodynamics Chapter Hydrostatics Fluid Mechanics Fluid Mechanics

130 130
Applications of Viscosity 1-Lubrication :

a) reduction of heat generated by friction. Metallic parts in machines have to be lubricated from time to time. This process leads to:
Unit 2: 2: Unit
b) protecting machine parts from corrosion (wear).
Lubrication is carried out using highly viscous liquids. If we use water (low viscosity), it will soon seep away or sputter from the machine parts due its low adhesive forces. Therefore, we must use liquids with high adhesive (high viscosity), so they remain in contact with the moving machine parts.
2-Moving vehicles
When a car attains its maximum speed, the total work done by the machine which is supplied by the burnt fuel, acts most of the time against air resistance and the forces of friction between the tires and the road. At relatively low and medium velocities, air resistance to moving bodies resulting from air viscosity is directly proportional to the velocity of the moving body. When the velocity exceeds a certain limit, then the air resistance is proportional to the square velocity rather than the velocity,leading to a noticeable increase in fuel consumption. Therefore, it is advisable not to exceed such a limit ( 80 90 km/h ) Blood precipitation rate : when a ball undergoes a free fall in a liquid, it is under three forces : its weight, buoyancy of the liquid and friction between the ball and the liquid due to viscosity. It is found that such a ball attains a final velocity which increase with its radius.
3-In medicine :
This is applied in medicine by taking a blood sample and measuring its precipitation rate. The doctor may then decide if the size of red blood cells is normal or not. In the case of rheumatic fever and gout, red blood cells adhere together, and therefore, their volume and radius increase and the sedimentation ( precipitation ) rate increases. In the case of anemia, the precipitation rate is below normal, since the red cells break up. Hence, their volume and radius decrease .

I) Define 1) fluid II) Essay questions 1) Prove that the velocity of a liquid at any point in a tube is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area of the tube at that point. 2) Explain the property of viscosity. 3) Illustrate some applications of viscosity. III) Drills 1- Water flows in a horizontal hose at a rate of 0.002 m3/s, calculate the velocity of the water in a pipe of cross sectional area 1cm2 . (20 m/s) 2- Water flows in a rubber hose of diameter 1.2 cm with velocity 3 m/s. Calculate the diameter of the hose if the velocity of the emerging water is 27 m/s . (0.4cm) 3- A main artery of radius 0.035 cm branches out to 80 capillaries of radius 0.1 mm. If the velocity of blood through the artery is 0.044 m/s ,what is the velocity of blood in each of the capillaries? velocity of water at A is 12 m/s, what is the velocity at B ? 5- The cross sectional area of a water pipe at the ground floor is (0.0067 m/s) (60 m/s) 4x 10-4m2. The 4- The cross sectional area of a tube at point A is 10 cm2 and at point B is 2cm2. If the 2) viscosity 3) coefficient of viscosity
Unit 2: Unit 2 : Fluid Mechanics Fluid Mechanics Chapter Hydrostatics Chapter 5:5: Hydrodynamics
133 133 (4m/s)
velocity of the water is 2 m/s. When the pipe tapers to a cross sectional area of 2 x 10-4m2 at the end, calculate the velocity of the flow of water at the upper floor.
132
Unit 2 :
Fluid Mechanics
Chapter 5:
Hydrodynamics
It can be concluded that :
- Gas molecules are in a state of continuous random motion.
Unit 3:
- In their motion, they collide with each other and collide with the walls of the container constant for different gases at the same conditions).
- The distance between the molecules is called intermolecular distance (more or less
ammonia gas
Heat
(NH3)
diffusion of a white cloud of ammonium chloride
A cloud of Ammonium chloride diffuses to fill the two cylinders
paper
(NH4Cl)
Hydrogen chloride gas a
remove the paper
Chapter 6:
(HCl)
Presence of gas intermoleculor distances
Fig (6 2)
The evidence of the existence of intermolecular distances can be shown as follows: When a graduated cylinder filled with ammonia gas is placed upside down on another cylinder filled with hydrogen chloride gas (Fig 6-2), a white cloud of ammonium chloride is formed, then it grows and diffuses until it occupies all the space within the two cylinders. This can be explained as follows. Hydrogen chloride gas molecules - in spite of their higher density - diffuse upwards, through spaces separating ammonia gas molecules, where they combine together forming ammonium chloride molecules, which diffuse to fill the
Gas Laws
137
Chapter (6)
Overview
The Gas Laws
Unit 3: Heat Chapter 6: Gas Laws

136
motion as follows:
It can be shown that gas molecules are in continuous random motion called Brownian If we examine candle smoke through the microscope,we notice that the smoke
particles move randomly. The motion of the carbon particles is caIled Brownian motion, after Brown, an English botanist who discovered for the first time in 1827 that tiny pollen grains suspended in water moved randomly.
a. gas molecules undergo a random translational motion
b. liquid molecules undergo a translational and vibrational motion
c. solid molecules undergo a vibrational motion
Motion of molecules materials
Fig (6 1)
Interpretation of Brownian motion
different velocities. During their motion, they collide with each other and collide with smoke particles. Due to the resultant force on a smoke particle, it will move in a certain direction through a short distance and so on, always moving, colliding, and changing and in constant collision, so they change their direction randomly (Fig 6-1).
Air (gas) molecules move in a haphazard (random) motion in all directions with
direction. The reason for this is that the gas molecules are in a free motion (due to heat)
Firstly: the relation between the volume and pressure of a gas at constant temperature (Boyles law) :
To study the relation between the volume of a fixed mass of gas and its pressure at constant temperature, the apparatus shown in Fig (6- 3) is used. It consists of a burette (A) connected by a length of rubber tube to a glass reservoir (B) containing a suitable amount of mercury. (A) and (B) are mounted side by side onto a vertical stand attached to a base provided by three screws with which the stand is adjusted vertically. The reservoir (B) is movable along the stand either upwards or downwards and can be fixed at any desired position.
Unit 3: Heat
Procedure:
1- The tap (A) is opened and the reservoir (B) is raised until the mercury level in burette A is about half full, taking into account that the mercury levels are the same in both sides. (Fig 6-3a) . 2- The tap (A) is then closed. The volume of the enclosed air is measured, let it be (Vol)1. Its equals the atmospheric pressure Pa (cmHg) which may be determined using a barometer. 3- The reservoir (B) is then raised a few centimetres and the volume of the enclosed air is measured (Vol)2. The difference (a)
Boyles apparatus
Chapter 6:
pressure is also measured, let it be P1, which
Gas Laws
(b)
Fig (6 3)
(c)
139
upper cylinder. Also, ammonia gas molecules - in spite of their lower density - diffuse downwards through spaces separating hydrogen chloride gas molecules, where they combine forming ammonium chloride molecules, which diffuse to fill the lower cylinder. Accordingly, we can conclude that there are large spacings separating the gas molecules, known as intermolecular spacings. This is to be tied to the compressibility of gases. These large intermolecular spacings allow gas molecules to get packed together when pressed. Thus, a volume occupied by a gas decreases with increased pressure.

138
Gas Laws
Experiments performed to evaluate the thermal expansion of a gas are complicated. The volume of a gas is affected by changes in pressure as well as by temperature. This difficulty does not arise in the case of solids or liquids, as these are very much less compressible. In order to make a full study of the behavior of a gas, as regards volume, temperature and pressure, three separate experiments have to be carried out to investigate the effect of each pair, respectively, i.e., we study the relation between two variables only, keeping the third constant.These experiments are 1- The relation between the volume and pressure at constant temperature (Boyles law). 2- The relation between the volume and temperature at constant pressure (Charles law). 3- The relation between the pressure and temperature at constant volume (Pessure law or Jollys law). We are going to study each of these three relations.
The effect of temperature on the volume of a gas at constant pressure:

Unit 3:
We have already known that gases contract by cooling and expand by heating. But, does To show this, let us do the following experiment:
the same volume of different gases at constant pressure expand by the same amount?
1- Take two flasks of exactly equal volume, each fitted with a cork through which a tube bent 90 is inserted. In each tube, there is a
Heat
thread of mercury of length 2 or 3 cm. Fill one of the flasks with oxygen and the other with carbon vessel filled with water as shown in Fig (6 - 5). dioxide or air. Submerge the two flasks in a 2- Pour hot water into the vessel and notice the distance moved by the mercury thread in both tubes. You will find that these distances are equal. This indicates that equal volumes of
Effect of temperature on the volume of a gas at constant pressure
CO2
O2
Fig (6 5)
Chapter 6:
different gases expand equally when heated through the same temperature rise . In Volume expansion coefficient of a gas at constant pressure v is defined as : rise in temperature ". other words, they have the same volume expansion coefficient.
"It is the increase in volume at constant pressure per unit volume at 0C for 1C
Gas Laws
141
between the two levels of mercury in both sides (h) is determined . In this case, the 4- Repeat the previous step by raising the reservoir (B) another suitable distance and 5- The reservoir (B) is then lowered until the mercury level in (B) becomes lower than its level in (A) by a few centimeters. Then, the volume of the enclosed air is measured (Vol)4 and its pressure (P4) is determined P = P - h, where h is the difference between a 4 the two levels of mercury in both sides (Fig 6-3c). (Vol)5 and P are measured in the same manner.
5
pressure of the enclosed air (cmHg) is P2 = Pa + h (Fig 6 - 3 b).

3

140
measure (Vol)3 and P in the same manner.
6- The previous step is repeated once more by lowering (B) another suitable distance. Then 7- Plot the volume of the enclosed air (Vol) and the reciprocal pressure ( a straight line (Fig 6 - 4) Thus, we can conclude that:
Vol 1 P 1 ).We obtain P
proportional to the pressure, provided that the temperature remains constant. This is "Boyles law". Boyles law can be written in another form, as:
V= Vol const const P (6 - 1)
,i.e.,the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely
i.e., is : at a constant temperature, the product PVol of any given mass of a gas is constant.
Fig (6 4) Relation between volume and reciprocal pressure of gas
PVol = Const.
Secondly: the relation between the gas volume and its temperature at constant pressure (Charles law) :
To investigate the relation between the gas volume and its temperature at constant pressure, the apparatus shown in Fig(6 - 6a) is used. It consists of a capillary glass tube 30 cm long and about 1 mm diameter with one end closed. The tube contains a short pellet of mercury enclosing an amount of air inside it whose length is measured by a ruler stand. The apparatus is equipped with a thermometer inside a glass envelope. We follow the folowing procedure: 1- The glass envelope is packed with crushed ice and water. It is then left until the air inside the
pellet of mercury capillary tube steam inlet glass envelope

142
Cork steam outlet
Charles apparatus
Fig (6 6a)
glass tube has fully acquired the temperature of melting ice(0C). 2- The length of the enclosed air is then measured, and since the tube has a uniform cross-section, the length of the encloscd air is taken as being proportional to its volume 3- The ice and water are removed from the envelope and steam is passed through the top and out at the bottom for several minutes to be sure that the temperature of air becomes 100C . Then, the length of the enclosed air is measured. It is taken as a measure of its 4- A relation between Vol and tC is plotted (Fig 6-6b). We see that such a relation is a straight line,which if extended will intersect the abscissa at -273C . volume (Vol )
100C
(Vol )oc
5- Repeating this experiment several times for different gases and measuring the amount of a- At constant volume, the pressure of a given mass of gas increases by increasing b- At constant volume, equal pressures of gases increase equally, when heated through at constant volume (p) as : temperature. increase of gas pressure at constant volume for the same rise in temperature, we find:
Unit 3: Heat
the same range of temperatures.We define the pressure expansion coefficient of a gas
cm degree rise in temperature. It is found to be the same for all gases.
lt is the increase in gas pressure at constant volume per unit pressure at 0C for
Thirdly: the relation between the pressure and temperature of a gas at constant volume (pressure law or Jollys law):
Chapter 6:
It was found experimentally that the increase in gas pressure is directly proportional to the initial pressure at 0C (P0C) as well as to the rise in its temperature, (tC). This is expressed as follows:
thermometer
P0C (tC)
PP (tC) P0 Ot C O
mercury
Gas Laws
P = P P0C (tC)
P =
(6-3)
Fig (6 8)
Jollys apparatus
where p is a constant value. It is the pressure
145
1- To investigate how the pressure of a gas depends on temperature, the apparatus shown (Fig 6-7a) may be used. The gas under test is confined in a flask by mercury in a U tube. The flask is fitted with a cork. The surfaces of mercury in the two branches (A) and (B) have the same level at x,y. Thus, the pressure of the enclosed air is atmospheric. We then determine the temperature of air. Let it be t1C.
The effect of temperature on the pressure of a gas at constant volume:

144
(a)
(b)
Effect of the temperature on the pressure of a gas at constant volume
Fig (6 7)
(c)
2- Submerge the flask in a vessel containing lukewarm water at t2C. You will notice that 3- We pour mercury in the funnel C, until the level of mercury in branch A returns to the at t1C (Fig 6-7c). the level of mercury decreases in branch A, while it rises in branch B (Fig 6-7b).
mark x then the volume of the enclosed air in the flask at t2C is equal to the volume
4- We notice that the surface of mercury in branch B exceeds that in branch A by an amount h (cm). This means that the pressure of the enclosed air has increased as a result of the temperature rise from t1C to t2C by an amount equal h (cmHg)( Fig 6-7c).
expansion cofficient of a gas with temperature, at constant volume.It is the same for all gases. It consists of a glass bulb (A). The bulb is joined to a capillary tube (B) bent in the form of two right angles. The bulb and the tube are mounted on a vertical ruler attached to a board which is fixed on a horizontal base provided with 3 leveling screws. The capillary tube (B) is connected to a mercury reservoir (C) by means of a rubber tube. We follow the following procedures: 2- Pour mercury in (A) to 1/7 of its volume to compensate for the increase in its volume when heated, so that the volume of the remaining part is still constant, (the volume expansion coefficient of mercury is seven times the volume expansion coefficient of glass). 3- Submerge reservoir (A) in a beaker filled with water and pour mercury in the free end (C), until it rises in the other branch to mark (X). 4- Heat water in the vessel to the boiling point and wait until the temperature settles, and the mercury level in the branch connected to the reservoir stops decreasing. 5- Move the free end (C) upwards until the the mercury level in the other branch rises to the same mark X. Then, measure the difference in height between the mercury levels in the two branches (h). From this, determine the pressure of the enclosed air P, which is 6- Move the branch (C) downwards and stop heating. Then let the reservoir cool down to nearly 90C. Then move the branch (C) upwards until the mercury level in the branch connected to the reservoir rises to mark X. equal to the atmospheric pressure (cm Hg) plus h, i.e., P=Pa+h 1- Determine the atmospheric pressure (Pa) using a barometer. To measure p of a gas at constant volume, Jollys apparatus shown in Fig (6-8) is used.

146
1- Refering to (Fig 6-9), BC = (Vol)1 DE = (Vol)2 AC = T1 AE = T2 Vol T
Other Forms of Charles and Jollys (pressure) laws :

150
we note that the triangles ABC and ADE are similar. Therefore:
Vol = const. T (Vol)1 = (Vol)2 T1 T2 (6 - 6)
Thus, at constant pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its temperature on the Kelvin scale. This is another formulation of Charles law. 2- Using Fig.(6-10), the following relation can be obtained in a similar way: P1 P = 2 Z1 Z2 (6 - 7)
That is
its temperature on the Kelvin scale. This is another form of pressure (Jollys) Iaw.
P = const Z or P T Thus, at constant volume, the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to
2- The temperature of a normal human body on the Kelvin sca1e is about: a) 0K d) 373K e) 310K b) 37K c) 100K
Unit 3:
3- The volume of a given mass of a gas is :
a) inversely proportional to its temperature at constant pressure. c) directly proportional to its pressure at constant temperature. d) directly proportional to its temperature at variable pressure.
b) inversely proportional to its pressure at constant temperature.
Heat
4- The pressure of a gas at 10C is doubled if it is heated at constant volume to : d) 293C a) 20C b) 80C e) 410C. c) 160C
e) inversely proportional to its pressure at variable temperature.
5- If we press a gas slowly to half of its original volume: a) its temperature is doubled.
Chapter 6:
b) its temperature is decreased to half its value. c) its pressure will be half of its original value. d) the velocity of its molecules is doubled. e) the pressure of the gas is doubled.
III) Eassy questions
1- How can you show experimentally that the volume coefficient of expansion at 2- Describe an experiment to find the pressure coefficient of a gas at constant volume 3- How can you verify Boyles law experimentally? volume? and that it is the same for all gases. constant pressure is the same for all gases?
Gas Laws
157
4- How can you show that pressure of a gas increases by raising temperature at constant

156
I) Complete (Fill in the spaces) :
Which phrase (a-e) completes each of the next following statements (1-3)? a) increases by a small value. c) remains constant. d) doubles. b) decreases by a small value.
1- If the pressure of a gas is doubled at constant temperature. So its volume............... of mercury in the barometer .............
e) dereases to its half value.
2- If a barometer is transferred to the top of a mountain above the sea level, the length 3- If the absolute temperature of a gas is decreased to be half its original value at constant pressure, so its volume ...............
II) Choose the correct answer:
1- The increase of the temperature of a cars tire during motion leads to : 1) an increase in air pressure inside the tire. 2) an increase of air volume inside the tire. Choose the correct letter (a-e)
3) a decrease of the contact area of the tire with the road. a) (1, 2, 3) are correct.
b) (1, 2) only are correct. c) (1, 3) only are correct. d) 3 only is correct. e) 1 only is correct
5- How can you determine experimentally the absolute zero?
6- Explain the meaning of zero Kelvin and the absolute temperature scale. 7- Deduce the general gas law.

158
IV) Drills:
1- The temperature of one liter of gas is raised from 10C to 293C at constant pressure, find its volume. (2 liters)
2- A container containing air at 0C is cooled to (-91C). Its pressure becomes 40 cm Hg. Find the pressure of the gas at 0C. (60 cm Hg.)
3- The volume of a quantity of oxygen at 91C under 84 cm Hg is 760 cm3 (S.T.P). Find its volume at 0C under a pressure of 76 cm.Hg. (630 cm3)
4- A flask containing air is heated from 15C to 87C. Find the ratio between the volume of air that goes out from it to its original volume. (25%)
5- A tire contains air under pressure 1.5 Atm at temperature (-3C). Find the pressure of constant. (1.8 Atm)
air inside the tire if the temperature is raised to 51C, assuming that the volume is
6- An air bubble has a volume of 28cm3 at a depth of 10.13 m beneath the water surface. Find its volume before reaching the surface of the water, assuming that the temperature at a depth of 10.13 m, is 7C and that at the surface is 27C. (60 cm3)
(Let g = 10ms-2 , Pa = 1.013 105 N/m2, = 1000 kg/m3)
Avogadros number
Unit 3: Heat Chapter 7: The KineticTheory of Gases
Different quantities of substances - even as small as 1cm3 - contain a huge number of atoms or molecules. It is convenient to express such numbers in terms of a unit called mole or gram mole. It is agreed upon that a mole (or gram mole) of any substance contains the number of atoms or molecules equal to the number of atoms in 12 gram of carbon .It is found experimentally that 12 gram of carbon contains 6.023x1023 carbon measuring unit of a quantity of matter in the international system of units. Although the original definition of mole was associated with carbon, yet the concept of the mole is generalized to any ensemble of particles, such that one mole contains Avogadros number water contains 6.023 x 1023 water molecules. In general, the mass of one mole of any i.e., the mass of one mole of carbon is 12 gram, one mole of oxygen is 32 gram and one mole of water is 18 gram. Each of these quantities contains the same number of atoms or molecules, which is Avogadros number. Thus, the mole of any substance is defined as the quantity of this substance in grams, which equals the atomic or molecular mass of the substance. Oxygen gas has atomic mass 16, i.e the molecular mass of a mole of Oxygen is 32.
Avogadros law
atoms. This is known as Avogadros number. NA The mole is, thus, introduced as a
of these particles. Thus, a mole of iron contains 6.023 x 1023 iron atom, and one mole of
substance equals numerically the atomic or molecular mass (in grams) of this substance,
Avogadros law states that: Equal volumes of different gases contain equal number of molecules under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. Alternatirely, Each mole of any gas at
161
Chapter 7: The KineticTheory of Gases
Chapter 7
Overview
The KineticTheory of Gases
To study the behavior of gases and explain their different laws, one can make use of the kinetic theory of gases. This theory is based on postulates given below: 1) A gas is composed of molecules which we shall regard as very minute perfectly elastic spheres obeying Newtons law of motion. 2) The intermolecular distances are relatively large, hence, the volume of the gas molecules is negligible compared to the volume occupied by the gas itself(the volume of the container). 3) The forces of intermolecular attraction between the gas molecules are very weak due to the large intermolecular distances, so they are negligible. Therefore, the potential energy of the molecules is zero. This means that the gas molecules do not interact with each other. Thus, the mean distances which a molecule moves before colliding with another (called mean free path) does not depend on the mass or type of molecule, and is statistically the same for all gases under the same conditions. Therefore, a certain volume of any gas at S.T.P. contains the same number of molecules regardless of the gas type. 4) Gas molecules are in continuous random motion due to the collisions between each other and due to their collisions with the walls of the container. The molecules move between any two successive collisions in straight lines. 5) The collisions between the gas molecules are perfectly elastic, i.e., the total kinetic energy of the gas molecules remains constant before and after the collisions. 6) The gas is in thermal equilibrium state with the walls of its container.
Unit 3: Heat
160
In reality, a gas contains a huge number of molecules moving randomly. Studying the gas on the level of the molecules is called the microscopic point of view. This has led to the kinetic theory of gases. We start by the following postulates: 1) A gas contains a huge number of molecules in random motion. 2) The size of the molecule is much smaller than the total volume of the gas. 3) Collisions among the molecules and with the walls are elastic, and hence no energy is lost. 4) Interactive forces among the molecules are negligible, except at collision. Hence, there is no potential energy involved. 5) Molecules obey Newtons laws. Consider one of the gas molecules in a box in the form of a cube whose side is l (Fig 7-1). The mass of the molecule is m, its average velocity of the box originates from the collision of the gas molecules with the walls. The is v and the x component of velocity is vx. The pressure exerted by the gas on the walls
pressure P is the force per unit area P = F/A, where A= l2, and F is the force which the molecule applies to the wall. The linear momentum is PL .The change in the linear momentum for a molecule 6PL is the difference between the linear momentum before and after collision with the wall:
F= 6P L 6t
Because the collision is elastic, the velocity after collision in the x direction is -vx . The change
in linear momentum transmitted to the wall 6PL is opposite to the change in the linear
163
Chapter 7: The KineticTheory of Gases Unit 3: Heat
0C and 1 Atm (S.T.P) occupies a volume of 22.4 liters. Therefore, each mole of any gas contains the same number of molecules at S.T.P. This number is given by NA = 6.023 x 1023 molecules/Mole. To understand this, let us say we have NA molecules of oxygen (molecular mass is 32 x mH where mH is the mass of the hydrogen atom). The Mass of one mole of oxygen is mH x 32 x NA. Thus, the mass is a constant (NAmH) times 32. If we have NA hydrogen molecules, then their mass is 2 x (NAmH). In other words, 32 gram oxygen (one mole oxygen) and 2 gram hydrogen (one mole hydrogen) have the same number of molecules (NA). Also, at the same temperature and pressure, the interatomic or intermolecular distances are the same on average, due to the random motion of gas molecules and non existence of attractive forces or potential energy between them, which are the postulates of the perfect gas. Consequently, any mole of any gas at S.T.P. occupies the same volume, which is found experimentally to be 22.4 liters.
Gas density:
molecule(m), we can calculate the density of the gas () from the relation:
=
Nm kg/m3 Vol (7 - 1)
Knowing the number of molecules (N) in a given volume of gas Vol and the mass of one
Gas pressure
Our study of the properties of gases in terms of pressure, volume and temperature have led to the deduction of the gas laws. Such a study is called the macroscopic point of view.
162
momentum of the molecule.

6PL = -mvx - (mvx) = - 2mvx
Y Z
The change in the linear momentum delivered to the wall 6PL is opposite to the change in the linear momentum of the molecule.
L
6P = 2mv
l l l
Fig (7 1 )
Number of gas molecules in cube
The force with which the molecule acts on the wall is given by :
F= 6P L 2mv X = 6t 6t
where 6t , is the time of contact between the molecule and the wall upon impact. The impulse Iimp delivered by the molecule to the wall is given by: Iimp = F6t = 6PL = 2mvx Because the time interval 6t is very small and indeterminate, we can take the time between collisions tav as a substitute measure. In this case, the force is the average force acting all the time such that: Fav tav = F6t where tav is the average time between for collisions of a molecule with the walls:
t av = 2l vx
Unit 3: Heat
164
nRT =
mv 22 2 nN A av 2 3 (7 - 7)
Unit 3: Heat
2 2 3 R mvav 2 T = 2 2 3 NA
where R is constant for every molecule and is called Boltzmann constant(k) :

NA R k 38 u = = 1.3 10 23 J J/K / k NA 3 2 kT 1 mv22 uT = mvav 2 3 2 (7 - 8)
From equations (7-7) and (7-8) ,
(7 - 9)
This relation ties the macroscopic theory of a gas to the microscopic model .It is to be noted that temperature T (a macroscopic quantity) measures the average kinetic energy of a molecule (a microscopic quantity). As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy increases. of freedom) has associated with kinetic energy 1 kT. In fact this relation does not apply 2 particles in random motion. We might be tempted to believe that at T = 0 K, the kinetic energy, and hence the velocity is zero, i.e., everything stops at absolute zero. In reality, we cannot claim so, because at absolute zero the equations of the ideal gas are no longer valid. It is known that gases are transformed in turn to liquids at low temperatures (chapter 8). Einstein showed that even at absolute zero, there is still energy called rest energy. In such a case, the above equations become inapplicable. It is to be noted from equation (7-9) that each direction of motion (dimension or degree
solely to gas molecules but also to electrons in a metal , and even to any ensemble of
167
p= P
1 Nm 2 vav v 3 V
ol
(7 - 2)
Referring to equation (7-1),
1 2 P p = vav 3
(7 - 3)
where is the gas density and v2 is the mean square velocity of the gas molecules.
The scientific concept of temperature :
From equation (7-2), multiplying the numerator and denominator by 2 :

2 PVol = 2 N mvav 3 2
We note that the number of gas molecules N is the number of moles times Avogadros number NA :
22 mvav mv 2 PVPv ol = 3 nN A 2
N = nN A
(7 - 4)
Boltzman
From the laws of the ideal gas, the macroscopic relation is given by :
PV
ol
= nR
(7 - 5) (7 - 6)
Unit 3: Heat
PV Pv = = nRT nRT
ol
where R is the universal gas constant = 8.314 J/moleK, n is the number of moles in the substance. This relation is based on experimental observations, while the microscopic relation is based on theoretical deduction. We must equate the right hand side of both equations (7-4) and (7-6).
166
and occupies 22.4 liters at S.T.P., and that Avogadros number equals 6.02 x 1023, Boltzmanns constant equals 1.38 x 10-23 J/K, and the atmospheric pressure is 1.013 x 105 N/m2
Solution
Unit 3: Heat
There are two methods to solve this problem. The first method: Po(0C)P = 1 2 l vo 3 oo
o
1 MM 2 V 2 v 1 3 Vol
o
3Po(0 C)
3Po(0 C) (Vol) o M
0C
velocity at S.T.P.
volume and pressure are those at S.T.P. and o is the density of the gas and vo is average v V V
o -3 3x3 0.76 x 13600 x22.4 9.8 x x 10 22. x 1.013 x 105 x = 493 m/s 0.028 0.028
where M is the mass of one mole of the gas and Vol (0C), Po(0C) and the values of the
The second method: 1 m v22 = 3 KT k o 2 2 1 2

V v
M 2 3 vo = KT kT NA N 2 A 3 x 1.38 x 10 -23 x 273 x 6.02 x 10 23 0.028
3KTN k NA = = o M
= 493 m/s
169

I) Essay questions :
1. State the main postulates of the kinetic theory of gases. 2. On the basis of the postulates of the kinetic theory of gases, show how to prove that the gas pressure P is given by the relation: P= 1 v2 3
where is the gas density and v2 is the mean - square speed of its molecules. 3. Using the previous relation, show how to find expressions for each of the following: a) the root - mean - square speed of the gas molecules. b) the concept of the gas temperature. c) the average kinetic energy of a free particle. 4. A uniform cubic vessel of side length l has gas whose molecule has mass m moving in the x direction with velocity vx, and collides with the walls of the vessel in perfectly elastic collisions. a) What is the linear momentum of the molecule before collision? b) What is the linear momentum of the molecule after collision? c) What is the change in linear momentum of the molecule on collision? d) What is the distance traveled by the molecule before the next collision with the walls of the vessel? e) What is the number of the collisions with the walls of the vessel per second made by
171
In a Nutshell
The mole of any substance equals the molecular mass number in grams. Avagadros number is the number of molecules in one mole and equals 6.023 x 1023 The density of a gas is given by :
=
Nm kg/m3 Vol
where N is the number of gas molecules in a certain volume Vol and m is the mass of one molecule. The pressure of a gas in a container is calculated from the relation: 2 P= 1 l vav 3 where is the density of the gas and v2 is the mean - square speed of the molecules. The average kinetic energy of one of the gas molecules is directly proportional to its absolute temperature in K and the relation between them is: 1 3 m v 2 = KT k 2 2 where k is Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
Unit 3: Heat
170
the molecule? f) What is the total change in linear momentum of one molecule per second due to its successive collisions with the walls of the vessel? g) What does the above quantity represent? h) If NA is the number of the gas molecules in the container, what will be the total force acting on the internal surface of the vessel?
II) Drills:
1. Hydrogen gas in a vessel is at S.T.P. Calculate the root mean square speed of its molecules, given that a hydrogen mole = 0.002 kg and Avogadros number = 6.02 x 1023, 1 Atm = 1.013 x 105N/m2 on each impact perpendicular to the walls of the vessel? constant k = 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1. (1844 m/s) (1.224 x 10-23kg.ms-1) (6.21 x 10-21J). (1.168 x105m/s) 2. What is the change in linear momentum of the hydrogen molecule in the above problem 3. Calculate the average kinetic energy of a free electron at 27C, given that Boltzmanns 4. Using the data given in the previous problem, find the root mean square speed of a free electron if its mass is 9.1 x 10-23 kg. 5. Find the ratio between the root mean square speed of the molecules of a certain gas at temperature 6000K (Suns surface) and that at temperature 300 K (Earths surface). (4.472)
Unit 3: Heat
172
Mechanism of achieving low temperatures

This can be done in various ways. The simplest is to establish contact with another precooled substance. Ice or dry ice ( solid CO2) or liquid air may be used. Temperatures of 77K ( liquid nitrogen temperature) have been widely used. Liquid helium temperature (4.2K) has even been reached . From the concept of latent heat of vaporization, the liquid be gaseous again. This results in the cooling of the substance required. gas draws energy from the material to be cooled in order for the liquid gas to evaporate to Low temperatures may be achieved by drawing or removing energy out of the matter,
Unit 3: Heat Chapter 8:
Superfluidity
can flow without resistance (or without friction) at temperatures words, it loses viscosity completely at such low temperatures. It can even flow upwards uninterruptedly against gravity or friction along heat and is one of the best thermal conductors. Some liquid gases have the property of superfluidity, i.e., they
Cryogenics (Low Temperature Physics
close to obsolute zero. Helium liquid has this property. In other
the walls of its container (Fig 81). It also has very low specific
Superfluidity
vacuum reflecting surfaces hot or cold liquid
Fig (8-1)
Dewars Flask
transfer. It is used to store liquid gases, since it is designed to It is a glass or metallic container evacuated to prevent heat
prevent heat losses by conduction, convection and radiation. It consists of a double walled pyrex container with silver plated walls walls is evacuated to prevent conduction and convection, e.g., as in to minimize heat transfer by radiation. The spacing between the
Dewars flask
Fig (8-2)
175
Chapter 8
Overview
Cryogenics (Low Temperature Physics)
Cryogenics (or low temperature physics) is a branch of physics dealing with the cases when temperature approaches absolute zero (-237C) or 0K . The temperature scale used in low temperature physics is the Kelvin temperature scale (the absolute temperature scale) which is based on the behavior of the ideal gas.
Van Der Waals Effect:

which the ideal gas laws are based is neglecting the interactive (attractive) forces among the molecules of the gas, as well as comparison with the volume of the container. The properties of increases. Interaction among gas molecules can no longer be neglected. This interaction is called van der Waals effect . It is neglecting the size or the volume of the gas molecule in a real gas differ from those of the ideal gas, as the gas density
Van der Waals
One of the postulates of the kinetic theory of gases upon

174
unlike chemical interaction between atoms leading to the
formation of molecules. The attractive forces among the molecules become important as they lead to the liquefaction of the gas under high pressure. Due to the high pressure, van der Waals interaction takes over, where two molecules approaching each other attract together, and eventually attract more molecules, until the gas switches to the condensed state of matter (liquid or even solid). This mechanism explains the liquefaction of gases, which has led to achieving very low
temperatures approaching near absolute zero.
Cryogenics (Low Temperature Physics Unit 3: Heat Chapter 8:

176
a thermos bottle (Fig 82). It is used to store liquid nitrogen (boiling point 77K) and liquid oxygen (boiling point 90K). As to helium (boiling point 4.2 K and low specific heat), it is stored in a double Dewars flask, one inside the other. The spacing between the two flasks is filled with liquid nitrogen (due to the low specific heat and boiling point of helium).
How does a refrigerator work ?

in one of two ways: From the law of conservation of energy, if a gas acquires thermal energy Qth it is used up
1) an increase in internal energy U which is manifested by an increase in temperature. 2) work done by the gas molecules W. There are two types of heat transfer. One is at constant temperature with the surroundings, i.e. , at constant internal energy (6U = 0). In this case, the acquired energy is transformed in full into mechanical work done by the gas. This is called an isothermal process. The second type is performed when the gas is thermally isolated with its surroundings. So, it can neither acquire nor lose heat. In this case, Qth = 0 The work done by the gas must be at the expense of its internal energy. If W is positive, the gas does the work and the internal energy decreases (6U is negative), i.e., the gas cools down. If work is done on the gas, then W is negative, so the internal energy increases and its temperature rises. The process when Qth = 0 (W is positive or negative) is called adiabatic process. A refrigerator is an application to both isothermal and adiabatic processes , and the coolant (refrigerant) or the cryogenic liquid used is freon (boiling point- 30C) or its substitutes.
metallic compounds) becomes very high, i.e., the electrical resistance vanishes. This occurs at a critical (transitional) called superconductors. If current happens to flow in a superconductor, it continues to flow even if the voltage is met by nearly zero resistance. Such a metal will not be heated by current flow. No energy is consumed in compensating electrical energy associated with an electric current, as in ordinary resistors. difference is removed. It will continue to flow for years, as it
critical temperature
temperature (Fig 84). Materials having this property are
Superconductivity
Fig (8-4)
Superconductors can be used to pick up weak wireless signals. Therefore, they are used in the electric circuits of satellites. It is interesting to notice that if a permanent magnet is placed over a disk of a superconducting material, then the current in the superconductor generates a magnetic field, which is always repulsive with the external magnet, so the permanent magnet remains hanging in the air. This is called Meissner effect (Fig 8 5).
Meissner's effect
Fig (8-5)
Magnetically levitated train
Fig (8-6)
179
Cryogenics (Low Temperature Physics Unit 3: Heat Chapter 8:
through a condenser (an apparatus outside the refrigerator). Heat exchange occurs in which
heat energy in the gas is radiated out to the surroundings being at a lower temperature. The high pressured gas condenses and becomes a liquid at constant temperature (isothermal into the freezer compartment, the refrigerant is forced to expand in an adiabatic process region into a low pressure region. The refrigerants volume increases and does work in process). The liquid refrigerant is returned to the refrigerator once more. Before it enters through the expansion valve. In this case, the liquid molecules diffuse from a high pressure doing so against the spring in the valve. Thus, work is done at the expense of the internal
energy of the refrigerant. Since no external heat exchange is allowed (Qth= 0 or W is positive so U is negative). The internal energy of the liquid decreases so does its temperature. Thus, the refrigerant is now back to be a liquid as it was when we started the to the condenser outside the refrigerator. Therefore, the refrigerator cools down. Of course, cycle. The cycle repeats. The final result is the expulsion of thermal energy from the cabin the refrigerator must be well insulated. It should be noted that the electric energy needed by internal energy one throughout complete cycle must remain unchanged (Unet = 0). The
the refrigerator throughout the cycle is the energy consumed in operating the piston. The compressor is, thus, a heat pump that transfers the heat from the refrigerator to the outside operation: E = Wnet = (Qth)
net
through the work done by the compressor Wnet. Thus, the electric energy E required for
Superconductivity
In 1911, i.e., 3 years after the liquefaction of helium, Onnes and his assistants discovered superconductivity. When the temperature reaches a few degrees above absolute zero, the electrical conductivity of some metals (platinum, aluminum, zinc, lead, mercury and some
onnes
178
Learn at Leisure
One of the most popular and safest tools in medical diagnosis nowadays is magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In this method, a magnetic field affects the nuclei of hydrogen in the body. Exciting these nuclei with an alternating magnetic field, waves are radiated from the excited hydrogen nuclei, which are indicative of water ( hydrogen ) localization (oedemas and tumors).An internal image of the body can be made (Fig 87), which helps identify such lumps. Superconducting magnets are used to counteract the huge energy losses in normal magnets, hence heating effects are reduced.
Magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI )
MRI image
Fig (8-7)
181

180
The reason for this is that superconductors belong to a class of materials called diamagnetic materials in which the magnetic field inside the material is zero. Therefore, an external magnet induces current in the superconductor which creates a magnetic field inside the superconductor in an opposite direction, so that the net magnetic field inside the superconductor is zero . This phenomenon has been put to use by designing a high speed (magnetically levitated) train. The train carries coils of a superconducting material. When the train moves, it induces current in fixed coils, which produces a magnetic field repelling the inducing field. The train is raised above the rails for a few centimeters . This levitation eliminates friction (Fig 8 6), hence increases the train velocity. The levitated train may reach a velocity of 225 km/h . The discovery of room temperature superconductive materials will lead to expansion in the applications of superconductivity, since no cooling is then needed . Superconductors are also used in electric power plants and in transmission lines, where voltage losses are eliminated due to the vanishing resistance .
Questions
1) Explain each of the following phenomena : a) Van Der Waals effect . b) low temperature phenomena . c) superfluidity of some liquefied gases . d) superconductivity . 2 ) Give reasons : a)the use of two Dewar's flasks to store helium . b) the spacing between the double walls in a Dewar's flask is evacuated . c) helium can flow upwards along the walls of its container without stopping . d) a levitated train has been designed with a very high speed (225 km/hr ) . e) a magnet may remain hanging up above a superconductor regardless of the polarity . 3) State the most important applications for each of the following : a) Dewar's flask . b) superconductors . 4) Illustrate the difference between : a)chemical reaction and Van Der Waals reaction . b) the helium liquid and the nitrogen liquid .
Unit 3: Heat Chapter 8: Cryogenics (Low Temperature Physics

183
In a Nutshell
Low temperature physics deals with the study of materials at temperatures near absolute zero Van der Waals effect expresses the mutual interaction between molecules and is different from chemical interaction, which leads to the formation of molecules. The mechanism for achieving very low temperatures depends on drawing energy from the material. This may be done by putting the material to be cooled in contact with a cooler material such as a liquefied gas. Superfluidity : Some liquefied gases can flow without resistance or without friction at temperatures close to absolute zero. Helium is a superfluid , i.e. its viscosity vanishes. It can also flow up along the walls of the container against gravity and friction and has low specific heat. Dewar's flask is a glass or metallic container evacuated to prevent heat transfer. It is used to store liquefied gases such as nitrogen, oxygen and helium and so on. Superconductivity: Some metals have excessive electrical conductivity (zero resistance) at very low temperatures. Meissner effect : If a permanent magnet is placed above a superconductor, the current induced in the superconductor generates a magnetic field which repels the permanent magnet so the permanent magent remains hanging in the air.
182
sectional area (m2) and ( ) is the resistivity (m).The electrical conductivity of a certain material (-1m-1) 6) Ohms Law:
1 ). is the reciprocal of the resistivity = ( e e
Unit 4:
Dynamic Electricity
The current intensity in a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its terminals at a constant temperature : V = IR 7) as a convention, the direction of the electric current always goes from the positive terminal to the negative terminal outside the source into a closed electric circuit. It is opposite to the direction of motion of electrons. It is called the conventional direction of
Connecting resistors Firstly: series connection
current.
Chapter 9:
Connection in series
Fig (9 1)
Electric Current and Ohms Law
Resistors are connected in series to obtain a higher resistance (Fig91). The equivalent resistance of a group of resistors connected in series can be obtained in connecting these resistors in an electric circuit comprising a battery,an ammeter,a rheostat (variable resistor) and a switch (Fig 9-2). The circuit is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so that an across R1, V2 across R2, V3 across R3) as well as the total voltage (V), which is equal to the appropriate current I is passed. The voltage difference across each resistor is measured (V1
sum of the voltage differences across the resistors in the series circuit and this is called Kirchhoff,s law
187
Secondly: Parallel connection

Unit 4:
Dynamic Electricity
bunch of large resistances (Fig 9 3). To obtain the equivalent resistance for a parallel ammeter and a rheostat all connected as shown (Fig 9 4).
The purpose of connecting resistors in parallel is to obtain a small resistance out of a
connection, the combination is included in an electric circuit comprising a battery, an
Chapter 9:
Connection in parallel
Fig (9 3)
We close the circuit and adjust the rheostat to obtain an appropriate current in the main circuit of intensity I (A), which can be measured by the ammeter. The total voltage difference can then be measured across the terminals of the resistances by a voltmeter (V). The current in each branch is measured ( I1 in R1, I2 in R2, and I3 in R3). In a parallel connection, the total current is determined by the smallest resistance. This case is similar to the flow of water in pipes. Fig (9 - 4)
Measuring the equivalent resistance in a parallel connection
189
Measuring the equivalent resistance in a series connection
Fig (9 2)
Chapter 9:
But ... V = IR
V = V1 + V2 + V3
V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3 IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 R = R1 + R2 + R3
Dynamic Electricity
(9-1)
Thus, the equivalent resistance R of a group of resistors connected in series equals the sum of these resistances. It is to be noted that the largest resistance in the combination determines the total resistance in a series connection. If N resistances are connected in series each equal r then : R = Nr simply connect them in series. We conclude that if we want a large resistance out of a bunch of small resistances, we
Unit 4:
188
Ohms Law for a closed circuit

and outside the cell to transfer an electric charge of 1C in the electric circuit. If we denote and the internal resistance of the cell by r, then VB = I (R + r) I= R+r E V B VB = IR + Ir We know that the emf of an electric cell (battery - source) is the total work done inside
Unit 4:
Dynamic Electricity
the emf of a battery by VB, the total current in the circuit by I, the external resistance by R
intensity in a closed circuit is the emf of the total source divided by the total (external plus internal) resistance of the circuit. From Fig (9 5), we find
This is known as Ohms law for a closed circuit, from which we find that the current
Chapter 9:
Relation between emf and voltage across a source

V = VB - Ir
-by decreasing the external resistance R- the voltage difference across the source increases.
From this relation, we see that as I is decreased gradually in the circuit shown (Fig 9 5), When the current vanishes, the voltage difference across the source becomes equal to the
emf of the source. Hence, we may define the emf of a source as the voltage difference across it when the current ceases to flow in the circuit.
191
connection, while the widest pipe (the least resistance) determines the rate of flow in a parallel connection, since it draws most of the water current. It is to be noted that : I=
The smallest pipe ( the highest resistance) determines the flow rate in a series
V V V V , I1 = , I2 = , I3 = R R1 R2 R3
connected in parallel. The total current I is the sum of the branch currents. I1 + I2 + I3 . Thus: V = V + V + V R R1 R2 R3 1 1 1 1 = + + R R1 R2 R3
where R is the equivalent resistance, and V is the voltage difference across resistors
Chapter 9:
Dynamic Electricity
resistances in the case of a parallel connection. In the case of two resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistance R is given by :
R= R1 R2 R1 + R2 (9 - 4)
Hence, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance R is the sum of the reciprocal of
Unit 4:
190
When N resistances are connected in parallel each equal to r, 1 =N R r R= r (9 - 5) N connect them in parallel. Therefore, if we wish to obtain a small resistance out of a bunch of resistors, we simply
V2 = IR2 = 0.25 x 70 = 17.5V V1 = IR = 0.25 x 25 = 6.25V

1
Unit 4:
2) If the resistors in the previous example are connected in parallel to the same battery, calculate: a) the current flowing in each resistor. b) the total resistance. c) the current through the circuit.
V3 = IR3 = 0.25 x 85 = 21.25V
Dynamic Electricity
solution :
a) the voltage difference across each resistor = 45V, since they are connected in parallel and the battery is of negligible internal resistance. The current flowing through each resistor is calculated separately as follows : I 1 = V = 45 = 1.8 A R 1 25 I 2 = V = 45 = 0.643 A R 2 70 I 3 = V = 45 = 0.529 A R 3 85 b)The total (equivalent or combined) resistance R is calculated as follows : 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 R R 1 R 2 R 3 25 70 85 c) The current flowing through the circuit I is : I = V = 45 = 2.972 A R 15.14 R = 15.14
Chapter 9:
193
resistors:
It can be calculated also as the sum of the currents I1 , I2 , I3 flowing through all I = 1.8 + 0.643 + 0.529 = 2.972 A
Chapter 9:
Dynamic Electricity
3) In the figure shown above two resistors A and B are connected in parallel. The combination If the resistances of A,B and C are 3,6,7, respectively, calculate: a) the total resistance. b) the current flowing through the circuit. c) the current through each of A and B. The equivalent resistance for the combination (A, B) is : R= R1 R2 = 3x6 =21 R1 + R2 3 + 6 R = R + R3 = 2 + 7 = 9
is connected in series with a resistor C and a 18 volt battery of negligble internal resistance.
Solution :
Unit 4:
194
The equivalent resistance for the combination (A,B)and( C) is : The current I flowing through the circuit is :
Unit 4:
In a parallel connection: For N equal resistances each r : Ohms law for a closed circuit:
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 R R1 R2 R3 R= r N I= V EB R+r
Dynamic Electricity
Chapter 9:
resistance.
where VB is the emf of the source, r is its internal resistance and R is the external
197
6) In the circuit shown : a) the ammeter reading is ..................... b) the voltmeter reading is ..................... 7) In the circuit shown b) the ammeter reading A2 is ...................... a) the ammeter reading A1 is .....................
Unit 4:
Dynamic Electricity
II) Choose the right answer:

battery with a negligible internal resistance: 1) The current in the battery equals.......... a) 8A a) 80C b) 6A b) 60C c) 4A c) 40C c) 2 A c) 6 V c) 2 1 d) 2A d) 20C d) 1A d) 2 V d) 61 e) 72A e)2C e) 2A e) 4 V e) 121 2) The total charge leaving the battery in 10s is............... 3) The current in each lamp is ......... a) 2 A b) 8A a) 3V a) 3 1 b) 12 V b) 241 Four lamps 61 each are connected in parallel. The combination is connected to a 12V
Chapter 9:
4) The voltage difference across each lamp is.......... 5) The total resistance of the four equal lamps is...........
6) If the 4 lamps are connected in series, the total resistance is............. a) 2 1
b) 241
c) 3 1
d) 61 e) 121
199
3) The circuit shown in Fig (9 5) consists of a 15 V battery, an external resistance 2.71 and a switch. If the internal resistance of the battery is 0.31, determine : resistance is infinite. a) the reading of the voltmeter when the switch is open, assuming that the voltmeter (15 V) (13.5) b) the reading of the voltmeter when the switch is closed.
Unit 4:
Dynamic Electricity
4) A student wound a wire of a finite length as a resistor. Then, he made another of the ratio of the two resistances. (1:8)
same material but half the diameter of the first wire and double the length. Find the
5) A copper wire 30 m long and 2x10-6m2 cross sectional area has a voltage difference of 3V across. Calculate the current if the copper resistivity is 1.79 x 10-8 1.m (11.17 A) 6) A 5.71 resistor is connected across the terminals of a battery of 121 emf and 0.31 internal resistance. Calculate: a) the current in the circuit . b) the voltage difference across the resistor. (2. A) (11.4 V)
Chapter 9:
201
Chapter 10
Magnetic Effects of Electric Current and Measuring Instruments

Unit 4: Dynamic Electricity Chapter 10: Magnetic Effects of Electric Current and Measuring Instruments
Overview
In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted- a Danish physicist-brought a compass near a wire carrying an electric current. He noticed that the compass was deflected. When he turned the current off, the compass assumed its original position. The deflection of the compasswhile current was flowing through the wire- indicated that it was being acted upon by an external magnetic field.This discovery started a chain of events that has helped shape our industrial civilization. In this unit we are going to study the magnetic field of current- carrying conductors in the form of: a) a straight wire. b) a circular loop. c) a solenoid.
Magnetic field due to current in a straight wire:

We can examine the pattern of the flux density surrounding a long straight wire carrying a direct current using iron filings sprinkled on a paper surrounding the wire in a vertical position.It will be noted that they become aligned in concentric circles around the wire, as shown in Fig (10-1).
Pattern of iron filings around a wire carrying current Oersted
Fig (10 1)
203
and farther apart from each other as the distance from the wire increases.
The figure shows that the circular magnetic flux lines are closer together near the wire As the electric current in the wire increases, the iron filings rearrange themselves after This indicates that the magnetic field due to the electric current passing through a
gently tapping the board such that the concentric circles become more crowded. straight wire increases with increasing the current intensity and vice verse.
The magnetic flux density measured in Weber/m2 or Tesla( B = m where m is the A magnetic flux, A is the area) a point near a long straight wire carrying current I can be
determined using the formula:
B= I 2 /d
(10-1)
This relation is called Ampere's circuital law, where d is the normal distance between the point and the wire, and is the magnetic permeability of the medium (in air it is 4 This is why it is advisable to live away from high voltage towers.
x 10-7 Weber/Am). Thus, B is inversely proportional to d and directly proportional to I.
Ampere's right hand rule:

To determine the direction of the magnetic field resulting from an electric current in a wire, imagine that you grasp the wire with your right hand such that the thumb points in the direction of the current. The rest of the fingers around the wire give the direction of the magnetic field due to the current (Fig 10-2). Fig (10 2)
Right hand rule
204
Thus circular loop carrying current may be considered as a bar magnet (Fig 10-3)
Right hand screw direction of screwing.
Fig (10 4)
A circular loop carrying current in the direction of screwing.
Fig (10 5)
Examples:
carrying a current of 1.4 A. if the wire loop consists of 20 turns and = 4 x 10-7
air
Determine the magnetic flux density at the center of a circular loop of radius 11cm
Weber/Am
solution:
-7 NI 4 / x 10 x 20 x 1.4 B= = 2r 2 x 0.11
4 x 22 x 10 -7 x 20 x 1.4 = = 16 x 10 -5 Tesla 7 x 2 x 0.11
207
on the board as shown in Fig (3 -10). Tapping it gently, the filings arrange themselves as shown in figure, from which we can notice that:
To study the magnetic field due to a circular loop (or a coil),iron filings are sprinkled
1. the flux lines near the center of the loop are no longer circular. 2. the magentic flux density changes from point to point. 3. the magnetic flux lines at the center of the loop are straight parallel lines is uniform. The flux density at the center of a circular loop of N turns and radius r carrying current B= N I 2r on three parameters: (10-2)
perpendicular to the plane of the coil. This means that the magnetic field in this region
I is given by :
From this relation, the magnetic flux density at the center of a circular loop depends
1. number of turns of the circular loop where B N. . 3. radius of circular loop where B 1 r
2. current intensity passing through the circular loop where B I.
- Right-hand screw rule:

To determine the direction of the magnetic field at the center of a circular loop or coil, imagine a righthand screw being screwed to tie along the wire in the direction of the current. The direction of fastening of the screw gives the direction of the magnetic flux at the center of the loop (Figs.10 -4, 10 -5 ) Thus, a circular loop carrying current acts as a magnetic dipole or a bar magnet. It is to be noted that no single poles exist in nature. They always exist in N - S pairs.
206
Magnetic field due to current in a solenoid:

When an electric current is passed through a solenoid ( a long spiral or cylindrical coil) as shown in Fig(10-6), the resultant magnetic flux is very similar to that as a bar magnet. As shown in Fig(10-6A), the magnetic flux lines make a complete circuit inside and outside the coil,i.e., each line is a closed path. The side at which the flux emerges is the north pole, the other side where the magnetic flux reenters is the south pole. The magnetic flux density in the interior of a solenoid carrying an electric current depends on : 1) the current intensity passing through the coil where B I. 2) the number of turns per unit length where B n :
a) field pattern
b) polarity of the field using
Magnetic field due to a solenoid
Fig (10 6)
Amperes right hand rule.
B nI
where is the permeability of the core material. In this case, it is air
B = nI
This relation may be rewritten as follow: 208
Force due to magnetic field acting on a straight wire carrying current.

between the poles of a magnet,a force results which acts on the wire and is perpendicular to both the wire and the field (Fig 10-7). The If we place a straight wire carrying current
210
direction of the force is reversed if we reverse the current or the magnetic field. In all cases, the force is perpendicular to both electric
current and the magnetic field. In case the wire is allowed to move due to this generated force, the direction of motion is perpendicular Force due to a magnetic field acting on a to both the electric current and the magnetic straight wire carrying current, markx field. The direction of the force with which a magnetic field acts on a current- carrying wire perpendicular to the field can be obtained by applying Flemings left hand rule.
denotes the direction into the paper.
the pointer is in the direction of the magnetic flux the rest of the fingers are in the direction of the current.
Fig (10 7)
Flemings left hand rule

Form your left hand fingers as follows: the pointer and thumb perpendicular to each other and to the rest of the fingers. Make the pointer point to the direction of the magnetic flux, and the rest of the fingers- except the thumb- in the direction of the current. Then, the thumb points to the magnetic force or motion (Fig 10-8).
the thumb is in the direction of motion or force
Fleming's left hand rule.
Fig (10 8)
It is found that the force acting on a wire carrying current flowing perpendicularly to a
mark
You can imagine what the direction of the force will be in different cases. The
means out of the page, and the mark x means into the page.
a) the force vanishes when = 0 (wire and magnetic field are parallel)
b) a force exists for other than zero
A wire carrying current in a direction inclinded by an angle to the magnetic field.
Fig (10 9)
When a current I1 passes in a wire and a current I2 passes in another parallel wire, a force results between the two wires. This force is attractive if the two currents flow in the same direction. The force is repulsive if the two currents flow opposite to each other. We can calculate this force as follows:
The force between two parallel wires each carrying current.
(b) a) the two currents are in the same direction. b) the two currents are in opposite directions.
Force between two parallel wires each carrying current
Fig (10 10)
212
a) the coil is parallel to the magnetic field.
b) top view (plan)of the rectangle when the coil is parallel to the field.
c) top view (plan) of the rectangle when the magnetic dipole moment is perpendicular to the field.
d) top view (plan) of the rectangle when the magnetic dipole moment makes an angle with the field.
e) top view (plan) when the rectangle is perpendicular to the field or the magnetic dipole moment is parallel to the field and the couple is zero.
A torque acting on a coil carrying a current
Fig (10 11)
215
a thin wire coil wrapped around a light aluminum frame mountend on a soft iron core.
The essential parts of this device are shown in Fig(10-12). It consists of a rectangle of
The frame is pivoted on agate bearings. The assembly rotates between the poles of a U shaped (horse shoe) magnet. Its rotational motion is restrained by a pair of spiral control springs, which also serve as current leads to the coil. Depending upon the direction of the current being measured, the coil and pointer rotate either in clockwise or counterclockwise direction. The permanent magnet's poles are curved so that the magnetic flux lines are radially directed. Thus, the magnetic flux density is constant and deflection of the pointer is proportional to the current in the coil. perpendicular to the side of the rectangle irrespective of the angle of the coil. the The current flows in the coil from the right side upwards, and emerges from the other
side. Then the magnetic force generates a torque which makes the coil rotate clockwise. spring torsion which is counterclockwise. Thus, at balance, we can read the current value. When the current is reversed, the pointer deflects in the opposite direction.
The pointer deflects until it settles at a certain reading when the torque is balanced with the
The galvanometer sensitivity:

The galvanometer sensitivity is defined as the scale deflection per unit current intensity passing through its coil i.e, sensitivity = degree/micro ampere (deg/A) .
Direct current (DC) ammeter :

the electric current. A galvanometer is an ammeter of limited range due to its moving An ammeter is a device which- through calibrated scales- is used to measure directly
coil sensitivity. To extend the range of the galvanometer, it is necessary to add a very low resistance, called a shunt Rs to be connected in parallel with the galvanometer coil Rg as shown in Fig (10-13).
217
Applications: Measuning Instuments

The sensitive moving coil galvanometer
currents in a circuit, measure their intensities and determine their polarities. Its principle a magnetic field.
graduated scale
A sensutive moving coil galvanometer is an apparatus used to detect very weak
of operation depends on the torque that is generated in a current -carrying coil moving in
pointer
spiral spring
pointer magnet
iron core
a) a simplified view of a galvanometer when the pointer is in the middle of the graduated scale
pointer uniform scale control spring coil soft iron core aluminum frame
b) top view
aluminum frame
central spring
falcrum
c) a galvanometer converted to a milliammeter
permanent magnet radial magnetic field
soft iron core
d) top view
A moving coil galvanometer
(Fig 10 12)
216
magnet
pointer coil
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b) use of a shunt resistance a) a DC ammeter is a galvanometer whose pointer deflects in one direction
The DC ammeter
Fig (10 13)
Placing the parallel shunt assures that the ammeter as a whole will have a very low resistance, which is necessary if the current in the circuit is to be unaltered after connecting the ammeter in series. Most of the current in the circuit passes through the shunt Rs, while only a small current Ig passes in the galvanometer coil Rg. If the maximum current to be measured is I, which is the full scale deflection (FSD), then
Because Rs and Rg are connected in parallel, the voltage difference across each is the same. I s Rs = I g Rg I R Rs = g g . Is The two equations can be solved simultaneously to find Rs. Thus, Rs = I g Rg I - Ig
I = Ig + Is Is = I - Ig
Ohmmeter
Rg=250
variable resistance 6565 battery
galvanometer standard resistance 3000 instrument terminals
A circuit for calibrating an ohmmeter
Fig (10 15)
Rx
ammeter and the voltage drop across it by a voltmeter. If the current is I and the voltage drop is V, the resistance R from Ohm's law is R =V/I If the voltage is fixed and known, we may remove the voltmeter from the circuit and calibrate the galvanometer to give the value of the resistance directly (Fig10-15).As the resistance is increased, the current in the circuit decreases,and consequently, the galvanometer reading.The Ohmmeter shown (Fig10-15) is actually a microammeter which reads 400A as a full scale deflection (FSD).Its resistance is 250 connected in series with 3000, a variable resistance whose maximum value is 6565, and a 1.5 V battery of negligible internal resistance.When we short circuit (sc) the terminals of the instrument (RX =0), current flows in the circuit.For this current to give FSD, the resistance 1.5 = 3750 in the circuit must be: -6 400 x 10 The variable resistance must be adjusted to give FSD, when the variable resistance is 500 since 250+3000+500=3750. Now, if the unknown resistance is introduced into the circuit, the current flowing will be less, and the pointer will deflect short of FSD.
Measuring a resistance depends on measuring the current passing through it by an
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scale deflection (FSD) voltage V.
voltage,it must be converted to a high-resistance instrument.The voltmeter must draw a negligible current, so that it will not affect the voltage drop to be measured.To do this,a large multiplier resistor is connected in series with the galvanometer as shown in Fig. (10-14).The voltmeter is connected parallel across the two points between which the voltage difference is to be measured. Let us call the resistance of the galvanometer coil Rg and the multiplier resistance Rm which is connected in series parrallel with Rg. The maximum current that passes through it is Ig, which is the current needed for the full The voltage difference across the coil is :
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The maximum voltage drop to be measured is: V - Vg Ig
Vg = Ig Rg
V = Ig Rg + Ig Rm = Vg + Ig Rm
(10-8)
Rm =
Example
for a current of 1mA. Calculate the multiplier resistance necessary to convert this galvanometer to a voltmeter whose maximum range is 50V. A galvanometer has an internal resistance of 0.1 and gives a full scale deflection
Solution
Vg = Ig Rg = 0.001 x 0.1 = 1 x 10-4 V Rm = V - Vg 50 - 1 x 10-4 = 1 x 10-3 Ig = 49999.9
The total resistance of the voltmeter is : Rtotal = 49999.9 + 0.1 = 50000
voltage or current in one direction (DC). Therefore, they are called DC/multimeters. But if the current or voltage is AC, the instrument used is called AC/ multimeters.
They depend on digital electronics (Chapter 15). All the above instruments measure
Analog multimeter
Fig (10 17)
Digital multimeter
Fig (10 18)
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= 3750, the current in the instrument is 200 A, which is 1/2 the maximum current, and hence the deflection is 1/2 FSD. If the resistance is doubled, i.e., 7500., the deflection will be FSD. For three times
1 4 1 3
Thus, we may calibrate the instrument in terms of the resistance to be measured. If Rx
of 100A. It is to be noted that the graduated scale used to measure the resistance (Fig 10-16) is opposite to the graduated scale for the current . This means that the maximum deflection corresponds to zero resistance (short circuit or sc). As the resistance increases, the deflection decreases. It is to be noted also that the scale is not linear. The spacings between the readings of the scale to the right are further apart than the readings to the left.
the total resistance, i.e., 11250, the deflection will be FSD corresponding to a current
Rx() 0 3750 11250
IA 400 200 100 0
An ohmmeter has a nonlinear graduated scale
Fig (10 16)
The instruments using a point, are called analog instruments. A combined instrument called multimeter can be switched around to measure voltage, curent and resistance (Fig 10-17). Another set of instruments now exist which depend on reading numerals, denoting voltage, current a resistance on a small LCD (liquid crystal display) without the need for a pointer. Such instruments are called digital multimeters (Fig 10-18).
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a) the length of the wire. b) the current intensity. c) the magnetic flux density.
A moving coil galvanometer is an instrument used to detect, measure and determine The operation of a moving coil galvanometer is based on the torque acting on a current The sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the scale deflection per unit current The ammeter is a device which is used through a calibrated scale to measure directly To extend the range of the galvanometer, a low resistor known as a shunt is connected The total resistance of the ammeter (with the shunt) is very small, therefore, it does not The voltmeter is a device used to measure the potential difference across two points of resistance called a multiplier resistance connected in series with its coil. appreciably change the current to be measured in a closed circuit. in parallel with the coil of the galvanometer. the electric current. intensity flowing through its coil. loop in the presence of a magnetic field. the polarity of very weak electric currents.
d) the angle between the wire and the direction of the magnetic field.
an electric circuit. It is basically a moving coil galvanometer having a very high
Since the total resistance of the voltmeter is very great, it does not affect much the flow of current through the element across which it is connected to measure its potential difference.
The ohmmeter is an instrument which is used to measure an unknown resistance.
An ohmmeter is basically a microammeter connected in series with a constant cell
resistance, a variable resistance and a 1.5 volt battery. If its terminals are in contact
(sc), the pointer gives full-scale deflection (FSD). If a resistor is inserted between its terminals, the current flowing decreases. Hence, the pointer's deflection decreases, and indicates directly the value of the inserted resistor through a calibrated scale.
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In a Nutshell
- Definitions and Basic Concepts:
A megnetic field is produced around a current-carrying wire. The intensity of the magnetic field produced around a current-carrying wire, increases, by : a) getting closer to the wire. b) increasing the current. The direction of the magnetic field produced around a current-carrying straight wire is determined by Amperes right-hand rule. The lines of force around a current-carrying wire forming a circular loop, resemble to a great extent those of a short bar magnet. The magnetic flux density at the center of a current-carrying circular loop depends on: a) the number of loop turns. b) the current intensity in the loop. c)the radius of the loop. The direction of the magnetic field at the center of a current-carrying loop is determined by the right-hand screw rule. The magnetic field produced by a current flowing through a solenoid (coil of several closely spaced loops) resembles to a great extent that of a bar magnet. The magnetic flux density at any point on the axis of a current-carrying a solenoid depends on : a) the current intensity. b) the number of turns per unit length. Right-hand screw rule is used to determine the polarity of a solenoid carrying a current. The unit of magnetic flux density is Web / m2, (Tesla or N/Am).
The force exerted by a magnetic field on a current-carrying wire placed in the field depends on:
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5) What is the magnetic flux density at a point on the axis of a solenoid of length 50 cm carrying a current of 2A and has 4000 turns? (0.02 Tesla).
6) A rectangular loop (12 x 10 cm) of 50 turns, carrying a current of 3 A, is placed in a magnetic field of 0.4 Tesla flux density, such that the plane of the loop is parallel to 7) A galvanometer's loop of 5 x 12 cm2 and 600 turns is suspended in a magnetic field of 0.1 Tesla flux density. Calculate the current required to produce a torque of 1 Nm. 8) A loop of cross-sectional area 0.2 m2 and 500 turns,carrying a current of 10 A is placed at 30 between the normal to its plane and a magnetic field of 0.25 Tesla flux density. Calculate the torque acting on the loop. (125 Nm). 9) The coil of an ammeter is capable of carrying current up to 40 mA. If the resistance of the coil is 0.51, and it is desired to use the ammeter for measureing a current of 1 A, What is the resistance value of the required shunt? (0.0211) 10) A galvanometer gives full scale deflection at current 0.02 A, and its terminal voltage is 5 V. What is the value of the multiplier resistance required to make it valid to measure potential differences up to 150 V? (72501) 11) A voltmeter reads up to 150 V at full scale deflection. If the resistance of its coil is multiplier connected to the coil? its reading 10 times, what is the value of the required shunt resistor? (3749501) (0.01111). (2.78 A). the field. Calculate the torque acting on the loop. (0.72 Nm)
501 and the current flowing is 4 x 10-4 A. Calculate the resistance of the potential
12) A galvanometer reads up to 5A and has a resistance of 0.1 1. If we want to increase 13) An ammeter has resistance 301. Calculate the value of the required shunt resistor to
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b) the coil of the moving coil galvanometer is attached to a pair of spiral springs. c) when the moving coil galvanometer is used as a voltmeter, a resistor of high resistance is connected in series with its coil. d) an ammeter is connected in series with a circuit, but the voltmeter is connected parallel to it. e) connecting a constant resistor inside the ohmmeter. f) the cell connected to the ohmmeter should have a constant emf. 9) What is meant by each of: potential multiplier and shunt? What is the use of each? Deduce the rule related to each. 10) Explain how you can use the moving coil galvanometer to measure each of the electric current, the electromotive force and the electrical resistance.
II) Drills:
1) A coil of cross sectional area 0.2 m2 is placed normal to a regular magnetic flux of density 0.04 Weber/m2. Calculate the magnetic flux which passes through this coil. (0.008 Weber). 2) A wire of 10 cm length, carrying a current 5 A, is placed in a magnetic field of 1Tesla flux density. Calculate the force acting on the wire, when: a) the wire is at right angles to the magnetic field. b) the angle between the wire and the field is 45. c) the wire is parallel to the magnetic flux lines. density at a distance of 0.2 m from the wire. density at its center? (the loop has one turn). (0.5 N) (0.356 N) (0) (5x10-6 Tesla). (2/ x 10-5 Tesla)
3) A straight wire of diameter 2 mm carries a current of 5A. Find the magnetic flux 4) A circular loop of radius 0.1 m carries a current of 10 A. What is the magnetic flux
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decrease the ammeter FSD to one third (decrease the sensitivity), and determine also the total resistance of the ammeter and the shunt resistor.
(15 1, 101).
14) A galvanometer of resistance 541, when connected to a shunt (a), the current flowing through the galvanometer is 0.1 of the total current. But if connected to a shunt (b), 0.12 of the total current flows through the galvanometer. Find the resistances of a and b. current 0.5A. How could it be converted to measure: a) potential differences up to 200V? b) electric currents up to 2A? (350 1 in series). (16 2/3 1 in parallel) (6 1, 7.3641) 15) A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 50 ohms gives full scale deflection at
16) A milliammeter of resistance 51 has a coil capable of carrying a current of 15 mA. It is desired to use it as an ohmmeter using an electric cell of 1.5V having internal resistance 11. Calculate the required standard resistor, and calculate the external resistance needed to make the pointer deflect to 10mA? Calculate the current that flows through it when connected to an external resistor of 4001 ? (941, 501, 3mA)
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the coil, a deflection of the pointer was noticed in the opposite direction. This phenomenon is called "electromagnetic induction". According to this phenomenon, an electromotive force and an electric current are induced in the coil, when the magnet is plunged into or removed from the coil. As a result, Faraday concluded that the induced electromotive force and also the induced electric current were generatd in the circuit as a result of the time variation of the magnetic flux linked with the coil during the motion of the magnet. Moreover, the action of the magnet is met by a reaction from the coil.If the magnet is plunged into the coil, the induced magnetic field acts in a way to oppose the motion of the magnet. If the magnet is pulled out, the induced magnetic field acts to retain (or keep) the magnet in. Faraday concluded that the induced emf and current were generated in the circuit as a result of the time variation of magnetic field lines as they cut the windings of the coil while the magnet was in motion. Faradays laws: From the above Faradays observations, one can conclude the following: 1) the relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field in which there is time variation of the magnetic flux linked with the conductor, induces an electromotive force in the conductor. Its direction depends on the direction of motion of the conductor relative to the field. 2) the magnitude of the induced electromotive force is proportional to the rate by which the 6 qm conductor cuts the lines of the magnetic flux linked with it, i.e., emf _ 6t where m is the variation in the magnetic flux intercepted by the conductor through the
Unit 4 : Electricity Dynamic Elictricity and Electromagnetism Chapter 11: Electromagnetic Induction
time interval t
3) the magnitude of the induced electromotive force is proportional to the number of turns N of the coil which cut (or link with) the magnetic flux., i.e., Thus, from the analysis of the above mentioned results, one can conclude the following relation: 6 qm =-N emf (11 - 1) 6t
emf N
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Chapter 11
Overview
Electromagnetic Induction
It has been noticed that the passage of an electric current in a conductor produces a magnetic field. Soon after Oersted's discovery that magnetism could be produced by an electric current,a question arose, namely, could magnetic field produce an electric current ? This problem was addressed by Faraday through a series of experiments which led to one of the breakthroughs in the field of physics, namely, the discovery of electromagnetic induction. On the basis of such a discovery, the principle of operation and function of most of the electric equipment - such as the electrical generators (dynamos) and transformers depend.
Faradays Experiment:
Faraday made a cylindrical coil of insulated copper wire, such that the coil turns were separated from each other. He connected the two terminals of the coil to a sensitive galvanometer having its zero reading at the mid point of its graduated scale, as shown in Fig (11-1) . When Faraday plunged a magnet into the coil, he noticed that the pointer of the galvanometer was deflected momentarily in a certain direction. On removing the magnet from
The magnet is plunged into the coil
Fig (11-1a)
The magnet is pulled out of the coil
Fig (11-1b)
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This is known as Farady's law of electormagnetic induction. The negative sign in the above relation indicates that the direction of the induced etectromotive force or the induced current tends to oppose the cause producing it. This rule is known as Lenz's rule. Lenzs rule The induced current must be in a direction such as to oppose the change producing it. Fig (11-2) illustrates a direct application of Lenzs rule : The direction of the induced current in a straight wire: In one of his several experiments, Faraday showed that the induced current in a straight wire flowed in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field. Many years later. Fleming concluded a simple rule: Flemings right hand rule Extend the thumb,pointer and the middle finger of the right hand, mutually perpendicular to each other. Let the pointer points to the direction of the field, and the thumb in the direction of motion, then the middle finger (with the rest of the fingers) will point to the direction of the induced current or voltage as shown in Fig (11-3).
thumb (motion)
point to (field)
rest of the fingers (induced current or voltage)
Flemings right hand rule
Fig (11 - 3)
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234 (S)
Fig (11 2)
Lenz's law
(emf) _|
6 I1 6t 6 I1 6t
2 = - M (emf)
(11 - 2)
where M is the coefficient of mutual induction (mutual inductance) of the two coils. Its unit is VsA-1 and is equivalent to what is calIed "Henry". Thus, the henry is the unit used to measure the inductance in general. The negative sign in equation (11-2) follows from Lenz's rule, namely, that the direction of the induced electromotive force (or the direction of the induced current) is such as to oppose the cause producing it. The coefficient of mutual inductanc between two coils depends on the following factors. 1. the presence of an iron core inside the coil. 2. the volume of the coil and the number of its turns. 3. the distance separating them. The transformer is considered as a clear example of mutual induction Experiment to study mutual induction One can study experimentally the mutual induction as follows: Connect one of the two coils in a circuit which contains a battery, a switch and a rheostat. One coil is called the "primary coil", while the other coil - connected to a sensitive galvanometer with its zero point at the middle of its scale - is known as the "secondary coil". Fig( 11-5). Let us do the experiment as follows: 1) Close the circuit of the primary coil, while plunging the primary coil into the secondary coil. One notices a deflection in the galvanometer in a certain direction, indicating the generation of an induced electromotive force in the secondary coil due to the variation of the number of magnetic flux lines linked with the turns of the secondary coil. On taking away the primary coil from the secondary coil, one notices that the pointer of the sensitive galvanometer is deflected in the opposite direction.
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Mutual induction between two coils:
in case there is no current in the first coil, there is no emf in the second coil.
Fig (11 - 4A)
at the instant of closing the ciruit of the first coil, an emf is generated in the second coil.
Fig (11- 4b)
after the current in the primary is steady (the flux is steady) emf in the secondary coil: 0
Fig (11 - 4c)
If the two stationary coils are arranged such that one coil surrounds the other., i.e., one coil is plunged into the second one, or even one is placed in the neighborhood of the other as shown in Fig.(11-4), then the variation in the intensity of the electric current in one of the two coils (opening and closing the switch) will induce an electromotive force in the other coil, according to Faradays law. This induced electromotive force is proportional to the rate of change in the magnetic flux linked with the other coil. Since the magnetic flux is proportional to the intensity of current in the first coil.
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magnetic field will be in a direction as to resist the increase in the affecting magnetic field. II. The pointer of the galvanometer deflects in the opposite direction in the following cases: a) on the withdrawal of the primary, or taking it far away from the secondary coil. b) on decreasing the intensity of the current in the primary. c) on switching off the primary circuit. In the above cases, he intensity of the magnetic field affecting the secondary coil decreases and the magnetic flux linkage decreases. The induced emf in the secondary coil decreases as the affecting field decreases with time. The direction of the induced electromotive force (and the induced current) is in the forward direction, so as to produce a magnetic field in the same direction as the current in the primary. This in turn resists the decrease in the affecting magnetic field. All these observations clarify Lenz's rule, where the direction of the induced current is such as to resist (or to oppose) the time variation causing it. Self induction of a coil: One can understand what is meant by self induction of a coil by connecting the coil of a strong electromagnet (a coil of large number of turns) in series with a 6V battery, and a switch as shown in Fig (11-6). Current passes in the considered coil, due to which a strong magnetic field is formed, since each turn acts as a small magnet. The magnetic flux links with the neighboring turns. On switching off the circuit, it is noticed that an electric spark is passed between the two terminals of the switch. This is explained as follows. Fig (11 - 6)
neon lamp electromagnet coil battery VB switch
Effect of self induction in a coil
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2) Plunge the whole primary coil to reside in the secondary one, then increase the intensity of the current in the primary coil. Notice the deflection of the pointer of the galvanometer in a certain direction. Decrease the current in the primary, and notice that the deflection of the pointer takes place in the opposite direction. This indicates the generation of an induced electromotive force in the secondary coil on increasing or decreasing the intensity of the current in the primary coil. 3) With the primary coil inside the secondary one, close the circuit of the primary coil, a deflection is noticed in the galvanometer in a certain direction. Open the primary circuit, and notice that the deflection is in the opposite direction. This indicates that an electromotive force is
Mutual inductance between two coils
galvanometer secondary coil battery switch rheostat
primary coil
Fig (11 - 5)
induced in the secondary coil upon switching on or switching off the primary circuit. The analysis of the above mentioned observations leads to the following conclusions: I. The pointer of the sensitive galvanometer deflects in a certain direction in the following cases: a) bringing the primary coil close to the secondary coil or when the primary coil is plunged inside the secondary one. b) increasing the intensity of the current in the primary coil. c) switching on the primary circuit. In all cases above, there is a positive increase in magnetic flux linkage and the induced emf in the secondary coil increases as the affecting magntic field increases with time. The induced current is in opposing direction to that in the primary. In such a case, the induced
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The Henry : It is the self-inductance of a coil in which an emf of one volt is induced when the current passing through it changes at a rate of one Ampere per second (vsA)-1. The self inductance of a coil depends on: a) its geometry. b) its number of turns. c) the spacing between the turns. d) the magnetic permeability of its core. Among the applications of self induction is the fluorescent lamp, where magnetic energy is stored in the coil. This energy is discharged in an evacuated tube filled by an inert gas, causing collisions of its atoms and their subsequent ionization and collision with the walls of the tube. The inner walls are coated with a fluorescent material which causes visible light to be emitted upon the collision of the inert gas ions with it. Electromagnetic induction is also used in Ruhmkorff coil, which is used as an ignition coil in internal combustion engines (such as a car). Eddy Currents: If the magnetic flux changes with time through a solid conductor ,currents will be induced in closed paths in the conductor. Such currents are called "eddy currents". The change in the intercepted magnetic flux is effected either by moving the solid in a suitable magnetic field or by subjecting the metallic solid to an alternating magnetic field( for example field due to an AC current). The eddy currents are associated with heating effects. Thus, they are useful in melting metals in what is called the induction furnaces.
Henry
241
When the coil circuit is switched off, the current ceases to pass in it, and this is associated with a decrease of the magnetic field of the neighboring turns to zero. This in turn is accompanied by a time variation of the flux linkage, i.e., each turn cuts the diminishing lines of the magnetic flux, and thus, an induced electromotive force is generated in the coil. The induced electromotive force is formed in the turns of the coil as a whole as a result of the self induction of the coil itself. This induced electromotive force is generated due to the self induction of the coil on switching off or switching on the circuit following Lenz's rule. Thus, an induced electric current is generated in the same direction as the original current. When the circuit is switched off, to retain the existing current, a spark is formed between the two terminals of the switch. When the number of turns of the coil is large, the induced emf on switching off the circuit will be much larger than that of the battery, This causes a neon lamp connected in paralle1 between the two terminals of the switch to glow(a neon lamp requires a potential difference about 180V to glow). Since the induced electromotive force is proportional to the rate of change of the current in the coil, then the emf induced by self induction is directly proportional to the rate of change of the current in the coil. That is : 6 I1 (emf)1 6t (emf) e 1 = - L 6 I1 6t
(11 - 3)
where L is a constant of proportionality known as the coefficiont of self induction (self inductance) of the coil, and the negative sign in equation (11-3) indicates that the induced electromotivc force opposes the change causing it (Lenz's rule). L=6P/6t
e emf
Thus, the self inductance of a coil is defined as: It is the electromotive force induced in the coil when the current passing through it changes at a rate equals one Ampere per second. The self inductance is measured in the unit henry.
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Alternating current generator: The AC generator (or the dynamo) is a device which converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. In a generator, a coil rotates in a magnetic field, and the resulting induced current can be transferred (or transmitted) by wires for long distances. The simple electric generator consists as shown in Fig (11-8) of four main parts : a) a field magnet. b) an armature. c)two slip rings. d) two brushes. The field magnet may be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. The armature consists of a single loop of wire or coil of many turns suspended between the two poles of the field magnet. A pair of slip rings are connected, one to each end of the loop. They rotate with the loop in the magnetic field. The induced current in the coil passes to the external circuit through two graphite brushes, each touching one of the two corresponding slip rings. Fig (11-9) shows
armature brushes slip rings permanent field magnetic direction of motion
A simplified schematic for an AC generator (dynamo)
Fig (11 - 8)
the direction of rotation of the armature between the poles and the direction of the induced current at a certain instant. The loop rotates around its axis in a circle of radius r. Its linear velocity is v=r where is the angular velocity equal to 2f, (where f is the frequency). Substituting for
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From Fig (11-10), we see that the induced current changes direction every half a revolution. It follows a sine wave. From figure, we can also understand the meaning of f. Throughout a complete revolution, the current increases from zero to a maximum, then decreases to zero, then reverses direction, and increases in the negative direction up to a negative maximum. Then, it heads back to zero. In one complete revolution, one complete oscillation has occurred. The number of oscillations per second is the frequency f. The frequecy of home use power is 50Hz
armature
graphite brushes slip rings
AC generator
Fig (11-10a)
Example:
The coil of a simple AC generator consists of 100 turns, the cross sectional area of each is 0.21 m2. The coil rotates with frequency 50 Hz (cycles/second) in a magnetic field of constant flux density B = 10-3 Weber/m2. What is the maximum induced emf generated? and what is the instantaneous value at = 30?
Solution:
(emf)max = NBA = NBA (2 f)
= 100 x 10 -3 x 0.21 x 2 x
Thus, the maximum induced emf generated equals 0.6 volts.

e = max sin e = 6.6 x sin 30= 6.6 x emf = (emf)
22 x 50 = 6.6 V 7
1 = 3.3 V 2 It is worth remembering that the induced current is directly proportional to the induced emf. Thus, the instantaneous value of the induced current is given by :
I = Imax sin (2 f t )
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This induced current reaches its maximum value when the induced emf reaches its maximum value, and it vanishes as the induced emf is zero. Effective value of the alternating current: It is worth mentioning that the average value of an AC current equals zero, because the AC current changes from (Imax) to (-Imax). Neverthless, the electric energy is consumed as thermal energy due to the motion of electric charges, and the rate of the electric energy consumed is proportional to the square of the intensity of the current. The effective value of the intensity of the alternating current is the value of the direct current which generates the same rate of thermal effect in a resistance (or the same power) as that generated by the considered AC current.
Ieff = 0.707 Imax
coil position current maximum positive current
one complete revolution

maximum negative current
The relation between current and angle of rotation(sine wave)
Fig (11-10b)
(11 - 11)
The value Ieff is called the "effective value of the alternating current". There is a similar relation for the effective electromotive force, that is :
(emf)eff = 0.707 (emf)max
(11 - 12)
Example:
Veff = 0.707 Vmax
If the effective intensity of current in a circuit equals 10 A, and the effective voltage is 240 volts,what is the maximum value for current and voltage ?
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Continuing the rotation, the brush F l acts as a positive pole, while F 2 acts as the negative pole of the dynamo. Accordingly, the current in the external circuit will be always in one direction as shown. It is noticed that using the commutator renders the induced emf in Fig (11-11d) in one direction, but its value changes from zero up to a maximum value, then decreases again to zero during each half cycle of the coil rotation, but it is always in one direction. To obtain a uni-directional current of approximately constant value, i.e., to obtain a nearly DC (value), many coils separated by small angles are used. A cylinder is used which is split into a number of segments, double the number of coils. Thus, the current in the external circuit is almost constant. This is the way to obtain a DC generator (Fig 11-12).
The transformer:
Nearly DC current
Fig (11-12)
The electric transformer is a device whose function is based on the mutual induction between two coils, and is used to step up or to step down an AC voltage. Transformers are used to transfer the electric energy from generators at electric power stations. Such transformers are called step - up transformers, while the transformers used at the zones
primary coil output
input secondary coil soft iron core ( laminas)
Step UP transformer
Fig (11-13a)
where the energy has to be distributed among buildings are called step-down transformers. The transformer as shown in Fig (11-13) consists of two coils: a primary coil and a secondary coil. The two coils are wound around a soft iron core made of thin iron sheets
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commutator consists of two halves 1 and 2 of a hollow metallic cylinder split in between, and are well insultated from each other as shown in Fig (11-11).Two brushes F and F touch the two halves during the rotation of the coil. The external circuit is connected to the two brushes Fl and F2. It is necessary between the two halves at the moment when the plane that the two brushes F1 and F2 touch the insulator
brushes split cylinder 1 2 direction of rotation
of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field, i.e, at the instant when the generated electromotive force in the coil is zero. Let us consider that the coil starts rotation in the direction shown (Fig.11-11c).During the first half while brush F2 touches the other half (2) of the rotation, brush F1 touches the half cylinder (1),
current
Use of a split cylinder rectifies the current
Fig (11-11c)
cylinder. The current in such a case will pass in the coil in the direction w x y z. As a result, the current passes in the external circuit in the direction from Fl to F2 during the first half of the cycle. In the second
Unidirectional current versus (sine wave)
number of revolutions
Fig (11-11d)
half of the cycle, the electric current reverses its direction in the coil, i.e., the current passes in the coil
will be in contact with the half(1), i.e., the two halves of the commutator reverse their position relative to the two brushes. In such a case, the current in the external circuit passes from, F1 to F2, which is the same direction as that in the first half of the cycle.
in the direction z y x w. At the same time, brush F1 will be in contact with the half(2), while F2
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secondary coil will be larger than the emf in the primary one. For example, if the number of turns of the secondary coil is twice that for the primary coil, one gets Vs = 2VP. such a case Vs will be less than Vp. While, for the case when Ns is less than Np one gets a step-down transformer, where, in The relation between the current intensities in the two coils of the transformer:
This equation shows the interrelation between the emf Vs in the secondary and Vp in the primary. If Ns is larger than Np, one has a step-up transformer, where the emf in the
Let us assume that there is no loss in the electric energy in the transformer (almost zero resistance), then according to the law of conservation of energy, the electric energy made available by the source in the primary coil must equal that delivered to the load in the secondary coil.
Vp Ip t = Vs Ist
From which the input power is equal to the output power, i.e,
Vs = Ip Is
Vp Ip = Vs Is
Thus,
Vp
From the equations (11-11) and (11-12),

Is Ip = Np Ns
This shows that the intensity of the electric current in either of the two coils is inversely proportional to the number of its turns. For example: if the number of turns of the secondary coil is twice that of the primary coil, then the intensity of current in the secondary coil equals half that in the primary coil. From this argument, we see the importance of the use of the step-up transformer at the
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(laminas) insulated from each other, to minimize the effect of eddy currents and to minimize the dissipated electric energy. When an electric current passes in the primary coil, a magnetic field is generated. The core makes the lines of such a field pass through the secondary coil. coils of the transformer: The relation between the two emfs in the two Fig (11-13b)
When the primary coil is connectcd to a source of AC
Transformer symbol
voltage, the variation in the magnetic field linked with the primary current generates an induced emf in the secondary coil having the same frequency. The induced emf in the secondary is determined from the relation: Vss==- N s 6 qm 6t 6 qm where, Ns is number of turns of the secondary coil and is the rate of change of the 6t mangetic flux linked between the primary through the secondary coil. The electromotive force in the primary is in turn related to the rate of change of the magnetic flux and is determined from the relation : V p==-N p 6 q 6t where, Np is the number of turns of the primary coil. Assume that the wasted magnetic
energy is negligible, i.e., there is no considerable loss in the magnetic flux, i.e., the whole resulting magnetic flux passes through the secondary coil (no stray lines). Dividing the above two relations one can get the following formula : Vs N = s Vp Np (11 - 13)
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Solution:
V = s Vp =
Is x100 Ip
V s Np x x100 Vp Ns 8 1100 x x100 220 Ns
80 =
Ns = 50 turns N Is = Np Ip s Is = 1100 50 0.1 Is = 2.2 A Learn at Leisure
AC/DC
There are two types of current or voltage AC and DC .In the case of DC, Ohms law dictates that what determines the current is the resistance. In the case of AC, what determines the current are three elements,the resistor, the inductor and the capacitor. Household appliances use 220 V AC of frequency 50 HZ. Often, we need to convert this to a lower DC voltage, as in the case of the mobile charger and some other appliances.To do this, we use a down transformer and a rectifier. It is to be noted that a low AC current is more hazardous to man than a low DC current (why?).
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an audio signal (Fig 11-16). The same thing happens in the hard disk in the computer, where data is stored by magnetization. In this way, the data is not lost from the hard disk when the power of the computer is switched off.
input audio iron core
unmagnetized tape
magnetized tape
magnetic field
Use of electromagnetic induction in recording
Fig (11-13b)
Examples:
1- A trandformer connected to a 240 V AC power source gives 900 V output emf with current intensity 4A. What is the intensity of the source current assuming that the efficiency
Solution:
of the transformer is 100%? Vs I p = Vp I s I 900 = p 240 I4s ... I p = 900 x 4 = 15 A 240
2) An electric bell is connected to a transformer of efficiency 80% which gives 8 V output, while the input household voltage is 220 volts. What is the number of turns of the secondary coil if the number of turns of the primary coil is 1100 ? and what is the intensity of current in the secondary coil if the current in the primary coil is 0.1 A ?
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Operation of a DC motor through one complete revolution: Starting from a position at which the plane of the coil is parallel to the lines of the magnetic flux, and the brush F - connected to the positive terminal of the battery - touches the half cylinder x, while F - connected to the negative terminal of the battery - touches the half cylinder y as shown in Fig (11-17). Thus, current passes in the coil in the direction dcba. Applying Fleming's left hand rule, one concludes that the wire ab is affected by a force in the upward direction, while the wire cd is affected by a force in the downward direction. The two produced forces (couple) form a torque, and the coil begins to rotate in the direction shown in the figure. As the coil rotates, the moment of the couple decreases gradually till it vanishes, when the coil plane becomes perpendicular to the lines of the magnetic flux. But the coil having gained a momentum will continue motion due to its inertia, which in turn pushes the coil to the other side. The two halves x and y of the commutator interchange position, such that the half cylinder x will be in touch with the brush F2,while the brush F will touch to other half cylinder y. Thus, the current in the coil will reverse direction and pass in the direction abcd. Applying "Fleming's left hand rule" for the new position of the coil shows that the force acting on the wire ab will be downward, while the force acting on the wire cd will be upwards. The obtained torque enables the coil to continue rotation in the same circular direction. The torque increases gradually to its maximum value when the plane of the coil becomes parallel to the lines of the magnetic flux. Then, it decreases to zero when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the lines of magnetic flux. The inertia of the coil then causes it to continue rotating to the other side. This permits the two halves to interchange positions and with respect to the two brushes F1 and F2, and thus, the current in the coil is reversed once more. The coil continues rotating in the same circular direction making one complete revolution, and so on. In order to increase the power of the motor, a number of coils may be used with equal
1 2 1
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DC motor: It is a device which converts electric energy to mechanical energy. It operates on a DC source (battery) (Fig 11-17). It consists in its simplest form of a rectangular coil abcd comprising a large number of turns of insulated copper wire wound around a soft iron core made of thin insulated sheets to cut down on eddy currents. The core and the coil can rotate between the two poles of a strong horseshoe (U-shaped) field magnet. The two terminals of the coil are connected to two halves of a split cylinder around the axis of the coil.
brushes
ficld magnet
split cylinder
variable resistance
Fig (11 - 17)

DC motor
(commutator). The two halves (x,y) are insulated from each other and capable of rotating The plane separating the two halves is perpendicular to the plane of the coil and the line connecting the two brushes is parallel to the lines of magnetic flux. To operate the motor, the two brushes must be connected to the battery. The motor and the galvanometer: The principle of operation of the electric motor and that of the moving coil galvanometer are alike. The main difference is that the electric motor must rotate continuously in the same direction. The design of the electric motor necessitates that the two halves x,y of the As a result, the electric current passing in the motor must reverse direction in the coil each half revolution. cylinder must interchange positions relative to the two brushes F1 and F2 each half cycle.
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Learn at Leisure
Search for Metals

A metal detector is used in the search for metals. Its operation depends on measuring the change in the self inductance L of a coil due to its proximity to a metal. The current in the detector changes giving away the hidden matal (Fig. 11-18). Fig (11 - 18)
A metal detector
Learn at Leisure
The microphone and the loud speaker

The operation of a moving coil microphone depends on the vibration of an armature according to the sound waves. The magnetic field in an iron core changes, which results in the generation of an emf in a coil wound around the iron core. This emf is of variable amplitude and frequency according to the individual sound. Thus, a sound signal (mechanical wave) is converted to an electrical (audio) signal. In a moving coil loud speaker, the reverse takes place.
Sound waves coil magnet
A microphone
Fig (11 - 19)
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angles between their planes. The two terminals, of each coil are connected to two opposite splits of a cylinder. The cylinder is split into a number of segments twice that of the number of the coils. During rotation, each two opposite segments touch the two brushes F1 and F2 when their corresponding coil is in position of largest torque. Learn at Leisure
Motor and generator at the same time:

While operating the motor, its coil cuts the line of magnetic flux of the field magnet. There is a rate of change of cutting magnetic lines. Therefore, an emf is induced opposite to the source, reducing the current, and hence, the speed.This back emf in the motor coil acts to the stabilize the speed of rotation of the coil. If the speed of the coil tends to increase, the back emf increases. The difference between the back emf and the external source is the voltage drop across the coil resistance. Therefore, as the back emf increases, the current decreases, and so does the speed of rotation. Conversely, if the coil speed tends to decrease, the back emf decreases, and the current increases. So the speed of rotation of a DC motor remains constant.But the speed can be changed by changing the source (battery) voltage. It should be noted that if we try to stop the motor by force while it is connected to the source, the motor coil burns out, because the back emf would disappear and the battery voltage is applied in full across the small coil resistance so it burns out. Also, if a transformer works on no load (secondary is open circuited), the secondary current is zero and the primary current should be zero. However, a back emf in the primary almost balances out with the input voltage due to self-induction. A small current in the primary exists even at no load to produce the flux linkage. So, an ideal transformer does not really exist. However, at full load, we may consider - as an approximation - that the ideal transformer model works.
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spark plug point contact copacitor cam primary coil spark distributer secondary coil platinum point contacts
iron core
car battery
rotating distributer discharge arm
A schematic for the ignition circuit in a car
Fig (11 - 21a)
ignition coil
contact point contact
spark plug
A section in ignition circuit components
Fig (11 - 21b)
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The variable audio (electrical) signal produces variations in the coil current. The coil is connected to a diaphragm which vibrates due to the force generated in the presence of a magnetic field. Mechanical (sound) waves result, resembling the original audio signal. Thus, sound is heard back (Fig 11-20).
paper core soft iron cylinder diaphragm moving coil
flexible wires to the coil permanent magnet
soft iron sheet
A loud speaker
Fig (11 - 20)
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lgnition circuit in a car

The ignition coil (Fig 11-21) consists of two coils one inside the other, both wound around a soft iron core. The primary coil and the core comprise an electromagnet. the primary circuit is opened regularly by a distributer cam as it rotates, thus, opening and closing the point contacts. The secondary coil contains thousands of turns. A large emf is generated from time to time at the same rate of opening the primary circuit. This large emf generates a spark across the air gap across the spark plugs. The spark plugs are connected alternately to the secondery coil as the distributer rotates. A capacitor is used to protect the points from corrosion due to the spark. Electronic ignition system works on the same principle, but the cam is replaced by transistors as a switch (Chapter 15).
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Self-induction: It is the electromagnetic effect induced in the same coil when the intensity of the current increases or decreases.This effect acts to resist such a change in the intensity of current.
Coefficient of self-induction :
changes at a rate of 1A/s.
It is measured numerically by the electromotive force
generated by induction in the coil when the intensity of the current passing through it
The unit of measuring the self induction (Henry): It is the self induction of a coil in
which an emf of 1V is induced when a current passes through it which changes at a rate of 1A/s.
1H =
The self-induction of a coil depends on :

a) its geometry. c) the spacing between its turns.
1V.S s A
b) its number of turns. d) the magnetic permeability of its core.
The Dynamo (AC Generator): It is a device used to convert the mechanical energy to
electric energy(AC current and voltage) when its coil rotates in a magnetic field. The simple dynamo (AC generator) consists of : a) field magnet (strong magnet). b) a coil of insulated copper wire suspended between the two poles of the magnet. c) two metallic rings in contact with two graphite brushes connected to an external circuit.
A commutator: (cylinder split into a number of insulated segments) is used to obtain a

DC current and voltage (DC generator).
The alternating current: It is current which changes periodically its intensity and The electric transformer: It is an electric device used to step up or step down an emf through mutual electromagnetic induction.
direction with time according to a sinusoidal curve.
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In a Nutshell
Definitions and Basic Concepts:Electromagnetic induction : It is a phenomenon in which an induced electromotive force and also an induced current are generated in the coil on plunging a magnet into orwithdrawing a magnet out of a coil.
The presence of a soft iron core inside a coil concentrates the lines of magnetic flux that
link with the coil. This in turn increases the induced electromotive force and also the
induced current. Faraday's law for the induced emf : The induced emf generated in a coil by electromagnetic induction is proportional to the time rate by which the conductor cuts the lines of magnetic flux and is also proportional to the number of turns of the coil.
Lenz's rule: the direction of the induced current generated by induction is such that
to oppose the change in the magnetic flux producing it.
Fleming's right hand rule: Place the thumb, the pointer and the middle finger(with
the rest of the fingers) of the right hand mutually at right angles. If the pointer points in the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb in the direction of motion then the middle finger (with the rest of the fingers) will point in the direction of the induced current.
Mutual induction: It is the electromagnetic interaction between two coils kept close to
each other (or one inside the other).An electric current with time varying intensity passing in one coil (primary coil)will produce in the second one (secondary coil) an induced current in a direction such that to oppose the variations of the current intensity in the primary coil.
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The efficiency of the transformer: It is the ratio between the output electric energy The electric motor: It is an electric device used to convert the electric energy into
mechanical energy . Basic laws: given in the secondary and that available to the primary.
The induced emf genrated in a coil of N turns as a result of time variation of magnetic
flux m linked with the coil in an interval of time is given by the relation: emf =-N 6q v V 6t The nagative sign indicates that the direction of the induced emf (and thus the current) is such as to oppose the cause producig it.
The emf induced in a secondary coil due to the time variation in the lines of magnetic flux
resulting from a primary coil linking with the secondary coil in a time interval t is given 6q emf = - M I 6t where M is the coefficient of mutual induction. by the relation :
The emf induced by self induction as a result of the current I passing through the coil in
a time t is given by the relation : where M is the coefficient of self induction of coil.
emf = - L
6I 6t
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4) A current passes in the primary coil, then this coil is plunged into a secondary coil whose terminals are connected to a galvanometer. The deflection of its needle will be in a direction: a) opposite to the current in the primary coil. b) points to zero reading c) increasing. d) same as the current in the primary coil e) variable 5) Opening the primary circuit while the primary coil is inside the secondary one, leads to the generation of : a) an induced forward current. b) an electric field c) an induced back current. d) an AC current. e) a magnetic field. 6) The slow rate of growth of the current in the solenoidal coil is due to the: a) production of forward current. b) production of a magnetic field. c) production of a back induced current opposing (resisting ) the original one. d) production of a magnetic flux. e) production of an electric field. 7) The ohmic resistors are made of double wound wires: a) to decrease the resistance of the wire. b) to increase the resistance of the wire.
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Questions & Drills

I) Put (3) against the right answer: 1) The pointer of a galvanometer whose terminals are connected to a solenoidal coil will be deflected if one withdraws the magnet quickly from the coil because: a) the number of the coil turns is very large. b) the coil intercepts the lines of the magnetic flux. c) the number of the turns of the coil is small. e) the number of turns of the coil is suitable. 2) The needle of the galvanometer whose terminals are connected to a solenoidal coil deflects on the withdrawal of the magnet in a direction opposite to that which occurs on plunging the magnet into the coil because: a) an induced current is generated in a direction opposite to that on plunging the magnet. b) an electric current is generated. c) the number of the lines of magnetic flux decreases. d) the number of the lines of the magnetic flux changes. e) the number of flux lines remains constant. 3) The emf induced in a coil on plunging a magnet into or withdrawing it out of a coil differs according to the difference in : a) [the intensity of the current - the length of the wire - the number of the lines of flux]. b) [magnet strength - the velocity with which the magnet moves- the number of turns of the coil]. c) [the cross sectional area of the coil - the mass of unit length - the material from which the wire is made]. d) [the length of the wire - the number of turns - the type of the magnet]. e) [the magnetic flux density - time - the intensity of the current].
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c) several magnets d) an insulated copper wire. e) a current rectifier. 12) The ratio between the electric energy in the secondary to that in the primary is called: a) the lost energy. b) the given energy. c) the efficiency of the transformer. d) the working strength of the transformer. e) the gained energy. II) Define the following : 1- Electromagnetic induction. 2- Faraday's law of induction 3- Lenz's rule. 4- Fleming 's right hand rule. 5- Mutual induction. 6- Unit of measuring the mutual inductance. 7- Self induction. 8- Coefficient of self induction. 9- The Henry. 10- The induction coil. 11- The AC current. 12- The dynamo. 13- The electric motor. 14 - The transformer. 15- The efficiency of the transformer. 16- The back emf in the motor.
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c) to avoid self-induction. d) to eliminate the resistance of the wire. e) to facilitate the connection process. 8) The direction of the current produced in the dynamo coil can be determined using: a) Fleming's left hand rule. b) Lenz's rule. c) Fleming's right hand rule. 9) The rate with which the coil intercepts the lines of magnetic field in the dynamo is maximum when: a) the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the flux lines. b) the plane of the coil is inclined to the lines by an angle 30 c) the face area of the coil is minimum. d) the face area of the coil is maximum. e) the plane of the coil is parallel to the lines of the magnetic flux. 10) The intensity of the current in the two coils of the transformer is : a) directly proportional to the number of the turns. b) inversely proportional to the number of the turns. c) depending on the temperature of the wire. d) depending on the substance of the wire. e) depending on the temperature of the air (ambient temperature). 11) The power of an electric motor to rotate increases on using: a) larger number of turns. b) several coils with angles between their planes.
IV) Give reasons 1) The core of an electic transformer is made of thin sheets insulated from each other. 2) A bar of soft iron will not be magnetized if a double wound wire carrying a current is wound around it. 3) A wire free to move in a magnetic field moves when a current passes through it. 4) The transformer is not suitable to convert DC voltage. 5) The electric motor rotates with uniform velocity. 6) The induced current dies out in a straight wire faster than in a coil with air core, and in a coil with air core faster than in a coil wound around an iron core. 7) The metallic cylinder used to obtain a unidirectional current in the dynamo is split into two halves completely insulated from each other. V) Drills 1) A coil of 80 turns, and cross sectional area 0.2 m2 is suspended in a perpendicular position to a uniform magnetic field. The average induced emf is 2 V when it rotates 1/4 revolution through 0.5 s. Find the magnetic flux density. (0.0625T) 2- If the magnetic flux density between the two poles of the magnet of a dynamo is 0.7 Tesla, and the length of its coil is 0.4 m, find the velocity of motion in such a field to obtain an induced emf in the wire equal to 1V. (3.57m/s) 3) A coil of a dynamo consists of 800 turns each of face area 0.25 m2. It rotates at a rate of 600 revolutions per minute, in a field of magnetic flux density 0.3 Tesla. Calculate the induced emf when the angle made between the normal to the coil and the magnetic flux is 30. to a magnetic field of density 0.8 Tesla. Calculate the emf induced in such a rod. (1885v) (0.12v) 4) A rod of copper of length 30 cm moves with at velocity 0.5 m/s in a perpendicular direction
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III) Essay questions: 1) What are the factors on which the emf induced in a conductor depends ? Mention the relation between the emf. and such factors. 2) State Faraday's law of the emf induced in a coil, then show how to verify this practically? 3) What is meant by mutual induction between two coils? and what is meant by the coefficient of mutual induction? How - using the mutual induction - one can verify Lenz's rule? 4) If a current passes through a coil, deduce an equation relating the induced emf in the coil and the rate of change of the current in the coil. From this, deduce a definition for the coefficent of self induction and the Henry. 5) When does the emf induced in a coil become maximum ? and when does it become zero? 6) Explain an experiment to show the conversion of the mechanical energy into electrical energy, and another experiment to show the opposite conversion. Then, state the rule used to define the direction of the current in the first case and the direction of motion in the second case. 7) Deduce the relation by which one can evaluate the instantaneous emf induced in an AC generator. 8) What are the modifications introduced to the AC generator to render it a unidrectional generator ? 9) Describe the structure of the electric transformer ? then explain the principle of its opertion. What is meant by saying that the efficiency of the transformer is 80%?. 10) What is meant by the efficiency of the transformer? What are the factors which lower such an efficiency and how to deal with them? 11) Draw a labelled diagram showing the structure of the motor and explain its operation.
5) An antenna of length one meter fixed in a motor car, which moves at velocity 80km/hour in a direction perpendicular to the horizontal component of the Earths magnetic field. An emf of 4 x 10-4 V is induced in the antenna. In such a case, calculate the magnetic flux density of the considerd horizontal field. (18 x 10-6T) 6) Calculate the coefficient of self-induction for a coil in which an emf of 10 V is induced if the passing current changes at a rate of 40 A/s (0.25 Henry) 7) The mutual induction between two faces of opposite coils is 0.1 Henry and the intensity of current in one of them is 4 A. If this intensity drops to zero in 0.01s, find the emf induced in the other coil. (40V) 8) A rectangular coil of dimensions 0.4m x 0.2m and of 100 turns rotates with a uniform velocity 500 revolutions per minute in a uniform field of magnetic flux density 0.1 Tesla. The axis of rotation in the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the field. Calculate the emf induced in the coil. (41.89 V.) 9) A step-down transformer of efficiency 90% has a primary coil voltage of 200 V and that of the secondary is 9 V. If the intensity of the electric current in the primary is 0.5 A, and the number of turns of the secondary is 90 turns, what is the intensity of the current of the secondary coil, and what is the number of turns of the primary? (10 A, 1800 turns ) 10) A step-down transformer connected to an AC power source of 2500 V gives a current of 80 A.The ratio between the number of turns of the primary and the secondary coils is 20:1 Assuming that its efficiency is 80%, find the emf induced across the two terminals of the secondary, and find also the current in the primary coil. (100V,4A)
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Unit 5:
Chapter 12
Overview
Wave Particle Duality
Introduction to Modern Physics Chapter 12:
All what we have studied so far can be lumped under the title of classical physics. By classical, we do not mean outdated or obsolete. In fact, classical physics explains everything in our daily life and our common experiences. The present unit, however, entails some of the basic concepts of modern physics and a general view of a quantum physics. This branch of physics (modern or quantum) deals with a great collection of scientific phenomena which might not be directly observed in our daily life, but treat a number of situations in the universe which classical physics cannot explain, especially when we deal with atomic and subatomic systems, i.e, down to the subatomic scale . Also, this kind of physics explains all phenomena involved in electronics which is the basis for all modern electronic and communication systems. It also explains chemical reactions on the level of the molecule. Some of such reactions were photographed by Ahmed Zewail using a high speed laser camera. Such work entitled him to earn the Noble Prize in chemistry in1999. Blackbody Radiation: We are content so far to regard light as waves. Waves have common features, i.e,
UV visible light
wavelength (m)
Fig (12-1) Electromagnetic spectrum
275
12-2) and other stars, a burning charcoal (Fig 12-3) and a glowing incandescent lamp (Fig 12-4). We also note that the dominant color of light emitted from these sources varies. Hence,an em source does not emit all wavelengths equally, but the intensity of radiation varies with wavelength. The distribution of the radiation intensity with wavelength is called Plancks distribution (Fig 12-5). It was also found that the wavelength m at which the peak of the curve occurs is inversely proportional to temperature. This is known as Wiens law. Therefore, the higher the temperature, the smaller the wavelength of the peak . tends to infinity (very large)or to zero (very small ) the intensity of radiation tends to zero. For example, the temperature at the surface of the Sun is 6000K. Hence, the wavelength at the peak is 5000A ( 0.5 m). This is within the visible range. Thus, almost 40% of the total energy emitted by the Sun is in the visible range and almost 50% is heat Fig(12-5) The wavelength at the peak is inversely proportional to temperature
wave length (nm) nanometer)
Radiation intensity
Unit 5: Introduction to Modern Physics
UV
visable light
IR
We also note that as the wavelength
Chapter 12: Wave Particle Duality
(infrared radiation), while the rest is distributed over the remaining spectrum. We practically obtain the same shape of radiation intensity distribution for a glowing incandescent lamp, except that the temperature is now 3000K which puts the wavelength at the peak at 1000 nm = 10-6 m = 10000A = 1 Micron. From such lamps we get nearly 20 % as visible light and most of the rest as heat. We cannot explain these observations using classical physics. It can be argued from
277
Introduction to Modern Physics
Chapter 12:
Fig (12-2) The Sun as a source of em radiation
Fig (12-3) A burnig charcoal emits em radiation
Fig (12-4a) A glowing incandescent lamp emits em radiation
Fig (12-4b) A lamp emitting less em radiation
reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction. We know also that visible light is but a small portion of the electromagnetic (em) spectrum (Fig 12-1). Electromagnetic waves may differ in frequency, and hence, in wavelength, but they propagate in free space at a constant speed c = 3 x 108 m/s. Electromagnetic waves do not need necessarily a medium to propagate in. We all observe that hot bodies emit light and heat. An example is the Sun (Fig
Unit 5:
276
Unit 5:
tomography (tumor detection) (Fig 12-11), in embryology and in criminology, since the heat radiated from a person lingers for a while even after the person has left. All these applications are called remote sensing. Egypt has been a pioneer in this field. How can we explain the bell shape of radiation? Planck in 1900 came up with the answer. Planck called this phenomenon black body radiation. The reason for naming it so is that a black body absorbs all radiation falling on it, regardless of the wavelength. It is, thus, a perfect absorber. It then re-emits this radiation wholly. It is therefore a perfect emitter. If we imagine an enclosed cavity with a small hole, the inside of the cavity appears black because all of the radiation within the cavity remains trapped due to multiple reflections. Only a small part of it leaks out, which is called blackbody radiation (Fig 12-12). Planck managed to explain this blackbody phenomenon with an interpretation that Fig (12-8) An image of southern Sinai taken by Land sat satellites
Introduction to Modern Physics Chapter 12: Wave Particle Duality
Fig (12-9) A night vision system
Fig (12-10) An image taken by a night vision system
279
classical physics that since the radiation is an em wave, the intensity of radiation increases with frequency. Why then should the intensity of radiation go down at the high frequency end, (Fig 12-6)? This curve is repeated for radiation not only the Sun but also the Earth, and all bodies even living creatures. But the Earth- being a non glowing body it absorbs the radiation from the Sun and reemits it. But its temperature is far less than that of the Sun. Therefore, we find the wavelength at the peak to be nearly 10 Micron ,which is within the infrared region (Fig 12-7).There are satellites, and airborne as well as terrestrial equipment which map using different regions of the spectrum including the infrared radiation emitted by the surface of the Earth ,in addition to the reflected visible light (Fig 12-8). Also, microwaves are used for the same purpose in radars. Scientists analyze such images to determine possible natural Earth resources.
radiation intensity radiation intensity
all hot bodies which emit continuous
classical expectation
Chapter 12:
Planck's distribution
Fig (12-6) Radiation decreases with increasing frequency in disagreement with classical expectations
em radiation from the Sun
and photograph the surface of the Earth,
em radiation from the Earth m
Fig (12-7) Radiation from the Earth and from the Sun
This technique is also used for military purposes such as night vision systems, which detect and image moving objects in the dark due to the heat radiation which these objects re- emit (Figs 12-9,12-10). Thermal imaging is also used in medicine, particularly in
Unit 5:
278
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Fig (12-13) An image where each shot has a different number of photons in increasing order from(a) to(f) image taken for an object for different numbers of photons. It is worth mentioning though
Chapter 12:
that the human eye is so sensitive that it can detect as little as one photon falling on it.
Photoelectric Effect and thermoionic effect: Photoelectric Effect:

A metal contains positive ions and free electrons which can move around inside the metal but cannot leave it, due to the attractive forces of the surface which may be represented by a surface potential barrier. But some of these electrons can escape if given enough energy in the form of heat or light (Fig 12-14). This is the idea behind the cathode ray tube (CRT), which is used in TV and computer monitors (Fig 12 -15). This tube consists of metal surface called the cathode, which is heated by a filament. Electrons are, thus, emitted by the so called electron gun (E-gun). Due to heat, some electrons may overcome the forces of attraction at the surface. These electrons are then freed (liberated) from the metal and are then picked up by the screen, which is connected

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sounded weird at the time. He proposed that radiation was made up of small units (or packets) of energy, each he called quantum (or photon). Therefore, we may consider radiation from a glowing object as a flux of emitted photons. The photons energy increases with frequency, but their number decreases with increasing energy. The photons emanate from the vibrations of atoms. The energy of these vibrating atoms is not continuous but quantized (discrete or discontinuous) into levels. These energy levels take values E=nh, where h is Planck's constant h=6.625x10-34 Js, and is the frequency (Hertz - Hz). The atom does not radiate as long as it remains in one energy level. But if the vibrating atom shifts from a high energy level to a lower energy level, it emits a photon whose energy E = h. Thus, photons with high frequency have high energy and those with low frequency have low energy. Radiation consists of billions upon billions of these photons. We do not see separate photons, but we observe the features of the stream of photons as a whole. These features express in, the stream of photons represent the classical properties of radiation Fig (12-13) shows an Fig (12-12b) A small part of energy leaks out of the hole which is called blackbody radiation
Radiation inside the cavity is trapped so it appears black
Chapter 12:
Fig (12-11) A thermal image for the face and neck
Fig (12-12a)
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Unit 5:
a photon
a freed electron
energy
Fig (12-14c) A more tightly bound electron needs higher energy to escape to a positive pole called the anode, thus causing current in the external circuit. When the electrons hit the screen, they emit light which varies in intensity from point to point on the fluorescent screen, depending on the intensity of the electrical signal transmitted. Such a signal controls the intensity of the electron beam emitted from the E -gun through a negative grid in its way. The E -beam can be controlled by electric or magnetic fields to sweep the screen point by
fluorescent screen E-gun cathode grid filament heater anode plate Y plate X E-beam light spot
Fig (12-15) Light spot on a fluorescent screen (emits photons when struck by electrons)
283
zinc plate uv radiation freed electrons
Chapter 12:
Fig (12-14a) Electrons may be freed from a metal if given sufficient energy
a photon
An electron barely escaping
energy
Unit 5:
Fig (12-14b) Minimum energy needed to free an electron is called work function
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Einstein put forth an interpretation for all this, which led him to Nobel prize in 1921. He proposed that a photon with > c falling on a metallic surface , has energy h , while the energy needed to free an electron ( called the work function) is Ew = hc ( Fig 12-14). Thus, the photon is barely able to free an electron, if it has energy h=hc= Ew. If the photon energy exceeds this limit, the electron is freed and the energy difference h -Ew is carried by the electrons as kinetic energy, i.e., it moves faster as h increases. Whereas if h<Ew, the electron would not be emitted at all, no matter how intense the light might be. Also, the emission is instantaneous. There is no need for time to collect energy. The emission takes place instantly, once h > hc . It is to be noted that c and Ew vary for different materials, and do not depend on the light intensity, the exposure time or the voltage difference between the anode and the cathode.
Unit 5: Introduction to Modern Physics Chapter 12:
photocurrent
photocurrent
light intensity
light intensity
Fig (12-17a) Photocurrent versus light intensity for < c
Fig (12-17b) Photocurrent versus light intensity for > c
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point generating the picture,so called raster until the frame is completed (Fig 12-15). When light falls on a cold cathode instead of heating a filament, a current flows in the circuit too. This means incident light electrons have been freed due to light. The emission of such electrons due to light falling on a metallic surface is a phenomenon called photoelectric effect (Fig 12-16). This emitted phenomenon cannot be explained by the classical theory of photoelectrons light. Considering light as a wave, part of the light falling vacuum on the surface of the metal is absorbed, giving some ammeter electrons enough energy to escape. We are then up aganist certain difficulties with the classical theory. If we attempt voltmeter using the classical model, the current intensity or the emission of such electrons (called photoelectrons) should battery depend on the intensity of the incident wave, regardless of Fig (12-16) its frequency. Also, the kinetic energy (or velocity) of the Photoelectric current emitted electrons should increase with increasing intensity achieved by absorbing of the incident radiation. Even in the case of low light photons on a metal surface intensity, giving sufficient time should give some electrons )Photo electeric cell( enough energy to be freed, regardless of the frequency of the incident light. But the practical observations are contrary to these classical expectations. It has been observed that the emission of electrons depends primarily on the frequency of the incident light not on its intensity. Such electrons are not emitted if the frequency is under a threshold (critical value) c no matter how intense light may be. If the frequency exceeds c, photocurrent increases with the intensity of light (Fig 12-17). Also, the kinetic energy (or velocity) of the emitted electrons depends on the frequency of the incident wave not its intensity.In addition, the emission of electrons occurs instantly as long as > c. The electrons do not need time to collect energy if the light intensity is low, provided > c .
Chapter 12:
Unit 5:
constant light intensity constant current
Fig (12-19a) Measuring KEmax for different frequencies at constant photon flux
Thus, Vs serves as a measure for KEmax. If the photon energy is h, we have: h = Ew + KEmax KE max = h - Ew Thus, KEmax is directly proportional to h, regardness of light intensity L (light flux is the number of photons/s). If becomes c , we have h=Ew, then KEmax = 0 and Vs = 0, i.e., no stopping voltage is needed to stop the current (Fig 12-19). Fig (12-19b) A linear relation between KEmax and

287
Learn at Leisure
Interpretation of the photo electric effect:

To measure the velocity of photoelectrons (and their KE), we apply a negative retarding voltage between the anode and the cathode. The magnitude of the voltage. which causes the photocurrent to cease is called the stopping voltage Vs. At this voltage, electrons barely make it to the anode.Vs is the lowest voltage that does that. The kinetic energy of electrons at the anode become zero. The kinetic energy at the cathode which would enable electrons to hardly reach the anode is the maximum kinetic energy at the cathode (most energetic electrons), and hence, is called the maximum kinetic energy KEmax where e is the electron charge since the total energy at the cathode equals the total energy at the anode. -eVs + KE
1
max
cathode light
anode
Chapter 12:
Fig (12-18a) A circuit for measuring photocurrent versus voltage
constant light of constant light of > c
L2 current
constant constant
L1 current
=0
(12-1)
stopping voltage
Unit 5:
Vs = e KEmax
Fig (12-18b) Photocurrent versus voltage for different light intensity and constant frequency > c
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Compton Effect It was observed that when a photon ( X or rays ) collided with a free electron, the photon frequency decreased and changed its direction. Also, the electron velocity increased and it changed its direction (Fig 12-21). This observation could not be explained by the , wave (classical) theory of light. It can be argued based on Planck s hypothesis that electromagnetic radiation consists of photons which can collide with electrons as billiard balls collide. In this collision, linear momentum must be conserved (law of conservation of linear momentum), i.e., the linear momentum before collision must equal the linear momentum after collision. Also, the law of conservation of energy must apply, i.e., the the sum of the energy of the photon and the electron after collision must equal the sum of the energy of the photon and the electron before collision . We must, therefore, consider a photon as a particle with a linear momentum, i.e., it has mass and velocity as much as the electron is a particle which has mass and velocity, and hence a linear momentum. Photon Properties A photon is a concentrated packet of energy which has mass, velocity and linear momentum. Its energy E = h, it always moves at the speed of light c regardless of its frequency. Einstein showed that mass and energy were equivalent E = mc2.A loss of mass
Unit 5: Introduction to Modern Physics Chapter 12: Wave Particle Duality
scattered photon
incident photon electron
Fig (12-21) Compton effect
scattered electron
289
high light intensity low light intensity
Chapter 12:
Fig (12-20a) Relation of photocurrent with voltage for material A
high light intensity
low light intensity
Fig (12-20b) Relation of photocurrent with voltage for material B
Unit 5:
Fig (12-20c) Relation between KEmax with for different materials
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is translated to released energy as in the atomic bomb (Fig 12-22). Nuclear fission is associated with a small loss of mass which is converted to large amount of energy due to the c2(c2 = 9 x 1016 m2/s2) factor. Therefore, the law of conservation of mass and the law of the conservation of energy blend into the law of conservation of mass and energy. Thus, a photon whose energy is h has a mass of h/c2, while in motion . Since it is moving at velocity Fig (12-22) Atomic bomb c, its momentum which is the product of mass and velocity becomes h/c . If a beam of photons is incident on a certain surface at the rate of L (photons/s,), then each photon impinges on the surface and bounces off, and hence, suffers a change in linear momentum 2mc. The force which a beam of photons applies to the surface is the change in linear momentum per second: F = 2mcL h P 2p F = 2 ( c ) L = c w
(12-2)
Chapter 12: Unit 5:

290
where Pw is the power in watts of the light incident on the surface. This force is too small to be noticed. But it is appreciable if it affects a free electron instead, due to its small mass and size, so it throws it off. This is the explanation of Compton effect. In the microscopic model, we can image a phaton as a sphere whose radius is roughly equal to and oscillates at frequency . The stream of photons collectively has a magnetic field and an electric field. These two fields are perpendicular to one another and to the direction of propagation.Both oscillate at . The photon flux (or stream) carries the energy of the wave. The wave properties are ,thus, manifested by the photon stream as a whole. The wave
eye brain tissue
nasal cavity
ear
Chapter 12:
skull
ear cavity
Fig (12-23b) A CT scan image of the head
intestines
lever
spine
kidney
Fig (12-23c) An image of blood vessels using X- rays and a dye
Fig (12-23d) A CT scan image of the abdomen
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Thus, the wavelength is Plancks constant divided by the linear momentum PL. It should be noted that when photons fall on a surface, a comparison is made between and the interatomic distance of the surface. If is greater than the interatomic distance, these photons sense the surface as a continuous one and get reflected from it as in wave theory. If the interatomic distance is comparable to , photons penetrate through the atoms. This is what happens in the case of X- rays.
Example
Solution
Calculate the photon mass and linear momentum if = 380 nm

(3x108 m/s) = c/ = (380) (1x10-9m) = 7.89 x1014 Hz m= E/c2 = h/c2 = (6.625 x 10-34 Js) (7.89x1014 s-1) (3x108m/s)2
Chapter 12:
= 5.81x10-36 kg (6.625 x 10-34 Js) P = h/ = L (380) (1x10-9m) = 1.74 x10-27 kgm/s
Wave properties of a particle In the universe, there is a great deal of symmetry. If waves have particle nature, could it be that particles might have wave properties ? a question posed by De Broglie in 1923 led to a hypothesis of wave particle duality applying to particles. The wavelength of a particle must be in analogy with a photon = h/PL where pL is the linear momentum of the particle. (12 4)
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Introduction to Modern Unit Physics 5: Introduction Chapterto 12: Modern Wave Physics Particle Duality Chapter 12:
emit RF waves which are received by the detector. The computer reconstructs the images showing the concentration of hydrogen, and hence water collections, indicating tumors (Fig 12-24). Superconducting magnets are useful in reducing the heat due to eddy currents. Magnetic Imaging (MRI) is another method of on tomography. of Calculate theRessonance force applied by a beam of light whose power is 1W the surface Instead of a wall. using X- ray with their possibly harmful side effects, radio(RF) waves are used. It has the Solution ability to detect tumors,2and computerized image slices. The Pw it depends 2 x 1 also on making -8 F= = 8 = 0.67 by x 10a N patient lies on a moving strong (superconductive) magnet. A c bed 3surrounded x 10 receiving detector is used to receiving RF waves from hydrogen nuclei in the body . The This force is too diminutive to affect the wall strong magnet orients the spins of the nuclei, RF waves produced by a source disturb this Relation between photon wavelength its linear spin orientation . Such waves are then stopped.and As nuclei relaxmomentum to their original state, they emit RF waves which are received by thedetector. = c/ The computer reconstructs the images showing the concentration of hydrogen, and hence water collections, indicating tumors Multiplying the numerator by h (Fig 12-24). Superconducting magnets are useful in reducing the heat due to eddy currents. h = hc = (12-3) h h/c P = mc Calculate the force applied by a beam L of light whose power is 1W on the surface of a wall. h = 2 c c Solution 2 Pw 2 x 1 h F= = 8= = 0.67 x 10-8 N c 3 x 10 c h = wall This force is too diminutive to affect the PL Relation between photon wavelength and its linear momentum = c/ Multiplying the numerator by h h = hc = h h/c PL = mc h = 2 c c h = c = h PL (12-3)
Example
MRI
Example
294
Unit 5:
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But what does this mean? We double slit source of consider light as a huge stream of electrons photons. Photons collectively have a wave property accompanying them, thus, manifesting reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction.The wave intensity screen describes the photon concentraction Fig (12-25a) as if a photon carries the genes of Diffraction of electrons through a double slit light, regarding frequency, speed and wavelength. By the same token, an electron ray (e-beam) is a huge stream of electrons. Collectively, there must be a wave accompanying them. An electron carries the genes of the stream, regarding charge, spin and linear momentum. The accompanying wave has wavelength The intensity of the accompanying wave describes the electron concentration. Such a wave can disperse, reflect, refract, interfere and diffract, just as light does (Fig 12-25). But does this mean we can use an electron ray as much as we use a light ray in a microscope? The answer is yes. This answer is verified by the discovery of the electron microscope.
Chapter 12:
intensity distribution
source of electrons
Unit 5:
Fig (12-25b) Calculation of the path difference between two e-rays through a double slit
screen
296
Unit 5:
path which has an integral multiple of , or else the path over which a standing wave is formed (Fig 12-27), or the path over which 2 is maximum (Fig 12-26 b).
Electron Microscope Electron microscope is an important lab instrument which depends in its operation on the wave nature of electrons. It resembles an optical microscope in many ways. The important difference is in the resolving power. The e-microscope has a high resolving power, because the electrons can carry a high kinetic energy, and hence very short (equation 12-3). Thus, its magnification is so high that it can detect very small objects, so small that an ordinary optical microscope fails to observe (Fig 12-28). The optical microscope uses light, while the e-microscope uses an electron beam. The electron beam might have a wavelength 1000 times or more shorter than visible light. Therefore, the electron-microscope can distinguish fine details. The lenses used in e-microscope are usually magnetic. These lenses focus the e-beam. Their design falls under the topic of electron optics. Fig (12-27c) An orbit as a standing wave formed over a string fixed at both ends
optical microscope source lens electron microscope
object objective image image projection lens screen or photographic plate
Fig (12-28a) Electron microscope
299
Neuclus
Chapter 12:
Fig (12-27a) An orbit is an integer of as a traveling wave in a closed path whose end coincides with its start
Fig (12-27b) The order of the orbit is determined by the integer value
with the nucleus is zero (so the electron does not fall on the nucleus or else the universe
would vanish). Also, the probability for an electron to exist infinitely away from the nucleus is zero, or else the atom is ionized by itself. Ionization needs external energy. We conclude that the energy of the electron when trapped in an atom is less than that of a free electron by the magnitude of the ionization energy. Therefore, an electron remains trapped in the atom, unless acted upon by an external stimulus. Heisenberg showed also that we could not determine an exact path (orbit) for an electron in an atom. But we can say that an orbit is the
Unit 5:
298
Quantum Mechanics
Unit 5:
In a Nutshell
The interpretation of previous observations has paved the way to a new set of laws of
Classical physics explain many phenomena, those in on which light ( or mechanics, namely, cannot Quantum Mechanics. This branchparticularly of science is based the following em radiation) interacts with electrons or atoms. assumptions formed by Schrodinger: Light or any em radiation consists of a huge collection of photons, each photon having 1) An electron in an atom has energy values which belong to a set of allowable values energy h, where h is Plancks constant and is the frequency. called energy levels. Theis atom does not emit effect, energywhere unlessphotocurrent it falls from a high level to a An evidence for photons the photoelectric depends on the lower level. intensity of incident light as long as the frequency is greater than a critical value c. But photocurrent flows.h The kinetic of the the emission frequency than of c ,a no 2) if Such is is in less the form photon whose energy is equal toenergy the difference electron byenergy the photoelectric effect depends the frequency not on the light between freed the two levels. This process is calledon relaxation. intensity. 3) The absorption of energy by an atom occurs if the photon energy is exactly equal to the A photon has a mass, a linear momentum and a constant speed which is the speed of energy twothe levels . In this If case, the atom excited by light. It difference has a size between denoted by wavelength. a photon fallsison a wall, it having applies its a electron move in energy to the level. the This processwill is called excitation . to its small force on up it, but if it falls on higher an electron, electron be thrown off due andenergy size. is greater than the ionization energy of the atom, an electron is 4) small If the mass photon Compton effect proves the particle nature photons, where a photon totally freed from the parent atom, and the of atom becomes ionized (ion). has mass, speed and linear momentum. 5) Relaxation and excitation are simultaneous processes. At thermal equilibrium, the atom A wave describes the collective behavior of photons. is stable due to the balance simultaneity of these processes. The wavelength of a photonand is Plancks constant divided by the linear momentum. The 6) There is a function which is always positive that thedescribes electron in the atom. This same relation applies to a free particle, where thedescribes wavelength the wave nature of the particle ,i.e., wave theat particle. functions tends to the zero at accompanying the nucleus and infinity (at the border of the atom). The electronthe microscope proves de Broglie relation particles. It nuclear is used to detect Therefore, electron remains trapped within thefor atom due to attraction diminutive particles. without falling onto the nucleus. To explain this, we may say that as the electron draws Quantum mechanics is based on assumptions which agree with experimental near the nucleus, increases so much it flies away off). It was also observations, for its thevelocity cases when an electron is that trapped within a (back limited confinement. found that the assumptions of quantum mechanics agree with experimental observations While classical physics applies when the electron is free to move or when the contining size is cases extensive. in all when electrons are tightly bound in a limited size. However, if the size is
extensive, then classical mechanics may be used.

301 303
Chapter 12:
Fig (12-28b) Head of a fly as seen by an e-microscope
Fig (12-28c) Uranium atoms as seen by a special type of e-microscopes
Unit 5:
Fig (12-28d) Rubella virus as seen by an e-microscope (white spots are on the surface of the infected cells)
300
Unit 5:
whose mass is 10 kg , what happens object is an electron and why ? Inifathe Nutshell II) Essay questions
0.67x10-3N
Classical physics cannot explain many phenomena, particularly those in which light ( or 1) Show why the wave theory failed to explain the photoelectric effect, and how Einstein em radiation) interacts with electrons or atoms. managed to interpret the experimental results of this phenomenon. Light or any em radiation consists of a huge collection of photons, each photon having 2) Show how verify the particleconstant nature ofand light from blackbody radiation . where h is Plancks is the the frequency. energy h, to An evidence for photons is the effect, where photocurrent 3) Explain the Compton effect andphotoelectric show how it proves the particle nature ofdepends light ? on the intensity of incident light as long as the frequency is greater than a critical value c. But if the frequency is less than c , no photocurrent flows. The kinetic energy of the electron freed by the photoelectric effect depends on the frequency not on the light intensity. A photon has a mass, a linear momentum and a constant speed which is the speed of light. It has a size denoted by the wavelength. If a photon falls on a wall, it applies a small force on it, but if it falls on an electron, the electron will be thrown off due to its small mass and size. Compton effect proves the particle nature of photons, where a photon has mass, speed and linear momentum. A wave describes the collective behavior of photons. The wavelength of a photon is Plancks constant divided by the linear momentum. The same relation applies to a free particle, where the wavelength describes the wave nature of the particle ,i.e., the wave accompanying the particle. The electron microscope proves de Broglie relation for particles. It is used to detect diminutive particles. Quantum mechanics is based on assumptions which agree with experimental observations, for the cases when an electron is trapped within a limited confinement. While classical physics applies when the electron is free to move or when the contining size is extensive.

303 305
Learn at Leisure Questions and Drills Can you identify the contribution of each of the following scientists to modern physics ? I)Drills 1) Calculate the energy of a photon whose wavelength is 770 nm and find its mass and linear momentum?
(2.58x10-19J , 0.29x10-35kg , 0.86x10-27kgm/s)
2) Calculate the mass of an X- ray photon and a ray photon if the wavelength of X-ray is 100 nm , and that of -ray is 0.05 nm 3) Calculate the wavelength of a ball whose mass is 140 kg which moves at velocity 40 m/s. Also, calculate the wavelength of an electron if it has the same velocity.
(=1.18x10-37m ,
Planck Einstein
Chapter 12:
(mX=2.2 X10-35kg , m=4.4x10-32kg) de Broglie Bohr
e=1.8 x10-5m)
4) A radio station emits a wave whose frequency is 92.4 MHz. Calculate the energy of power of the station is 100 kW.
Schrodinger
each photon emitted from this station. Also, calculate the rate of photons L if the
Heisenberg
-28 29 -1 (E=612.15x10 J , =16.3 x10 s ) Compton Thompson L
5) An electron is under a potential difference 20 kV. Calculate its velocity upon collision with the anode from the law of conservation of energy. The electron charge is 1.6x10-19C, its mass is 9.1 x 10-31 kg. Then calculate and PL.
(v=0.838x108m/s , =0.868x10-11m , PL=7.625x10-23kgm/s)
6) If the least distance detected with an electron microscope is 1nm, calculate the velocity of the electrons and the potential of the anode.
(velocity=0.725x106m/s , V=1.5Volt)
Unit 5:
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7) Calculate the force by which an e-beam whose power is 100 kW affects an object
Chapter 13: Atomic Spectra
spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are called line spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic of the element.
potential difference
gas
slit
prism
screen
Unit 5:
modern physics
Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements
Fig (13 4a )
Spectra of some elements
Fig (13 4b )
310 1
Chapter 13
Atomic Spectra
first shell
Bohrs Model (1913)

Overview
Unit 5: modern physics Chapter 13: Atomic Spectra Unit 5: modern physics Chapter 13: Atomic Spectra Unit 5: modern physics Chapter 13: Chapter Atomic Spectra Unit 5: modern modern physics Chapter 13: Atomic Spectra Unit 5: physics 13: Atomic Spectra
The word atom goes back to a Greek origin, meaning the indivisible. Different models for the atom have been put forth since then by many great scientists based on many experimental evidences. Bohrs Model (1913)
Bohrs Model(1913) (1913) Bohrs Model
first shell first shell
a) Thompsons Atom (1898)
first shell
1 After Thompson conducted several experiments leading to the discovery of the e electron and the determination of the ratio m for the electron, he put forth a model of a e solid positively charged substance in which negative electrons were second immersed shell (Fig131). 2 Since the atom is neutral, the sum of the negative charge is equal to the sum of the positive charge.
Bohr
Bohr
Bohrs Model
second shell
second shell
Fig ( 13-5a)
Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on
Bohr faced by Rutherfords model, Bohr studied the difficulties Rutherfords findings : Fig (13-1)
Bohr
second shell Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
Bohrs Model
free ( electron Fig 13-5a)level continuous levels
free electron level Bohrs Model continuous levels and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on Thompsons studied the faced is byaRutherfords model, free electron level 1) Bohr At the center ofdifficulties the atom there positively charged continuous levels Rutherfords atomic findings : model Rutherford
Fig ( 13-5a)
b) Rutherfords Atom (1911) continuous levels 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus inon nucleus . and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building 1) At the center of the atom isexperiment a positively charged Rutherford performed his well there known based on which he formulated a model shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy 2) Rutherfords Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in findings : . fornucleus the structure of the atom and showed that it was not solid. shells. Each charged shell (loosely often called has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation asorbit) long as they remain 2) 1) Negatively electrons move around the nucleus in -4 At the center of the atom there is a positively charged In his experiment, Rutherford bombarded a thin gold plate (10 cm) with a beam of alpha value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain in each shell (Fig 13 5). 4 shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy nucleus particles ( He.2) (Fig 13 2 a, b). in eachElectrons shell (Fig 13 5). value. do not emit neutral, radiationsince as long as they remain 3)2) The atom is electrically the number of in Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus 3) in The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of each shell (Fig 13the 5).nucleus equals the number of electrons around shells. Each shell (loosely often equals called orbit) has an energy the nucleus 3) electrons The atomaround is electrically neutral, since the the number number of of positive charges in the nucleus. Fig (13-5b) (13-5b) positive indo the nucleus. value. charges Electrons not emit radiation as long as they remain Fig
Energy Energy Energy
and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on nucleus . Bohr thethe difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, 1) At the studied center of Rutherfords findings : atom there is a positively charged
free electron level
electrons around the nucleus equals the number of
in eachcharges shell (Fig 13 5). positive in the nucleus.
3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of
Energy
307
Energy levels levels Energy

Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
304 305 311 311

311
gas
slit
prism
screen
Unit 5:
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Fig (13 4a )
Fig (13 4b )
310 305
Bohrs Model (1913) Emission of Light Emission from Bohrs of Light Atom. from Bohrs Atom.
first shell
Unit 5: modern physics
second shell
Bohr
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, (13 6) Fig (13 6) building on and proposedFig a model for the hydrogen atom Rutherfords findings : between atomic levels between atomic levels
Electron transitions Electron transitions
free electron level continuous levels
1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged
nucleus . 1) When hydrogen atoms 1) When are stimulated hydrogen(given atoms energy) are stimulated not all of (given themenergy) are excited not all theof same them are excited th 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in way. Thus, electrons in way. different Thus,atoms electrons move in from different the first atoms level move K from (n = the 1) to first different level K (n = 1) to di shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy higher levels (n = 2, 3,higher 4..) levels (n = 2, 3, 4..) Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain 2) value. Electrons remain in 2) excited Electrons levels remain (or states) in excited only levels for a (or short states) period only of for time a ,called short period of time -8 -8 in each shell (Fig 10 13 s), 5). then they revert to the s), then lowest they level revert (ground to the state). lowest level (ground state). lifetime (nearly lifetime (nearly 10 level E1 , the the electron emits a1photon whose emits energy a photon whose ene 3) In going down from 3) level In going E down from level E2 to level , the electron 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since number of E 2 to c = = E E : where is the = E frequency E : where of the photon is the frequency and its wavelength of the photon is : and its h h 2 1 the nucleus equals 2 1 the number of electrons around wavelength is :
Energy
Standing waves
Fig (13 7)
Standing waves
Fig (13 7)
4) positive The line spectrum 4) ofThe hydrogen line spectrum consists of of hydrogen a particular consists energy ofvalue, a particular and hence energy a value, and he charges in the nucleus. Fig (13-5b) particular frequency. particular frequency.
Energy levels
307 313 311
energy
energy
absorbed photon
absorbed unabsorbed unabsorbed photon photon photon
emitted photon
prism
energy
energy
emitted photon
screen
gas
slit
He then added He three thenmore added postulates: three more postulates: 1) If an electron 1) If moves an electron from an moves outerfrom shellan of outer energy shell E2 to of an energy innerEshell of inner energy shell of energy 2 to an energy h = E energy = E2is where Ethe frequency is the of frequency the emittedof photon the emitted (Fig 13 photon 6). (Fig 13 6). 2 E1, h 1, where E1 (E2 > E1 ), E1an(E amount ofan energy amount E2 of E energy E2 Ein the released form of inathe photon, form whose of a photon, whose 2 > E1 ), 1 is released 1 is
atom.
Unit 5:
2) The electric 2)(Coulombs) The electric (Coulombs) forces and mechanical forces and(Newtons) mechanicalforces (Newtons) are at work forces inare theat work in the atom. 3) We can estimate 3) We the canradius estimate of the shell radius by ofconsidering the shell bythat considering the wave that accompanying the wave accompanying the the electron forms electron a standing forms wave a standing (Fig 13wave 7 ).(calculate (Fig 13 7 the ).(calculate orbit radius the for orbit n =radius 1, 2, 3,) for n = 1, 2, 3,) Fig (13 4b )
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modern physics
Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements Absorption of Absorption photons of photons Emissin of photons Emissin of photons
Fig (13-5c) Fig (13-5c)
Fig (13 4a(13 ) - 5d) Fig (13 - 5d) Fig
Bohrs Model level L (n = 2) (1913) from higher levels. This series lies in the visible range.
levels. This series lies in the infrared (IR) range.
3) Paschens series: where the electron moves down to level M (n = 3) from higher
Unit 5:
first shell
4) Brackets series: where the electron moves down to level N (n = 4) from higher levels. This series lies in the IR range. 5) Pfunds series: where the electron moves down to level O (n = 5) from higher levels. This series lies in the far IR and is the longest wavelengths ( the lowest frequencies) among the line spectrum of hydrogen.
modern physics
Spectrometer
Bohr of 3 parts : used (Fig 13 9). It consists
second shell
To obtain a pure spectrum, a spectrometer is
1) a source of rays : a light source in front of which there is a slit whose width can be Bohr studied difficulties byat Rutherfords adjusted by the a screw. Thisfaced slit is the focal model, and point proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on of a convex lens. Rutherfords findings : 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus . 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain slit in each shell (Fig 13 5).
prism source
Energy
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
Spectrometer
Fig (13 9a)
red
3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of Fig (13 9b) positive charges in the nucleus.
Spectrometer schematic
yellow violet
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
309 315 311
paschens series
Different series of atomic spectral lines for hydrogen are produced, and are arranged as spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all follows (Fig 13 8): experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are | spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic of the element. P n= called line
n=6 Q N M
Pfunds series Bracketts series Paschens series IR
gas
slitseries
Balmers
prism
screen
modern physics

ultraviolet
Fig (13 4a )
Lymans series
Leymans series
Unit 5:
Atomic spectral series for hydrogen

ns che pas ries se
Fig (13 8 a)
1) Leymans series: where the electron moves down to level K (n = 1) from higher levels. This series lies in the ultraviolet range (short wavelengths and Fig (13 4b ) high frequencies).
Balmers series
Spectra moves of some elements 2) Balmers series: where the electron down to hydrogen spectrum spect
Atomic model for
Fig (13 8 b)
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is called the emission spectrum. Bohrs Model (1913)
- It was found experimentally that when white light passes through a certain gas, some wavelengths in the continuous spectrum are missing. These wavelengths are the same as those which appear in the emission spectrum of the gas (Fig 13 9) . This type of spectrum is called the absorption spectrum. Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum are examples of the absorption spectrum of the elements in the Sun, basically helium and hydrogen.
atomic hydrogen barium mercury Bohr sodium
second shell
first shell
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
Fig (13 10) Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model,
and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on
Emission line spectra for some elements continuous levels
free electron level
X-rays findings : Rutherfords
1)What At the center of the are X-rays ? atom there is a positively charged
nucleus . They are invisible electromagnetic waves of short wavelength (10 rays) because did(loosely not know what they orbit) were .has an energy shells. Each he shell often called value. Electrons not emit radiation as long as they remain Properties of do X-rays: - in They penetrate media eachcan shell (Fig 13 5). easily . 3) Theyatom can ionize gases . neutral, since the number of The is electrically They diffract in crystals . electrons around the nucleus equals the number of - positive They affect sensitive plates . charges in thephotographic nucleus.
Energy
-13
10 m) between
-8
uvNegatively and gamma rays. They were first discovered bynucleus Rontgen. 2) charged electrons move around the in He called it so (the unknown
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
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difference
Use of a spectrometer to measure the temperature of the stars and their gases potential
Fig (13-9c)
2) a turntable on which a prism is placed. 3) a telescope consisting of two convex lenses (objective and eye piece). slit prism screen gas To use the spectrometer for obtaining a pure spectrum, the slit is lit Fig (13 4a ) at the minimum with bright light falling from the slit onto the prism Apparatus for studying the spectra of thethe elements angle of deviation. The telescope is directed to receive light passing through the telescope.The objective focuses the rays belonging to the same color at the focal plane of the lens . That is Fraunhofer how we obtain a sharp (pure) spectrum. From studying the line spectra of different elements whose atoms are excited , we notice different types of spectra (continuous and line) : - the spectrum consisting of all wavelengths in a continuous manner is called the continuous spectrum. - the spectrum occurring at specified frequencies and not continuously distributed is called the line spectrum. Alternatively, they may be divided as emission and absorption spectra : - the spectrum resulting from the transfer excited Figof (13 4b )atoms from a high level to lower level
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Unit 5:
modern physics
Bohrs Model (1913)
first shell
second shell
Bohr
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on Rutherfords findings : 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus . 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain in each shell (Fig 13 5). 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of positive charges in the nucleus.
Energy
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
313 311
target
spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all Coolidge Tube experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are cooling fins called spectra, i.e., occurring at When wavelengths characteristic of the element. Thisline is used to produce X-rays. the filament is heated, electrons are produced and directed at the target under the influence of the electric field,which gives them high energy, depending on the voltage difference between the target and the hot filament. When an electron collides with the tungsten difference target, part- if not all- of its energy is converted to X-rays (Fig 13 11).
potential
copper rod
vacuum tube high dc voltage

ta r ge t
Spectrum of X-rays
Analyzing a beam of X-rays generated from a target to components of different wavelengths, we find that the Fig (13 4a ) spectrum consists of two parts : a) the continuous spectrum of all wavelengths (within a certain range) regardless of the target material. b) the line spectrum corresponding to certain wavelengths characteristic of the target material, called the characteristic X-ray radiation.
gas
slit prism
X rays
screen
hot filament
modern physics
heating source
Coolidge tube
Fig(13 11)
Unit 5:
Interpretation of X-ray generation a) characteristic radiation

The line spectrum is generated when an electron collides with an electron close to the Fig (13latter 4b electron ) nucleus of the target material atom. If the receives sufficient energy, it
Spectra of some elements jumps to a higher level, or leaves the atom altogether, and is replaced by another electron
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Bohrs Model (1913)

2) X- rays have a great penetrating power. This is why they are used to detect defects in metallic structures. 3) X- rays are used in imaging bones and fractures and some other medical diagnosis (Fig 13 14).
rib
spinal cord
first shell
second shell
Bohr
chest
An X-ray image for the chest
heart lung Fig ( 13-5a) Fig (13 Model 14) Bohrs
Energy
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
315 321 311
energy due braking effecthave of the surrounding electrons, giving rise to spectra continually of the atoms of to allthe elements would been continuous. This is contrary to all experimental observations.The spectra of the elements a discrete nature, and are electromagnetic radiation covering all different possible have wavelengths, since the electron called line spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic of the element. loses energy gradually. This is the origin of the continuous radiation of X-rays.
Important Applications of X-rays

1) One of the important features of X-rays is diffraction, as they penetrate materials. That is why X-rays are used in studying the crystalline structure of materials (Fig 13 13). The
potential difference atoms in the
crystal act as a diffraction grating (which is a generalization of
diffraction from a double slit). Bright and dark fringes form, depending on the difference in the optical path.
gas
slit prism screen
modern physics
aperture Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements
Fig (13 4a )
X-ray tube
anode
X-rays high DC voltage vacuum crystal
Unit 5:
filament heating source
Fig (13 13) Figin (13 4b ) crystals Use of X-rays studying

310 320 314
Bohrs Model (1913)
first shell
second shell
Bohr
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
Energy
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
317 311
spectra of the atoms of all elementsIn would have been continuous. This is contrary to all a Nutshell experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are called line spectra, i.e., at wavelengths characteristic of the element. Bohrs postulates and occurring model of the hydrogen atom : When an electron jumps from a high level to a lower level, it produces radiation in the form of a photon of frequency and energy h, which is equal to the difference h = E2 E1, E2 > E1
.
between the two levels
potential The line spectrum of hydrogen consists of 5 series. Each line corresponds to a definite difference
energy difference, frequency and wavelength Lyman uv Balmer gas visible

slit prism screen
Paschen IR (infrared) Fig (13 4a )

modern physics
Brackett IR for studying the spectra of the elements Apparatus Pfund far IR The spectrometer is an apparatus used to decompose light to its components (visible and invisible) X-rays are an invisible radiation of short wavelengths, first discovered by Rontgen (1895).He called them the unknown (X) rays X-ray diffraction is used in studying the crystalline structure, and also in the industrial and medical applications.
Unit 5:
Fig (13 4b )
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gas
slit
prism
screen
Unit 5:
modern physics
Fig (13 4a )
Fig (13 4b )
310 1
Bohrs Model Chapter 14(1913) Overview
Laser
first shell
Unit Unit 5: 5: modern physics physics modern
Rarely has any discovery left an impact on applied science as the discovery of laser has done. Soon after its discovery, laser has been introduced into optics, biology, chemistry, medicine and engineering especially communications. The word laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. In 1960, Maiman built the first laser out of chromium-doped Ruby. Later, He-Ne laser was manufactured along with other types of lasers.
Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated Emission

Bohr
second shell
atom initially exists. The atom may be excited to one of higher states E2, E3 etc. Bohrs Model
The atom has energy levels, the lowest of which is called ground Fig state(E ( 13-5a) 1) in which the If we shine a photon with energy h = E2 E1 on the atom, the atom absorbs this photon
and getsstudied excited the to E a lifetime (nearly 10-8 s), the atom getslevel rid of this Bohr difficulties facedafter by Rutherfords model, 2. Soon enough free electron continuous levels excitation energy in the form of ahydrogen photon and goesbuilding back to its and proposed a model for the atom onoriginal state (Fig 14 -1). Rutherfords findings : 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus . 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain in each shell (Fig 13 by 5).absorption of Excitation
Energy
Chapter 13: Atomic Spectra Chapter 14: Laser
Relaxation to a lower level after a lifetime and release of excitation energy
energy from an external source 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of
electrons around the nucleus equals the number of Fig (14-1) positive charges in the nucleus.
Spontaneous emission
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
325 319 311
gas
slit
prism
screen
Unit 5:
modern physics
Fig (13 4a )
Fig (13 4b )
310 319
Bohrs Model (1913) remain unspread and unscattered, unlike photons emitted spontaneously.
The following table gives a comparison between spontaneous and stimulated emissions : Spontaneous emission Stimulated emissions
first shell
Unit Unit 5:5:
1 - occurs when the atom relaxes from - occurs where an external photon an excited state to a lower state, stimulates excited atoms to emit emitting spontaneously the energy the energy difference is the form difference in the form of a photon of a photon before the lifetime without the effect of an external interval is over. second shell photon. It occurs after the lifetime interval is over. Fig ( 13-5a) Bohr monochromatic 2 - The emitted photons have a - The emitted photons are Bohrs Model wide range of wavelengths. (single) wavelength. - The emitted photons propagate - The emitted are coherent Bohr3studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, photons free electron level randomly continuous and propagate in one directionlevels as a and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on collimated parallel beam. Rutherfords findings : 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged 4 - The intensity of photons - The intensity remains constant over long nucleus . decreases according to the distances contrary to the inverse law. This is the square law.inIt has been possible to 2) Negatively inverse charged square electrons move around nucleus called spreading. While send a laser beam to the Moon and shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) an energy collisions with particles is has receive it back, without much loseses, called In ordinary the long distance involved. value. Electrons doscattering. not emit radiation as long asdespite they remain light sources both spreading Spreading effect is nil and limited in each shell (Fig 13 5). occur. and scattering scattering takes place. 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of 5 - This is the dominant radiation - This is the dominant radiation in electrons around the nucleus equals the number of in ordinary light sources. laser sources. positive charges in the nucleus. Fig (13-5b)
Energy
modern physics physics modern Chapter 13: Atomic Spectra Chapter 14: Laser
Energy levels
327 321 311
Chapter 13: Atomic Chapter 14: Spectra Laser
This type of atoms radiation is called spontaneous radiation. It is the type of radiation common spectra of the of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all in ordinary light sources. The emitted the same frequency and energy as are the experimental observations.The spectra photon of the has elements have a discrete nature, and called line spectra, at .wavelengths characteristic of the element. photon that causedi.e., theoccurring excitation But the phase and direction are arbitrary. In 1917, Einstein showed that in addition to spontaneous radiation, there is another type of radiation, called stimulated emission (the dominant emission in lasers). If a photon of energy E2-E1 falls on an excited atom at level E2 before the lifetime is over, this photon pushes the atom back to the ground state, and hence, the atom radiates the excitation energy
potential difference in the form
of a photon of the same frequency, phase and direction of the falling
photon. (Fig 142).
gas
slit
prism
screen
modern physics modern physics
Fig (13 4a ) incident photon Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements
A photon passes by an excited atom Relaxation to a lower level due to an external photon before its lifetime is over
Stimulated emission
Fig (14-2)
Unit 5: Unit 5:
Thus, throughout stimulated radiation, there are two types of photons; the stimulating and the stimulated photons moving together at the same frequency, phase and direction. The emission of photons from the atoms of the material in this way renders these Fig (13 4b ) photons coherent and collimated for long distances. They are highly concentrated, and
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Bohrs Model (1913)
ordinary light source
first shell
Unit Unit 5:5:
an ordinary light source is scattered during propagation laser source laser light travels in parallel rays for long distances without much scattering
second shell
modern physics physics modern
Bohr of an ordinary light source and a laser Scattering Bohrs Model
Fig (14-4a)
Fig ( 13-5a)
Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on Rutherfords findings : 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus . 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain in each shell (Fig 13 5). 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of
Energy
electrons around the nucleus equals the number of Fig (14-4b) Launching a nucleus. laser beam from the Earth to a reflector on the positive charges in the Fig (13-5b)
surface of the Moon, 380000 km away
Energy levels
329 323 311
spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are L called line of the element. L spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic
(L)
light intensity light intensity
max
gas
slit
prism
screen
forordinary studying the spectra of the elements SpectralApparatus width for an monochromatic light source Spectral width for a laser source
Fig (14-3a)
Fig (13 4a )
Fig (14-3b)
Properties of a laser beam

1) Monochromaticity: Each line in the visible spectrum in ordinary light sources includes a band of wavelengths (this is why the ordinary color appears to have different shades to the naked eye). The intensity of each wavelength in this band width is shown in Fig (143a). A laser source emits one spectral line with a very limited bandwidth and Fig (13 4bof ) that spectral line Fig (143b), hence it the intensity is concentrated at the wavelength is called monochromatic.
310 328 322
Unit 5: Unit 5:
Bohrs Model (1913)
incoherent light
first shell
Unit Unit 5:5:
coherent light
Bohr
Coherence low light high light intensity intensity
Fig (14-5)
second shell
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
The intensity of ordinary light decreases with distance from the source due inverse square law 1) At the center of the atom there isto a the positively charged
Rutherfords findings : nucleus .
Theory of the Laser Action: in each shell (Fig 13 5).
intensity it propagates value. Electrons do not emit radiation asas long as they remain
3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of Laser action depends on driving the atoms or molecules of the active medium into a electrons around the nucleus equals the number of state of population inversion, while maintaining a form of dynamic equilibrium. In this positive charges in the nucleus. Fig (13-5b) state, the number of atoms in the excited state exceeds the number of atoms in the lower
Energy levels
Energy
2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in Fig (14-6) Laser light maintains theenergy same shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an
331 325 311
distances by a laser beam
gas Measuring astronomical
Fig (14-4c)
Measuring the distance between the Moon

slit
Fig (14-4d)
for studying 2) Collimation : InApparatus ordinary light sources, the the spectra diameterof ofthe theelements emitted light beam increases
Fig (13 4a )
beam from a reflector on the lunar surface
and the Earth by the reflection of a laser

prism screen
with distance , where in lasers, the diameter stays constant for long distances without much unscattering. Thus ,energy is transmitted without much losses . 3) Coherence: Photons of ordinary light sources propagate randomly or incoherently. They emanate at different instants of time, and have inconsistent and varying phase. In lasers, however, photons emanate coherently both in time and place, since they come out together at the same time sequence, and maintains the same phase difference throughout, during propagation over long distances. This makes radiation intense and focused. 4) Intensity: Light produced by ordinary sources is subject to the inverse square law, since the intensity of radiation falling on unit area decreases, the further away from the light source, Fig (13 4b ) due to spreading (Fig 14-4a). The laser rays falling on a unit surface are unspread. They maintain a constant intensity and are not subject to the inverse squarelaw.
310 330 324
Unit 5: Unit 5:
3) Resonant cavity is the container and the activating catalyst for amplification . It can be
Bohrs Model (1913)

one of two types :
first shell
Unit Unit 5:5:
(a) external resonant cavity in the form of two parallel mirrors enclosing the active medium permitting multiple reflections leading to amplification as in gas lasers (Fig 14 7a). b) internal resonant cavity where the ends of the active material are polished so as to act
as mirrors as in ruby laser (Fig 14 7b). One of the two mirrors is semitransparent to allow some of the laser radiation to leak out (Fig 14 8).
Bohr
second shell
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on Rutherfords findings :
polished Bohr studiedtwo the reflecting difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, the two free electronends levelof mirrors
the active medium act as continuous levels mirrors
1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus . 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain Fig (14-7a)
resonant in eachExternal shell (Fig 13 5). cavity
Energy
Internal resonant cavity
Fig (14-7b)
3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of positive charges in the nucleus.
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
333 327 311
state. Thus, when stimulated emissionwould occurs, it will becontinuous. amplified asThis photons are increased spectra of the atoms of all elements have been is contrary to all experimental observations.The of the elements have a discrete nature, between and are in number going back and forth spectra in the active medium, due to multiple reflections called line spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic of theare element. two enclosing mirrors. In so doing, more and more excited atoms poised to generate stimulated emission, which is further amplified and so on. This is the origin of amplification of the laser (Fig 147), called laser action .
Main Components of a Laser

Despite the variations in size, type and frequency, three common elements must exist in difference any laser: 1) Active medium: This can be a crystalline solid (e.g. ruby), semiconductor (chapter15) a liquid dye, gas atoms Ne laser),prism ionized gases (e.g. screenArgon laser), or gas (e.g. He slit Fig (13 4a ) 2) Sources of energy responsible for exciting the active medium as follows : Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements (a) excitation by electrical energy, either by using radio frequency (RF) waves or by using electric discharge under high DC voltage gas lasers:( HeNe Ar CO2). (b) excitation by optical energy, also known as optical pumping, which can be done either by flash lamps (e.g. in ruby laser) or using a laser beam as a source of energy (liquid dye laser). (c) thermal excitation, by using the thermal effects resulting from the kinetic energy of gases to excite the active material (e.g. in He-Ne laser). (d) excitation by chemical energy as chemical reactions between giving gases energy to stimulate atoms toward lasing (e.g. thereaction Fig (13 4b ) between hydrogen and fluorine or the reaction between Deuterium and CO2 ) . Spectrafluoride of some elements molecular gases (e.g. CO2 laser).
potential
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Unit 5: Unit 5:
Bohrs Model (1913)

a unexcited condition
first shell
Unit Unit 5:5: modern physics physics modern
b excited condition
Bohr
second shell
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
metastable state Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, c photon =E2 - Eon 1 and proposed a model for the incident hydrogen atomhbuilding Rutherfords findings : 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus . 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy d incident value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they photon remain emitted photon 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of Fig (14-8c) positive charges in the nucleus. in each shell (Fig 13 5).
Energy
Population inversion through a third Fig (13-5b) metastable state Energy levels
335 329 311
spectra of the photon atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all incident emitted photon experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are called line spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic of the element.
excited electron incident photon before excitation
relaxing electron
Stimulated emission by an external photon

Fig (14-8a)
after excitation
a
normal condition
higher level ground state
gas
slit
prism
screen
inverted population
Fig (13 4a )
c
a photon approaches which causes excitation
d
stimulated emission is generated
Unit 5: Unit 5:
e
recurrence of stimulated emission
Fig (13 4b ) (14-8b) Spectra Fig of some elements

Laser action
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Helium Neon (He Ne) laser Bohrs Model (1913)
mirror
window
These two elements have been selected due to the
vacuum tubefirst shell
laser beam
Unit Unit 5:5:
near equality of the values of the same metastable excited energy levels in these two elements.
(a) Construction of He-Ne laser :

1) A quartz tube including a mixture of helium and neon in the ratio 10 : 1 at a low pressure of nearly 0.6 mm Hg (Fig 14 9). 2) At both ends of the tube there are two plane or concave parallel mirrors which are perpendicular to the tube axis. Bohr One has a reflection coefficient of nearly 99.5%, while
He Ne laser schematic
Fig (14-9a)
second shell
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
the other mirror is semitransparent with a reflection Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, coefficient of 98%. and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on 3) High frequency electric field feeding the tube from the Rutherfords findings : outside to excite the helium and neon atoms, or a high 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged DC voltage difference inside the tube causing electric nucleus . 2) discharge. Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in
Energy
He Ne laser
Fig (14-9b)
(b) Operation : (loosely often called orbit) has an energy shells. Each shell
higher (Fig13 145). 10). in each levels shell (Fig
1) The voltage difference inside the tube leads to the excitation of the helium atoms to value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain
3) The The excited atom ishelium electrically sincethe theunexcited number neon of atoms inelastic collisions. 2) atoms neutral, collide with electrons around the nucleus equals the helium number of to the neon atoms due to the Thus, energy is transferred from the excited atoms positive charges in the nucleus. Fig (13-5b) near equality of the excited levels in both atoms. Neon atoms are, thus, excited.
Energy levels
337 331 311
spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all mirror semitransparent mirror experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are called line spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic of the element.
Fig (14-8d) Multiple reflections between the two mirrors

semitransparent mirror
screen
mirror
gas
glass tube
slit
excited atom
prism
Unit 5: Unit 5:
Fig (13 4a ) Fig (14-8e) Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements Amplification by multiple reflections
Fig (13 4b ) Fig (14-8f) Spectra of some elements Output radiation from the semitransparent mirror
310 336 330
6) During the propagation of these photons inside the tube between the two mirrors, they may well collide with some neon atoms in the excited metastable state, well before lifetime is over. Thus, they stimulate the neon atoms to emit photons of the same energy and direction as the colliding photon. Thus, the number of photons moving inside the tube multiplies. 7) The new stream of photons repeat the excursion, and thus, they remultiply by the lasing action. This is how amplification takes place .
second shell
mirrors in its way, they bounce off inside the tube and cannot get out. Bohrs Model (1913)
first shell
8) When radiation inside the tube reaches a certain level, we let it out partially through the Fig ( 13-5a) semitransparent mirror, while the rest of the radiation remains trapped inside the tube. Bohr The stimulated emission and the lasing action go on.
Bohrs Model
and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on Helium atoms collide again with neon atoms, and the cycle repeats. Rutherfords findings : 10) As to the helium atoms which have lost their energy by collision, they regain energy 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged through the electric discharge and so on. nucleus . 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in Today there are different types and sizes of lasers. Laser light covers different regions of shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy thevalue. electromagnetic visible to uv and remain IR. Some laser systems can focus a Electrons dospectrum not emit from radiation as long as they laser beamshell in a small spot, in each (Fig 13 5).where energy might get so high as to melt - and even evaporate - iron, pierce diamond. There are since lasers the which may have 3) The or atom is electrically neutral, number of enough energy to destroy electrons aroundinthe nucleus equals the number of missiles and planes what is termed Star War. Some applications of lasers also include positive charges theand nucleus. holography (Fig 14 in - 11) medical applications.
Energy levels
Energy
9) As to the neon atoms which have relaxed to a lower level, soon enough they lose further Bohr studied difficulties by Rutherfords model, freeto electron level state. whatever leftthe of their energyfaced in different forms, and finally go back the ground
continuous levels
Laser applications
Fig (13-5b)
339 333 311
energy
3) An of accumulation excited neon metastable spectra the atoms of of all elements wouldatoms have been continuous. This isstate contrary to all ensues. Theobservations.The excited level of aspectra neon atom haselements a experimental of the have a discrete nature, andlaser are -3 beam called line spectra, i.e., occurring wavelengths relatively long lifetime (nearlyat10 s). Such acharacteristic of the element. level is called metastable state. Hence, 4) A group of neon atoms that are excited relax to a lower excited state. In so doing, they emit
potential photons, which have energy spontaneous
energy
population inversion occurs in neon atoms.
excitation by collisions
equal to the difference in energy levels. Then, photons propagate randomly in all directions inside the tube. 5) Photons which propagate slit of the prism gas along the axis tube are reflected back by one of the two Fig (13 4a )
He Ne ground state
difference
energy transfer rapid decay by collisions between He and Ne atoms
He Ne laser energy levels
Figscreen (14-10a)
Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements He Ne collisions of atoms
energy
rapid decay
excitation of electrons
rapid decay
Unit 5: Unit 5:
collisions with the walls of the container ground state Spectra of some elements Transitions between energy levels in He-Ne laser
Fig (13 4b ) Fig (14-10b)
310 338 332
Learn at Leisure (1913) Bohrs Model
Types of holograms
first shell
Unit Unit 5:5:
A hologram is a kind of diffraction grating which is a generalization of a double slit, where interference occurs between the penetrating waves. To make a hologram, the object is illuminated with a laser light. The reflected rays are recorded on the holographic plate, while at the same time the reference beam is recorded. Interference pattern is formed and a hologram is developed the same way as a photographic plate. ToBohr read a hologram, a laser beam is used in the same direction as the laser beam during
second shell
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
transmission hologram, is lit from behind (Fig 1412). It may be lit also by an value. Electrons do notwhich emit radiation as long as they remain in eachlight shellsource, (Fig 13but 5). ordinary the image will have many colors. There are yet other types of 3) The atom since the number ofin which ordinary light may also holograms such is as electrically the reflectionneutral, hologram, which is lit up front, the nucleus equals the be electrons used. Therearound is also embossed hologram. Like thenumber reflectionof hologram, it may be lit up front, positive charges in the nucleus. (13-5b) hologram i.e., on the observer side, and uses ordinary light. It may be considered as aFig transmission
Energy levels
Energy
theNegatively reference beam, the move same around side of the the nucleus observer, 2) charged.i.e.,on electrons in if a screen or smoke is used, where a 3D image be formed in space (Fig What we described above is the shells. Each shellmay (loosely often called orbit) has1411). an energy
Fig (14-11) recording. The light rays read out the patterns formed on the Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, free electron level Hologram generates hologram, giving an imge as if the object is seen from that continuous levels a 3D image and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on angle, Looking through the hologram in the direction Rutherfords findings : opposite to the reference beam, a virtual image is seen as if the object lay behind the 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged hologram, nucleus i.e., . on the beam side. We can also see a real image in the direction opposite to
341 335 311
spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all Images of observations.The objects are formed by collecting rays reflected from them. An image experimental spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are represents in occurring the intensity of light from point to point. But is light intensity all called line variations spectra, i.e., at wavelengths characteristic of the element. there is to it in the information about an image? If we have two rays leaving off an illuminated object at two points on it, there is a difference in intensity alright (proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave). But in addition, there is a path difference between the two lit points and the corresponding points on the photographic plate where the imagedifference is recorded due to the topology of the object. Thus, the waves leaving off the
h
potential
a) Holography:
object carry information in both amplitude and phase (phase difference = 2 / x path difference). The photographic plate records only the intensity (square of the amplitude) and does not record the phase. That is why a 2D image does not carry the 3D detail. In other words, a plane image has only half the truth (only the intensity). In 1948, a Hungarian (13 4a ) scientist Gabor (Nobel prize laurette) Fig proposed a method to obtain the component that is missing from the information in the image and retrieve it from the beam, using another beam of the same wavelength called the reference beam. A laser beam is split into two beams. One is used to illuminate the object, and the other is used as the reference beam. The reflected beam and the reference beam meet at the photographic plate, and interference takes place. After the photographic plate is developed, resulting interference fringes appear coded, and we call such an image a hologram. Illuminating a hologram with a laser of the same wavelength and looking through it with the naked eye, we see an identical 3D image of the object without using any lenses. The full information (intensity and phase) is now retrieved due to the coherence nature of the laser. Fig (14 12) shows the optical system used to obtain a hologram using a laser beam. Tens of photos may be stored in one Fig (13 4b ) hologram. We may also obtain 3D images in holograms of moving objects.
Spectra of some elements Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements
gas
slit prism screen
310 340 334
Unit 5: Unit 5:
b) Lasers in medicine: Bohrs Model (1913)
The retina contains light sensitive cells. In case of
first shell
Unit Unit 5:5:
retinal detachment, part of the retinal loses its function. Unless quickly treated, the eye may lose sight completely. In early stages, the eye may be treated by reconnecting the detached part with the layer underneath. This used to be a strenuous and delicate operation. Nowadays, lasers are used for that purpose Fig (14 14). The operation takes less time and efford than before. The thermal heat from the laser cauterizes the points of Bohr cases of far and near sightedness, so the patient can Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords free dispose with glasses Fig (14-15). Other applicationsmodel, of Fig electron (14-14)level continuous levels and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on Use of a laser beam in lasers in medicine include endoscopy, where lasers with detachment (endothermy). Lasers are also used to treat
second shell
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
treating retinal detachment Rutherfords findings : optical fibers are used for diagnosis and even operative 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged surgery (Fig 14-16). nucleus .
2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in c) communications , where optical fibers carry information - loaded laser beam instead of shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy a wire carring electrical signals. value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain d)inindustry, fine industries. each shellparticularly (Fig 13 5).
Other applications of laser
e)The military applications include precision guidance , smartof bombs and laser radar 3) atom is electrically neutral, since the number
charges in the nucleus. f) positive CD recording (Fig 14 17). (LADAR).around the nucleus equals the number of electrons
Energy levels
Energy
Fig (13-5b)
343 337 311
spectrareference of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all rays observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are experimental reference called line spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic of the element. mirror
rays
hologram
object virtual image real image
hologram
Hologram formation
gas
Fig (14-12a)
slit
prism
Hologram as a grating
screen
Fig (14-12b)
Apparatus for studying theto spectra of theThere elements with a mirror behind. It is a cheap alternative a hologram. is also pulse hologram, which uses powerful laser pulses. Holograms can be made of people and moving objects at successive times, which may lead to the future 3D movies (Fig 14 13).
Fig (13 4a )
Unit 5: Unit 5:
Successive Fig stationary shots (13 4b ) giving an illusion of motion Spectra of some elements
Fig (14-13)
310 342 336
Bohrs Model (1913)
first shell
second shell
Bohr
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom on Use of lasers in building endoscopy Rutherfords findings : nucleus .
Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords Fig (14-16) model,
1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely lensoften called orbit) has an energy in each shell (Fig 13 5).
mirror lens pitless area
pit laser
Energy
side value. Electronsback do not emit radiation as long as they remain glass plate
3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of positive charges in the nucleus.
Use of a laser in writing on CDs
detector
Fig (14-17a)
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
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g) laserof printing where a laser beam would is used have to carry information spectra the atoms of all elements been continuous. This is contrary to all experimental observations.The spectra of the have a discrete nature, and are from the computer to a drum coated by elements a photosensitive called line spectra, occurring at off wavelengths of the element. material. A toneri.e., is used to print from the characteristic drum onto paper
(Fig 14-18).
h) arts and laser shows (Fig 14-19). j) space research. potential

difference
i) surveying (determining dimensions and areas).
gas
slit
laser Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements
Cornea treatment Fig (13 4a ) by a
prism Fig (14-15)
screen
Unit 5: Unit 5:
Fig (13 4b )
310 344 338
Spontaneous emission:
Bohrs Model (1913)
In a Nutshell
first shell
Unit Unit 5:5:
It is the emission from one excited atom as it relaxes from a high energy level to a low energy level after its lifetime interval is over and under no external stimulus. Stimulated emission: It is the emission from one excited atom as a result of a collision with an external photon, which has the same energy as the one that caused it to be excited. Photons at the end , come out in coherence ,i.e.,having the same phase, (direction and frequency). second shell Properties of a laser beam : 1 ) spectral purity (monochromatic). Bohr 2 ) collimation (parallel rays). 3 ) coherence (same phase and direction). Bohr studied the difficulties faced bysmall Rutherfords model, 4 ) concentration (high intensity and diameter). Fig ( 13-5a)
Bohrs Model
and proposed Laser actiona: model for the hydrogen atom building on Rutherfords findings : 1) the active medium must be in the state of population inversion . 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged 2) emission of radiation for the excited atom through the stimulated emission. nucleus . 3) amplification of stimulated emission through the resonant cavity 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in Basic elements of a laser : shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy 1 ) an active medium. value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain ) a shell source of 13 energy in 2 each (Fig 5). (pumping). 3)a resonant cavity. neutral, since the number of 3) The atom is electrically electrons around the nucleus equals the number of He - Ne laser is a gas laser: positive in medium the nucleus. in which charges the active is a mixture of helium and neon in the Fig ratio 10 : 1 (13-5b)
Energy levels
Energy
347 341 311
gas
slit
Fig (14-17b)
CDs
prism
screen
Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements drum covered with a scanning with laser light sensitive material
Fig (13 4a )
laser start
light intensity controller
Unit 5: Unit 5:
information
Fig (14-18)
Use of a laser in printing
(Fig (14-19)
Laser show
Fig (13 4b )
310 346 340
Bohrs Model (1913)

1- What is meant by laser ?
first shell
Unit Unit 5:5:
2- Compare between spontaneous emission and stimulated emission operation - wise and feature - wise. 3- Laser light has special characteristics which distinguish it from ordinary light . Discuss this statement . 4- Discuss clearly the laser action . 5- What is meant by optical pumping and population inversion? 6- What is the role of the resonant cavity in laser operation ? 7- Lasers have 3 main components, what are they ? Bohr laser ? Bohr studied difficulties Rutherfords model, 9What is thethe role of helium faced in He by - Ne laser ? 10Explain clearly how laser beam is generated in He on - Ne laser . and proposed a model fora the hydrogen atom building
second shell
8- On what basis have helium and neon been chosen as an active medium in He - Ne
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
11- Explain how holography works using lasers . Rutherfords findings : are used extensively in medicine. Discuss one of its applications . 1) 12At Lasers the center of the atom there is a positively charged 13Lasers nucleus . play an important role in missile guidance in modern warfare. Why is laser used as such? 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain in each shell (Fig 13 5). 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of positive charges in the nucleus.
Energy levels
Energy
Fig (13-5b)
349 343 311
Laser of applications: spectra the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all 1 ) 3D photography (holography). experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are called line spectra, occurring at detachment). wavelengths characteristic of the element. 2 ) medicine (e.g.i.e., treating retinal 3 ) communications. 4 ) industry. 5 ) military applications. 6) CD recording
potential 7) printing
8) arts and shows 9) surveying 10) space research

gas
slit prism screen
difference
Fig (13 4a )
Unit 5: Unit 5:
Fig (13 4b )
310 348 342
gas
slit
prism
screen
Unit 5:
modern physics
Fig (13 4a )
Fig (13 4b )
310 1
Bohrs Model15 (1913) Chapter

Overview:
Modern Electronics
first shell
Unit modern physics Chapter 13: Atomic Spectra Unit 5: 5: modern physics Chapter 15: Modern Electronics
The world witnesses a tremendous mushrooming in the field of electronics and communication to the point where they have become an insignia for this era. Electronics and communication are now indispensible in our life. TV, cellular (mobile) phone , computer, satellites and other systems are evidences for the vast progress in the applications of electronics and communications, whether in business, e-government, information technology(IT), entertainment or culture. They have become also an essential Fig ( 13-5a) Bohr ingredient in modern warfare. Weapons do not fare from the point of view of fire power Bohrs Model only, but guidance, surveillance, monitoring jamming and deception ,called electronic counter measures (or ECM) play an important role in combat. Also, in medicine whether in Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, free electron level continuous diagnois, prognosis, or operations, electronics plays a key role. In short, therelevels is no single and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on field in all walks of life Rutherfords findings : where electronics has no part, starting from e games to e warfare. you must attain a certain level of awareness about electronics simplified as it 1)Therefore, At the center of the atom there is a positively charged may be, yet nucleus . essential regardless of the prospective career you might end up with.
Energy
second shell
2) Origin Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in of electronics:
shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy The word electronics stems from the electron. Electronics describes the behavior of electrons. value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain There are two states for an electron: a free electron and a bound electron. The free electron as in each shell (Fig 13 5). in the case of CRT- is subject to classical physics. A bound electron however is subject to 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of quantum physics. The binding of an electron might be within an atom, a molecule or the bulk of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of matter. Matter has different forms : gas, liquid, solid or plasma (when the gases are ionized as positive charges in the nucleus. Fig (13-5b) in the fluorescent lamp). Matter in each form consists of molecules. What distinguishes states of
Energy levels
351 345 311
gas
slit
prism
screen
Unit 5:
modern physics
Fig (13 4a )
Fig (13 4b )
310 345
level and the excited level. If the electron goes back to a lower level, it emits energy in the Bohrs Model (1913) form of a photon. The probability of finding an electron in a particular excited level
first shell
Energy
Unit 5: modern physics Chapter 15: Modern Electronics

354
decreases as the energy of that level increases. There is a balance between the process of excitation and the process of relaxation, noting that the electron tends to go back to the ground state.
+4e Core
Pure Fig Semiconductors: (15-2a)
Fig (15-2b)
Fig (15-2c)
Covalent bonds. We may of view of There are three types of materials from the point Each atom shares Silicon crystal at T=0K Core represent a S atom (-14 e) i electrons with its all bonds are intact around (+14 e) nucleus as a core and heat electrical neighbors conductivity. Conductors conduct electricity second shell (+4e) and (-4e ) in the outer shell easily (as in metals). Insulators do not conduct electricity and heat some bonds, are broken and electrons are freed. Such an electron leaves behind a vacancy Fig ( 13-5a) (as in wood and plastics). Bohr Semiconductors are in between. At in the broken bond.This vacancy is called a hole (Fig 15 3). Because the atom is neutral, absolute zero, they act as insulators, whereas as temperature Bohrs Model then the absence of an electron entails the appearance of a positive charge. We, thus, say increases ,their conductivity increases (as in silicon). that the hole has a positive charge. We do not call a silicon atom which loses an electron Fig (15-1) Bohr studied faced by common Rutherfords model, Silicon is onethe ofdifficulties the important and elements in the free electron level levels from its bond an ion, because soon enough, this atom may capturecontinuous aA free electron or an silicon atom and proposed a model the) and hydrogen atom buildingcrust. on But universe. It exists in sandfor (SiO rocks of the Earths 2 electron from another bond to fill its own vacancy. Then, the atom returns neutral, and the Rutherfords findings crystals of pure silicon : consist of silicon atoms bound together in covalent bonds. A crystal is a
generation of 1) At the center of of theatoms atom in there a positively charged regular arrangement the is solid state. A silicon atom has four electrons in the an electron free hole pair nucleus . (Fig 15 1).electron outermost shell Therefore, each silicon atom shares 4 electrons with 4 neighboring
2) Negatively charged move around the atoms, so that the outer electrons shell of each is complete onnucleus sharing in basis to contain 8 recombination electrons each of an electron thermal called orbit) has an energy shells. Each shell (loosely often hole pair (Fig 15 2 a,b). We must distinguish energy here between two types of electrons in silicon. The first value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain type is the innermost (tightly bound) electrons, which are strongly attracted to their parents in each shell (Fig 13 5). atoms. The second type is the valence electrons, which have more freedom to move across 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of energy interatomic distances. They exist in the outermost shell. Atthermal low temperatures (Fig 15 - 2c), all electrons around the nucleus equals the number of Fig (15-3b) bonds in the crystal are intact (unbroken). Fig (15-3a) positive charges in the nucleus. Fig (13-5b) As temperature increases increases, Breaking a bond requires In this case unlike metals there are no free electrons. But as temperature Energy levels more bonds are broken energy
353 347 311
excitation and the process of relaxation, noting that the electron tends to go back to the ground state.
5: modern physics
matter apart is the intermolecular distance. In the case of a solid, this distance is very small. In There types ofelements materials from have the point view of This is contrary to spectra ofare thethree atoms of all would been of continuous. all Core the case of a gas, this distance is large. In the of a liquid,have it is somewhere in between. we experimental observations.The spectra of case theelectricity elements a discrete nature, and Ifare electrical conductivity. Conductors conduct and heat called line i.e., occurring wavelengths characteristic of the element. consider thespectra, solid state, the atoms orat molecules of matter get close enough to each other within a easily (as in metals). Insulators do not conduct electricity and heat certain distance due to the forces of attraction between them. If we imagine that they are made to (as in wood and plastics). Semiconductors are in between. At get close, then the forces of repulsion act in to prevent further proximity. Thus, the interatomic absolute zero, they act as insulators, whereas as temperature distance represents a point of equilibrium (or balance) between the forces of attraction and the increases ,their conductivity increases (as in silicon). Fig (15-1) forces of repulsion among the atoms. It is to be noted that these atoms oscillate around their Silicon potential is one of the important and common elements in the A silicon atom difference equilibrium positions due to heat. But they are separated by space. We cannot see this space by universe. It exists in sand (SiO2) and rocks of the Earths crust. But our naked eye, because the interatomic distance is much smaller than the wavelength of the crystals of pure silicon consist of silicon atoms bound together in covalent bonds. A crystal is a photons of visible light to which our eyes are sensitive. regular arrangement of atoms in the solid state. A silicon atom has four electrons in the
outermost shell (Fig 1). Therefore, each with 4 neighboring slit silicon atom prism shares 4 electrons screen gas An electron in 15 an atom: atoms, so that the outer shell each is complete on sharing basis to contain 8 on electrons each An electron in an atom is of considered bound It cannot depart its own. It Figa (13 4aelectron. ) (Fig 15 2 a,b). We mustThis distinguish here between types electrons inthe silicon. Theof first needs energy to do that. energy is called the two ionization energy, i.e., energy an Apparatus for studying the spectra of theof elements type is the innermostis(tightly bound) electrons, which areby strongly attracted to their parents electron in bondage less than its energy when free this amount. That is why the atoms. The second type is the valence which have more freedom to move across electron remains in bondage in the first electrons, place. This energy is called the binding energy. It is
Pure Semiconductors:
modern physics
Unit 5:
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Chapter 15: Modern Electronics
interatomic They exist in theThe outermost shell. At low temperatures 15 - 2c), all the cause of distances. keeping the atom stable. electron in the atom has a set of(Fig discrete energy bondsaccording in the crystal are intact (unbroken). levels to Bohrs model. It occupies one of the allowable levels and cannot have In this value case in unlike metals electron there arein nothe free electrons. But as temperature an energy between. The atom is governed by the laws ofincreases, quantum
mechanics. That is why the probability of having an electron fall onto the nucleus, or having the electron outside the atom (without external help) is zero. What binds the electron to the nucleus is the electric force of attraction. As long as the electron remains in one energy level, it does not gain or lose energy. But if Fig (13 4b ) to a higher energy level, provided the electron acquires energy by absorption, it is excited
Spectra of some elements the energy absorbed is exactly equal to the energy difference between the original (ground)
353
broken bond is mended, and the hole shifts somewhere else, and so on. Bohrs Model (1913)
As the temperature increases, the number of free electrons and holes increases, noting
first shell
that the number of free electrons equals the number of free holes in a pure semiconductor. But a state of dynamic equilibrium is reached (called thermal equilibrium) at which only a small percentage of bonds are broken. The number of bonds broken per second will be Fig (15-4b) equal to the number of bonds mended per second, so that a fixed number Fig (15-4c)of free electrons
At athe certain temperature, the and same and freeelectrons holes remains constant at every temperature. same electrons within bonds (in the opposite direction) But not holes is constant holes remain free.They reshuffle ,but their number stays constant. number of free electrons and
second shell
Motion of holes is equivalent to motion of
Free electrons (a class of valance electrons) represent a third type of electrons in silicon. Doping: Such electrons in fact are stilltoconfined, but to they are confined theFig full( size of the crystal Semiconductors are known be sensitive impurities and toto temperature. Since silicon 13-5a) Bohr Bohrs itself, i.e., arethe limited by of thean soelement called surface of the crystal. Breaking a Model bond requires is tetravalent, addition as phosphorus (P) or antimony (Sb) or any other a minimum energy optical). In the case of mending a atom bond in (called pentavalent element (thermal will causeorsuch an impurity atom to replace a silicon the recombination), is released (thermal or optical). Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, crystal (Fig 15 energy 5 a). Then, the phosphorus atom will try to do the same with the free bonding electron level As proposed the electrons move in a random motion atom ,so dobuilding the holes,on since electrons in the bond move and model for the hydrogen neighbors as theasilicon atom would do. around randomly to fill :in vacancies (voids) within the broken bonds (Fig 15 4 ). Rutherfords findings 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus . 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain in each shell (Fig 13 5). 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of Fig (15-4a) Fig (15-5a) Holes move randomly between bonds positive charges in the nucleus. An antimony atom (pentavalent) replaces a silicon atom Fig (13-5b)
Energy
continuous levels
Energy levels
356
355 349 311
broken bond is mended, and the hole shifts somewhere else, and so on. spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all As the temperature increases, spectra the number of elements free electrons holes increases, noting experimental observations.The of the have and a discrete nature, and are called spectra, i.e., electrons occurringequals at wavelengths characteristic of in theaelement. that the line number of free the number of free holes pure semiconductor. But a state of dynamic equilibrium is reached (called thermal equilibrium) at which only a small percentage of bonds are broken. The number of bonds broken per second will be equal to the number of bonds mended per of free electrons Fig second, (15-2b) so that a fixed number Fig (15-2a) Fig (15-2c) and free holes remains temperature. electrons same Covalent bonds. We may But not the same Each atom shares constant at every Silicon crystal atand T=0K potential represent a Si atom (-14 e) with its reshuffle ,but all bonds are intact difference holes electrons remain free.They their stays around (+14 number e) nucleus as a core constant. neighbors (+4e) and (-4e ) in the outer shell Free electrons (a class of valance electrons) represent a third type of electrons in silicon. someelectrons bonds, are freed. Such an electron leaves behind a vacancy Such in broken fact areand stillelectrons confined,are but they are confined to the full size of the crystal
+4e Core
modern physics
Unit 5:
310 354 348
in the i.e., broken is called a hole 3). Breaking Because the atomrequires is neutral, itself, are bond.This limited byvacancy the so called surface of(Fig the 15 crystal. a bond a slit prism screen gas then the absence an electron the appearance of aof positive charge. We, thus, say minimum energyof(thermal or entails optical). In the case mending a bond (called Fig call 4a ) a silicon atom which loses an electron that the hole has a positive charge. We do(13 not recombination), energy is released (thermal or optical). Apparatus for studying the this spectra of the capture elements from its electrons bond an move ion, because soon enough, atom may a free electron or an As the in a random motion ,so do the holes, since electrons in the bond move
generation of an electron hole pair recombination of an electron hole pair
electron from another bond to fill (voids) its ownwithin vacancy. Then, the atom returns and the around randomly to fill in vacancies the broken bonds (Fig 15 4neutral, ).
free electron
thermal energy
Fig (15-4a) Fig (15-3b) Fig (15-3a) (13 4b ) Holes move Fig randomly between bonds As temperature increases Breaking a bond requires Spectra of some elements more bonds are broken energy
thermal energy
355
called donors (givers). At thermal equilibrium, the sum of the A pentavalent atom has a core (+5 e) and 5 electrons positive charge equals the sum of the negative charge. n = p + ND
+ +
hysics
(15 - 1)
take partdensity. in the In bonding scheme, one valence extra excess the hole this case, n > p sparing and the material is called ntype. Conversely, if an we add electron (excess) electron. The force of attraction on the excess electron aluminum (Al) or boron (B) or any trivalent element, to which is left out is weak. Hence, it can easily be detached from pure silicon, the impurity atom replaces a silicon atom. its parent atom, which becomes a positive ion.This extra electron Since the impurity atom now has 3 electrons in the joins the stock of the free electrons in the crystal . In other outershell, it detaches electron from a neighboring words, the crystal has anan added source of free electrons besides (Fig 15-5b) bond tobonds, complete its own bond creating extra hole, broken namely, impurity atoms. Suchan impurity atoms are Doping with a pentavalent atom
provides an extra free electron.
Because the impurity atom has 5ion electrons, four of them will where NModel positive donor concentration, n is the free electron density and p is Bohrs D is the (1913) first shell
Unit 5: modern physics Chapter 13: Atomic Spectra Chapter Unit 5: 15: modern Modern physics Electronics Chapter 15: Modern Electronics
second shell called donors (givers). AtAt thermal equilibrium, becoming a negative ion. thermal equilibriumthe , sum of the A pentavalent atom has a core (+5 e) and 5 electrons (15 - 2) positive charge equals the the negative charge. p=sum NA of +n Fig ( 13-5a) + Bohr n = p + N (15 concentration. - 1) impurity where NA is the negative D Bohrs Model Fig (15-6a) + where NDSuch is the concentration, is the free density and p is Thus, p>n. anpositive atom is donor called ion acceptor (taker). Innall Aelectron boron atom replaces
cases, we have In this case, n > p and the material is called ntype. Conversely, if we add the hole density. Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, free electron level np = ni2 (15 - 3) continuous levels aluminum (Al) aormodel boronfor (B)the or any trivalent element, to on and proposed hydrogen atom building pure silicon, the impurity Rutherfords findings : atom replaces a silicon atom. 1) At the center of atom the atom positively Since impurity nowthere has is 3a electrons in charged the nucleus .it detaches an electron from a neighboring outershell, 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in bond to complete its own bond creating an extra hole, shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy becoming a negative ion. At thermal equilibrium , value. Electrons do not emit- radiation as long as they remain (15 - 2) p= NA + n in each shell (Fig 13 5). where N is electrically the negative impurity concentration. A 3) The atom is neutral, since the number of Thus, p>n. Such an atom called acceptor In all of electrons around the isnucleus equals (taker). the number cases, we have positive charges in the nucleus. np = ni2 (15 - 3)
Energy
a silicon atom
357
Fig (15-6a)
A boron atom replaces a silicon atom
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
357 351 311
Because the impurity has 5 of electrons, Because the impurity atom has 5atom electrons, four them will four of them will spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all take part inbonding the bonding scheme, sparing valence extra take part in the scheme, sparing one valence extra an excess experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have aone discrete nature, and are electron (excess) electron. The force of attraction onof the excess electron (excess) electron. The of attraction on the excess electron called line spectra, i.e.,force occurring at wavelengths characteristic the element. which is out left weak. Hence, can easily which is left is out weak.is Hence, it can easily beit detached from be detached from
aluminum aluminum or (Al) boron or(B) boron or any (B) trivalent or element, any trivalent to element, to neighbors as(Al) the silicon atom would do. g one valence extra an excess pure pure silicon, silicon, the impurity the impurity atom replaces atom a silicon replaces atom. a silicon atom. mpurity atom has 5 electrons, four of them will electron on the excess electron Since Since the the impurity impurity atom now atom has 3 now electrons has in the 3 electrons in the bonding scheme, sparing one valence extra an excess electron outershell, outershell, itfrom detaches it detaches an electron an from electron a neighboring from a neighboring asily beofdetached . The force attraction on the excess electron
modern physics
ons, four of them will Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements
15 - 1) In this case, n > p and the material is called ntype. Conversely, if we add
- - 2) the . in In (15 - 2) (15 of the crystal free electrons the other crystal . In p=other NA + n p= N A +n l has anelectrons added source ofbesides freeelectrons besides (Fig concentration. 15-5b) free where the impurity negative impurity concentration. where NA N is Athe is negative (Fig 15-5b) Fig (15-6a) mely, impurity atoms. Such impurity atoms are Doping with a pentavalent atom Thus, p>n. atom is called acceptor (taker). Inreplaces all Thus, p>n. Such Such an atoman is called acceptor (taker). In all A boron atom provides an extra free electron. ch impurity atoms are Doping with a pentavalent atom ivers). At thermal equilibrium, the sum of the A pentavalent Fig(13 (15-5a) a silicon atom atom has Fig 4b ) a core cases, cases, we we havehave provides an extra free electron. (+5 e) and 5 electrons An antimony quals the sum of the negative 2 (pentavalent) 2 brium, the sum ofcharge. the np Spectra of some natom ni np = (15 3) elements (15 - 3) A=pentavalent has a core i- atom replaces a silicon atom + (+5 e) and 5 electrons n = p + ND (15 - 1) tive charge. 310 356 350 he positive donor ion concentration, n is the free electron density and p is
which becomes a becoming positive ion.This electron becoming a negative a extra negative ion. At thermal ion. At equilibrium thermal , equilibrium ,
Unit 5:
is weak. Hence, it can easily be detached from ion.This extra electron
its parent atom, which abecomes a positive ion.This extra electron its parent atom, which becomes positive ion.This extra electron Fig (15-4b) joins the free in other the crystal . In other joins thethe stockstock of the of free electrons in electrons the crystal . In Fig (15-4c) of holes equivalent toof motion of words, the crystal has an added of free electrons besides words, theMotion crystal has an is added source free source electrons besides (Fig 15-5b) At a certain temperature, the electrons within bonds (in the opposite direction) number of free electrons and potential broken bonds, namely, impurity atoms. Such impurity broken bonds, namely, impurity atoms. Such impurity atoms are holes Doping with a atoms pentavalentare atom Dopin is constant difference called donors (givers). thermal the sum called donors (givers). At thermalAt equilibrium, theequilibrium, sum of the A pentavalent atom of has athe core
positive charge equals sum of the negative charge. positive charge equals the sum ofthe the negative charge. Semiconductors are known to be+sensitive to impurities and to temperature. Since silicon + + N n = p + NDn = p (15 - 1) (15 - 1)D is tetravalent, the addition of an element as phosphorus (P) or antimony (Sb) or any other slit prism screen gas + + where where N is Nthe positive the donor positive ion concentration, donor ion n concentration, is the free electron density n is the and pfree is ele D is pentavalent D element will cause such an impurity atom to replace a silicon atom in the Fig (13 ) and the the hole hole density. density. this case, Inthe this n phosphorus > pcase, and the n material >4a p istry called the ntype. material Conversely, is called if we ntype. add crystal (Fig 15 5In a). Then, atom will to do the same bonding with the
Doping:
provides an extra free electron. provi A pe ( (+5 e) and 5 electrons
Chapter 15: Modern Electronics
bond bond to to complete complete its own its bondown creating bond an extra creating hole, an extra hole,
Unit 5: modern physics Chap
A bo
Bohrs Model (1913)
first shell
Fig (15-7a)
Resistors
Diodes and transistors
Fig (15-7b)
second shell
Bohr
Fig (15-7c)
Inductors
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on Capacitors Rutherfords findings : 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged Fig (15-7e) 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain in each shell (Fig 13 5).
Energy
Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model,Fig (15-7d) free electron level
continuous levels
nucleus .
Transformers
Fig (15-7f)
Switches
3) The atom is electrically neutral, since Fig the (15-7g) number of A different of components electrons around the nucleus equalssetthe number and of devices positive charges in the nucleus.
(Can you recognize some?) Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
359 353 311
whereof ni the is the electron hole concentration purecontinuous. silicon, This is contrary to all spectra atoms of allor elements would havein been experimental observations.The spectra of theThis elements have i.e., if n increases, p decreases and vice versa. is called lawa discrete nature, and are called spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths of the element. of massline action. As an approximation, we may say characteristic : in case of n-type n = ND
potential
+ +
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(15 - 4) (15 - 5) Fig (15-6b)

Doping with a trivalent atom provides an extra hole. A trivalent atom has a core (+3e) and 3 electrons
p = ni2/ND In case difference of p-type, p = NA

-
(15 - 6)
-
n = ni2/NA
gas
(15 - 7)
slit prism screen
Electronic Components Devices Apparatus for and studying the spectra of the elements
Electronic components and devices are the building blocks for all electronic systems (Fig 15 7). Some of these components are simple, e.g., resistor (R), inductor (L), capacitor (C). Some are more complex, such as pn junction (diode), transistor. There are also other specialized devices, such as optoelectronic and control devices. Semiconductors from which most of these devices are made are known to be sensitive to environmental conditions, such as light, heat, pressure, radiation and chemical pollution. That is why they are used as sensors or means for measuring external stimulii. Using these sensors, we can measure the intensity of incident light, temperature, pressure, humidity, pollution, radiation,etc.
Fig (13 4a )
Fig (13 4b )
and the n-type region to the negative terminal of the battery, the field due to the battery is Bohrs Model (1913) first shell opposite to the internal field.in the transition region, and therefore, it weakens it. If we reverse the battery, then the two fields will aid each other. In the first case (forward bias), a net current will flow, and in the second case (reverse bias) current is almost zero (Fig 15-12). The action of the pn junction is like a switch, which is closed in the forward direction (conducting) and open (non conducting) in the reverse direction (Fig 15-13). We can make sure that the pn diode is functioning by using an ohmmeter, since the diode should have a small resistance in the forward direction and a large resistance in the reverse
-region -region transition region -region -region
second shell
external potential difference
Bohr
Bohrs Model barriar voltage
Fig ( 13-5a)
Fig (15-10b) Fig (15-10a) Motion of electrons and holes Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, free electron level Forward Bios and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on Rutherfords findings : -region -region 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus . 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy
Energy
due to forward bias continuous levels
transition region p-region -region
3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of Fig (15-12) positive charges in the nucleus.
reverse voltage forward voltage
current
value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain due to reverse bias Fig (15-11a) Diode in reverse bias in each shell (Fig 13 5).
Motion of electrons and holes
Fig (15-11b)
I - V characteristic in a pn diode
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
361 355 311
pn junction: spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all A pn junction (Fig 15 8) consists experimental observations.The spectra of an the ntype elements have a discrete nature, and are region p-type i.e., region. The name pn stands for pcalled and line a spectra, occurring at wavelengths characteristic of the element.
region and n-region not positive and negative. Also p,n regions are not two regions glued together but an n-material is converted in part to p-material or vice Fig (15-8)
A pn Junction
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versa. Holes in the ptype region have high concentration, while holes in the ntype region have low concentration. Therefore, some holes diffuse from the p-type region to the ntype potential region. Also, some electrons diffuse from the ntype region (high concentration for electrons) to the ptype region (low concentration for electrons). Since each region is neutral (the sum of positive charge equals the sum of negative charge), the transfer of some electrons from the ntype region (13 4a ) and uncovers an equal number of positive Fig donor ions, uncovers an equal number of negative acceptor ions. This results in a middle region composed of positive ions on one side, and negative ions on the other, while no electrons or holes exist in this region. This region is called transition (depletion) region. In such a region, an electric field is set up, directed from the positive ions to the negative ions. This electric field causes a drift current to flow in a direction opposite to the diffusion current. At equilibrium, the forward current is balanced with a reverse current, so that the net current is zero (Fig 15 9). Fig (13the 4bp-type ) If we apply an external voltage such that
Transition(depletion) redifference
gas
slit
prism
screen
Apparatus studying the spectra of the elements the transfer of some holes for from the ptype region Electrons diffuse from n to p and holes from p to n
Fig (15-9a)
Transition region depleted from Spectra of some region is connected to the positive terminal of the elements battery electrons and holes, only ions exist
Fig (15-9b)
direction. is in (1913) contrast with a linear resistor, where the magnitude of the current is the Bohrs This Model first shell same, whether or not the voltage polarity is reversed (symmetrical characteristic). A pn diode is important in rectification. It is used in charging car batteries, and mobile batteries, where AC is converted to DC (Fig 15- 14).
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How to convert AC to DC
To convert AC to DC several steps may be followed. First a diode may be used as a half wave rectifier (HWR) (Fig 15 - 14a), using a resistor and a diode (Fig 15-14b). Four diodes may be used in a bridge (Fig 15- 14 c,d) for a full
Bohr
Output voltage
second shell
diode Model Bohrs
Fig ( 13-5a)
Rutherfords findings : Fig (15-14b) 1) At the centerFig of (15-14a) the atom there is a positively charged nucleus .
Waveform of a rectified half wave
A simple half wave rectifier
2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy
V value. Electrons Vdo not emit radiation as long as they remain
Energy
in each shell (Fig 13 5). 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of Figin (15-14c) positive charges the nucleus.
A full wave rectifier in the positive half cycle A full wave rectifier in Energy the negative half cycle levels
Fig (15-14d) Fig (13-5b)
363 357 311
cathode spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are called line spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic of the element.
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anode potential Diode symbol difference
reverse bias
forward bias
Fig (15-13a)
Ideal I-V characteristic
diode
Fig (15-13b)
gas
slit
prism
screen
Fig (13 4a )
In forward bias the diode is like a closed switch
Fig (15-13c)
diode
In reverse bias of thesome diode iselements like an open switch Spectra
Fig (13 4b ) Fig (15-13d)
Learn at Leisure Bohrs Model (1913)
Electronic tuning
first shell
To tune up a TV or radio onto a certain station, we need to adjust the value of a capacitor to set the frequency of the receiver to the frequency of the selected broadcast station. This condition is called resonance. In modern receivers, the capacitor is replaced by a reverse biased pn diode . The width of the transition region increases with increasing reverse bias (Fig 15 15). The increase of the width of the transition region entails an increase of the fixed ionic charge on both sides of the transition region with reverse voltage. This is tantamount to capacitor action. Thus, we can change the value of the capacitor by controlling the revese voltage. This is called electronic tuning Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, (and the device is called a varactor). and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on
Bohr
second shell
bias Fig ( reverse 13-5a) forward bias
Bohrs Model
Fig (15-15)
The width of the transition region increases with increasing reverse bias
Transistor: Rutherfords findings : transistor was by Bardeen, 1)The At the center of the cenceived atom there in is a1955 positively charged
Schockley nucleusand . Brattain. There are many types of transistors, but we focus here on bipolar junction transistor 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the (BJT), nucleusi.e., in Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy pnpshells. or npn. Such a transistor consists of a p-region followed value. Electrons not emit (pnp), radiation as they remain by an n-region thendo a p-region or as anlong n-region followed each shellthen (Figan 13n-region 5). (npn) (Fig 15- 16). The three by in a p-region 3) The are atom is electrically since number(C). of regions called emitter (E)neutral, -base (B) andthe collector electrons around the The nucleus of Consider an npn transistor. first equals junctionthe (np)number is forward
Energy
Bardeen, Schochley and Brattain
positive charges(pn) in the nucleus. Fig (13-5b) biased. The second junction is reverse biased. In this case, electrons are emitted from the
Energy levels
365 359 311
wave rectifier (FWR) (Fig 15- 14e). Also, we may obtain a nearly constant current (Fig spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all 15-14f) by using a capacitor input filter (Fig 15- elements 14g). have a discrete nature, and are experimental observations.The spectra of the called line spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic of the element.
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Waveform of a rectified full wave slit prism gas
Fig (15-14e)
screen
Fig (13 4a )
Waveform of a capacitor input filter
Fig (15-14f)
input
Output
Fig (13 4b ) Fig of (15-14g) Spectra some elements

Capacitor input filter
Bohrs Model (1913)
first shell
second shell
Bohr
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
Energy
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
361 311
negative emitter (n) diffusing to the base (p), where they wander around in the base until spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all picked up by the positive collector (n).A portion of electrons gets recombined with holes. If experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are the emitted electorn current is IE and the portion that reaches the collector Ic is Ic = e IE, called line spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic of the element. then the protion lost in the base by recombination with holes is IB = (1-e)IE. This must be the base current supplying holes to the base to make up for the losses due to the recombination process. Therefore, the ratio of the collector current to the base current is:
e = I IC = eE = e I B (1- e )I E 1 e
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(15 - 8)
gas
slit
prism
screen
A pnp transistor
Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements Fig (15-16a)

transistor symbol pnp
Fig (13 4a )
A pnp transistor
Fig (15-16b)
An npn transistor
Fig (15-16c)
Fig (13 4b )
npn Transistor symbol
An npn transistor
Fig (15-16d)
Digital Electronics: Bohrs Model (1913)
All electronic systems deal with natural quantities and convert them to electrical signals. As an example, a microphone converts sound to an electrical signal. A video camera converts an image to electrical signals. In TV, the image (video) and sound (audio) are transformed into electrical signals, then into electromagnetic waves. All this occurs at the transmitter. At the receiver, the em signal is transformed back into electrical (video and audio) signals. The electronics which deals with natural quantities is called analog electronics. A new branch of electronics has developed, namely, digital electronics. In this case, the electrical signal is not transmitted continuously (all values are allowed), but is coded, such that the signal is in terms of one of two possible values representing Fig ( 13-5a) two states 0 or 1. So, if we want to represent 3, it can be written as 112, where Bohrs subscript 2 denotes the Model binary system (not eleven). = 1x20+1x21 model, Bohr studied the difficulties faced by3Rutherfords we may express 17 for in decimal system as andasproposed a model the hydrogen atom building on
second shell
first shell
Bohr
nature, there are unwanted spurious signals, called electrical value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remainnoise. Noise is caused by the random motion of electrons. in each shell (Fig 13 5). Electrons are charged particles. As they move randomly, they cause randomly varying currents. currents of interfere with and disturb the 3) Theminute atom is electrically neutral, sinceThese the number information bearing signals. We notice that the in weak radio of stations, noise appears as a hiss, electrons - around the nucleus equals number positive charges in the (or nucleus. and in weak TV stations with a bad antenna an aerial) noise appears as spots (salt and Fig (13-5b)
levels pepper). Electrical noise marrs the useful signals, and is difficult to getEnergy rid of. In case of digital
Energy
may be encoded by an analog digital (ADC). At the 2) Negatively charged electrons move converter around the nucleus in reciever, digital quantities are decoded analog using a digital to analog shells. into Each shell quantities (loosely often called orbit) has an converter energy (DAC). Why do all this? In
17 = 7x100+1x101 Rutherfords findings : in the of binary we use the weights of 20, 21, 22 instead of 100, 101, 102, 1) similarly At the center the system, atom there is a positively charged nucleus .Thus, each . numeral, symbol and alphabet is coded with a binary code. Analog quantities
369 363 311
Transistor as a of switch: spectra of the atoms all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all experimental spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are Consideringobservations.The the collector circuit, we have called line at wavelengths characteristic of the element. (15-9) V spectra, = V +i.e., I Roccurring
CC CE C C
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where VCC is the collector battery, and vCE is the voltage difference between the collecttor and the emitter, IC is the collector current and RC is the collector resistance. As IC increases, VCE
potential difference decreases, until it reaches a value as low as 0.2V
Transistor as a switch (ON condition)
Fig (15-18a)
for a high base current. Considering the base as the input ,the collector as the output and the emitter as common (ground), we note that as the slit gas input increases, (or positive) the transistor is ON, Fig (13 4a ) and the output decreases and vice versa. The circuit behaves as an inverter, for positive voltage in the base (high), current flows in the collector, and the output voltage is very small (low). If the base voltage is small (or negative) or (low). The transistor is OFF and the current in the collector ceases, and the output voltage on the collector increases (high). The transistor as such operates as a switch (Fig 15-18). Fig (13 4b )
Transistor as a switch (OFF condition)
prism screen
Fig (15-18b)
Inverter characteristic
Fig (15-18c)
operations, such as inversion (NOT), simultaneity or coincidence (AND) and optionality (OR) as follows :
Bohrs Model (1913)
first shell
1) Inverter (NOT Gate) has one input and one output, and has the following truth table: input output 1 0 0 1 2) AND Gate: has two inputs or more and one output and has the following truth table: input output 00 0 second shell 01 0 10 0 Fig ( 13-5a) 11 1 Bohr
Bohrs Model
input A input B output free electron level continuous levels
Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, Fig (15-20a) and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on Rutherfords findings : nucleus .
Energy
AND gate symbol
1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in (15-20b) shells. Each shell (loosely often calledFig orbit) has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain in each shell (Fig 13 5). 3) The atom is electrically neutral, sincelamp the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of Fig (15-20c) positive charges in the nucleus.
An equivalent drawing for an AND gate. The lamp Energy levels does not glow until both switches are closed States of an AND gate
Fig (13-5b)
371 365 311
electronics, the information does not lie in the absolute value of the signal (which might be spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all contaminated noise), but lies in the code terms of 0 or 1. It adoes not matter if the experimental by observations.The spectra of in the elements have discrete nature, andvalue are corresponding to 0 or to 1 has someat noise superimposed on it. What is the state (0 or 1). called line spectra, i.e., occurring wavelengths characteristic ofmatters the element. This is the main advantage of digital electronics. For this reason, it has permeated our modern life extensively, as in cellular (mobile) telephony, digital satellite TV, and CDs. What has increased the importance of digital electronics is the advent of the computer. Everything that is entered into the computer-whether numbers or letters-must be transformed into a
potential binary code. Even images are divided into small elements, each called a pixel (picture difference
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element). These too must be encoded. The computer performs all arithmetic and logic
operations using binary (Boolean) algebra. It also stores information in the binary code temporarily in the RAM (Random Access Memory) or permanently in the hard disk, by
slit prism gas for 0 and in magnetizing in one direction the opposite direction for 1.screen
Logic Gates:
Fig (13 4a )
Modern applications of electronics, such as computer circuits and modern communication systems depend on digital circuits, called logic gates. These are the circuits that perform logic
input
output
Not gate symbol
Fig (15-19a)
An equivalent drawing for a NOT Spectra of some elements gate. When the switch is closed (ON) States of a NOT gate the lamp is (OFF) and vice versa
Fig (15-19b)
Fig (13 4b )
Fig (15-19a)
This canModel be represented Bohrs (1913) by two switches in parallel, one of them only need be closed to pass current. All operations performed by the computer are based on these gates and others.
These gates can be implemented by transistors. In this case, the transistor may not be looked
pits
first shell disk
Plastic
lens
Collimating coil
sensitive light detector
prism
upon as an amplifier but as a switch . Thus, we can use the transistor as an inverter (NOT gate).
Bohr A transistor with more than one emitter may
second shell
laser
Fig (15-22a) Fig ( 13-5a)

A CD - drive
be used as an AND gate, so that the transistor
Bohrs Model
will not pass current unless each emitter has positive voltage (1). Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, electron level Also, we may envision the transistor as an OR gate in the formfree of a pair of parallel continuous levels and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on transistors. If (1) exists at either one of the inputs, one of the transistors conducts and (1) Rutherfords findings : appears at the output . 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged Transistors are also used in memory circuits, where data ( 0 or 1 ) is retained temporarily nucleus . in the RAM and permanently in the hard disk or CD. In a CD, a laser beam engraves a bit in 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in a plastic disk for 1 and no bit for 0. This is the Write process. In a CD drive, a laser beam is shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy used for the Read process (Fig 15 22a). A DVD is a modified version of a CD with higher value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain storage capacity. There are also digital cameras, which convert images to electrical signals in each shell (Fig 13 5). pixel by pixel, and store them on a magnetic tape, or download them onto a PC (Fig 15 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of 23). These cameras use a new technique for handling and transferring electrical charges, electrons around the nucleus equals the number of namely, charge coupled devices (CCD). This makes the cameras light weighted (portable) positive charges in the nucleus. Fig (13-5b) and inexpensive. This is the basis for the camcorder, Fax machines and mobile camera.
Energy
Energy levels
373 367 311
Thus, there is no output (1) unless both inputs are (1) each, i.e., two conditions or more spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all are met to satisfy an output (1). It can be represented by two switches in series. They both experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are have toline be closed at i.e., the same time at for current to flow and the lamp to glow. called spectra, occurring wavelengths characteristic of the element. 3) OR Gate has two inputs or more and one output (Fig 1521). One condition (1) may suffice to have an output (1) . input Output 00 0 01 1 potential difference 10 1 11 1
input A input B gas
slit prism
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output
screen
Fig (15-21a) Fig (13 4a )

OR gate symbol
Fig (15-21b)
States of OR gate
Lamp
An equivalent drawing an OR gate. Spectra of somefor elements One switch need be closed for the lamp to glow
(15-21c) Fig (13 4b )
electronic bulletins,(1913) watches and measuring equipment. If Bohrs Model light from a forward biased heavily doped pn junction is concentrated by laser action, we may have a junction (solid state) laser (Fig 15 23 b), which is used in surgery, communication through fiber optics and in modern warfare, such as missile guidance and radar (laser radar is called LADAR).
first shell
A junction laser
Fig (15-23b)
Eelctronic Circuits:
Any analog or digital electronic system is composed of electronic components connected together in a closed path called
Bohr
second shell
circuit. The components may be passive as resistors, inductors, Bohrs Model capacitors, or diodes (Fig 15 24). Active components include transistors in all types. Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, and proposed a model forseparate the hydrogen atom building on Circuits formed from components and soldered Rutherfords findings : 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus . 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain in each shell (Fig 13 5). 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of positive charges in the nucleus.
Different versions of transistors and diodes
Energy
Fig ( 13-5a)
free electron level continuous levels Fig (15-24a) Resistors
Fig (15-24b)
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
375 369 311
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potential Digital camera difference
Fig (15-22b)
A CCD element
Fig (15-22c)
gas
slit
prism
screen
Storing date on a magnetic tape the digitalthe spectra of the elements Apparatus for in studying camera
Fig (15-22d)
Fig (13 4a )
Images may be transferred via the internet using a new feature called Bluetooth. Learn at Leisure
Downloading onto a computer

axis light transparent dome
Fig (15-22e)
LED
When current passes through a pn junction, electrons and holes transporting from one side to the other, are annihilted in a recombination process. This process is accompanied by the emission of light in the form of photons. A solid state Fig (13 This 4b is ) called lamp can, thus, be made out of a pn junction. light emitting diode (LED) (Fig 15 23 a). It is used in
terminal
Fig (15-23a)
LED
repeatedly made on(1913) a thin wafer of silicon thousands of Bohrs Model times simultaneously. Thus, the wafer is cut up to thousands of slices, each called a chip, all carrying exactly the same layout and same specifications. This technique yields low cost electronic circuits due to the mass production involved. The burden is really the initial investment of setting up the foundries, with all the sophisticated equipment including robots, testing systems, and in the design, artwork i.e., the brainwork involved in the programming, particularly when such circuits are custom made. The commonplace ICs are, however, inexpensive, since millions are made at a time for the same design and artwork. This is what has made ICs Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, popular in botha analog electronic systems. In on and proposed model and for digital the hydrogen atom building fact, instead of designing Rutherfords findings : highly complicated and costly ICs existing or available (off the shelf) are sought 1) At the center of the atom there is a ICs positively charged nucleus first. Thus, .design has shifted toward system engineering, shells.cost Each shell (loosely oftenefficiency. called orbit) has an energy possible and highest possible value. Electrons not emit radiation as long they remain A collection of do components including ICs as are often
Energy
first shell
second shell
Fig (15-25d)
Pentium IC
Bohr
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
free electron level continuous levels Selective diffusion
Fig (15-26)
2) Negatively charged electrons around the lowest nucleus in namely putting the right things move together at the
in each shell (Fig called 13 5). mounted on a board a printed circuit board (PCB). 3) The atom neutral, since the number An example is is theelectrically motherboard of a PC (Fig 15 27). It of electrons theRAM, nucleus equals the number includes the around processor, Arithmetic Logic Unit of positive charges in the nucleus. (ALU), control circuits etc. Fig (13-5b) Fig (15-27)
Energy levels Motherboard
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Tansistors as pairs and quadruples

potential together are called discrete circuits (Fig 15 24). A new era of difference
Fig (15-24c)
integrated circuits(ICs) started in the 1960s at the peak of space research. The goal then was to develop electronic circuits with a new technology ,which would put light weight, compactness,
slit gas at prime interest. effectiveness and reliability Theprism answer was
Fig (15-25a) screen
ICs or microchips (Fig 15 25). The basic to)cram all the Fig idea (13 is4a are assigned to needed functions without treating them as separate components. If we want to make a diode, for example, then starting with an n-type wafer, we allow p atoms to diffuse in defined regions in the wafer. This is called selective (planar) diffusion (Fig 1526). The way this is done is a complicated chemical process in which a mask is made and light (recently laser) is used. The process is similar to film developing in photography, and is called photolithography, which means carving on stone. If we now want to make an npn transistor, we ) open up a window in the p-region, Fig and(13 let n4b atoms diffuse selectively there. Interestingly, all these operations are
ICs in different forms
for studying the spectra the elements needed componentsApparatus onto a silicon wafer, where differentof regions
Fig (15-25b)
IC uncovered
Microprocessor in comparison with a match head
Fig (15-25c)
that we are Model headed to(1913) reach the size of the atom itself, i.e., 0 and 1 may be stored in the form of Bohrs first shell an electron being in either one of two states in the atom, ground state or an excited state. Alternatively, the two states may be one direction of electron spin, and the other state in the opposite direction. This is called quantum computer. This is the trend of the near future, which is about to materialize. It is in harmony with future direction trends of science in search for minute details of time and space. This has led to the advent of new technologies such as Nano and Femto technologies. Learn at Leisure
second shell
Selective Diffusion
How can we make phosphorus atoms for example diffuse in a very small area and not Fig ( 13-5a) Bohr through the rest of the chip ? This happens in several steps. First, we cover the silicon wafer with a layer of oxide (Si O2), then we use a mask prepared in a way similar to photographic development. We cover the oxide layer with a photoresist, which is a light sensitive Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, level material. We then put a mask with opaque and transparent regions onfree topelectron of the photoresist.
continuous levels
Bohrs Model
andthen proposed a the model for to the hydrogen(uv) atom building We expose surface ultraviolet rays. When on the photoresist is exposed to uv, Rutherfords findings : in the region where it is exposed, and remains liquid in the it polymerizes (solidifies) 1) At the center of the atom there is a and positively charged unexposed areas. We then lift the mask use HCl acid, which interacts with SiO2 (a nucleus . etching) in the areas where the photoresist is in liquid form (where SiO is process called 2 2) Negatively charged electrons move around nucleus uncovered with polymerized photoresist). Thethe acid, thus, in opens up a hole in the oxide.
Energy
shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) through has an energy Then, phosphorus atoms are allowed to diffuse the opening in the oxide, while the value. Electrons not emit areas radiation as long as theyThus, remain miniaturization depends on the oxide isolates the do remaining from diffusion. in each (Fig 13Therefore, 5). accuracy ofshell the mask. laser is used in mask making. For more miniaturization, electron beam are used for shorter , and of hence smaller dimensions (why?) 3) The beam atomand is molecular electrically neutral, since the number where they directly carve on nucleus the chip. equals But this the cannot be used electrons around the number ofon a large scale, but is used for special ICs only. positive charges in the nucleus.
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
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ICs have permeated even medical equipment including instrumentation, diagnosis, and spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all prognosis. Oneobservations.The day pacemakers spectra and insulin control circuits using microcapsules experimental of the elements have a discrete nature, involving and are called line spectra, i.e., at wavelengths characteristic of thewithin. element. microprocessors may beoccurring injected into the body to do their work from
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Unit 5:
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Miniaturization, where to ?
When the first computer was built in the 1950s, its capabilities were very limited by todays standards. potential It was bulky, about the size of an apartment. It was built from vacuum tube (valves). Then, transistors were used. ICs have led to the development of PCs which made computers available to the public. Since the 1970s PCs are continually being enhanced. Their capacity and capability to do complicated calculations are on the increase, while calculation time is getting shorter, and size and weight are getting smaller. Also, cost is on the decline. These improvements sound contradictory, but they are happening and at a Fig best (13 application 4a ) high rate, thanks to the understanding and of the basic concepts of modern physics, materials science, chemistry, laser and to the rapid advancement of the technology. There is a common law called Moores law, which states that capacity and speed double every 18 months. If a chip (the size of a pin head) contains 100 transistors, this called small scale integration (SSI). If it contains 1000 transistors, it is called medium scale integration (MSI). If it contains 10000 transistors, it is called large scale integration (LSI). If it contains 100000 transistors, it is called very large scale integration (VLSI). If it exceeds that, it is called ultra large scale integration (ULSI). Can you imagine 1 million transistors in a pin head area? What then if you know that the figure in 2005 has reached 300 millions with prospect of even more? If the miniaturization keeps going at that rate what next ? we shall soon be limited by the Fig (13 4b ) diffraction of light as the physical dimension will soon approach of the used light. It seems
Spectra of some elements Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements
gas
slit prism screen difference
(forwardModel connection or forward bias) current flows. If the battery is reversed no current Bohrs (1913) first shell flows.
This is why a diode is used in rectification. A transistor may be pnp or npn, and can be used as an amplifier, since the ratio of the collector current to the base current e is large. Therefore, any small change in the base current leads to an amplified change in the collector current. A transistor may also be used as a switch. It is used in logic gates, such as an inverter (NOT), AND, OR gates.
second shell
Digital electronics is superceding analog electronics for its ability to overcome electrical Fig ( 13-5a) noise . Its basic concept is to code information in binary form (0 , 1). Bohr ICs have the advantages of small size and weight, increased speeds and capacity, and yet low cost. This is the reason for the proliferation of PCs. Bohr studied the difficulties faced by Rutherfords model, and proposed a model for the hydrogen atom building on Rutherfords findings : 1) At the center of the atom there is a positively charged nucleus . 2) Negatively charged electrons move around the nucleus in shells. Each shell (loosely often called orbit) has an energy value. Electrons do not emit radiation as long as they remain in each shell (Fig 13 5). 3) The atom is electrically neutral, since the number of electrons around the nucleus equals the number of positive charges in the nucleus.
Energy levels
Energy
Bohrs Model
Fig (13-5b)
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a Nutshell spectra of the atoms of all elements In would have been continuous. This is contrary to all observations.The spectra ions of the elements a electrons discrete nature, and are experimental A metallic crystal consists of positive and a cloud have of free roaming around called line spectra, i.e., occurring at wavelengths characteristic of the element. the crystal in random motion. There is a force of attraction between the ions and the
electron cloud. But the resultant of all forces of attraction on a single free electron is zero . If an electron tries to escape from the metal, a net force of attraction due to the atom layer at the surface pulls it in. A pure potential silicon (semiconductor) crystal consists of atoms covalently bonded. At low temperatures, there are no free electrons. If temperature increases, some bonds are broken, electrons become free, leaving behind holes. Both electrons and holes move randomly. The number of broken bonds increases with temperature. It may increase also by an Fig (13 the 4a )photon energy is sufficient to break the external stimulus, such as light, provided that bond.
gas
slit prism screen difference
modern physics Unit 5:
310 380 374
The number of free electrons and holes increases by adding impurities (doping). Thus, the material becomes n-type or p-type. The conductivity of a semiconductor depends on the conduction of free electrons and holes. Thus, a semiconductor has two current carriers: electrons and holes, while in a metal there is only one current carrier (the electron). Electron concentration in a metal is constant and does not depend on temperature. Semiconductors are environment-sensitive. They can be used as sensors to light, heat, pressure humidity, chemical pollution, radiation etc. A diode (pn junction) consists of a Fig ptype region (13 4b ) and an n-type region. If the p-side is
Spectra of some elements connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the n-side to the negative terminal
Bohrs Model (1913)
first shell
second shell
Bohr
Bohrs Model
Fig ( 13-5a)
Energy
Energy levels
Fig (13-5b)
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spectra of the atoms of all elements would have been continuous. This is contrary to all I) Drills: experimental observations.The spectra of the elements have a discrete nature, and are 3, if the density of silicon is 2.33 g/cm3 1) Calculate the number of silicon in 1 cm called line spectra, i.e., occurring atatoms wavelengths characteristic of the element. and its atomic mass is 28 (0.5x1023cm-3) 2) If electron or hole concentration in pure silicon is 1x1010cm-3, phosphorus is added at a concentration of 1012cm3, calculate the concentrations of electrons and holes in this case. Is this
potential difference silicon n-type
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or p-type?
(n=1012cm-3 p=108cm-3 ) (n - type)
3) Calculate the concentration of aluminum to be added so that silicon returns pure .

gas
slit prism screen (NA
- = 1012cm-3)
4) A transistor has e = 0.99 . Calculate e. Then calculate the collector current if the base Fig (13 4a ) current is 100 A (e=99 , Ic = 99x10-4A) Apparatus for studying the spectra of the elements 5) The electrical signal in the base of a transistor is 200 A . The collector current is to be 10 mA. Calculate e and e. (e = 0.98 , e = 50) 6) A diode can be represented by a forward resistance 100 ,while it is infinity in the reverse direction. We apply +5 V ,and then reverse it to 5 V. Calculate the current in both cases. (50 mA, O) (10-12m2) II) Essay questions: 1) Discuss the importance of digital electronics and mention 5 applications. Fig followed (13 4b )by an inverter. 2) Deduce the truth table for an AND gate
Spectra some elements 3) Deduce the truth table for an OR gate of followed by an inverter.
7) If 1 mm2 contains 1 million transistors, calculate the area assigned to each transistor.
General Revision
1) A metallic wire is stretched between two vertical fixed pins .Is the velocity of propagation of a transverse wave through this wire affected by a change in the temperature of the surrounding medium? and why ? 2) Two identical strings, one end of each is fixed to the wall, while the other end is stretched by hand . A transverse pulse is sent through one of the wires, and after a short time another transverse pulse is sent through the other wire. What can be done to make the second pulse catch up with the first pulse? Give reasons. 3) Give reasons: It is easy to see your reflected image on the window glass of a lit room at night when it is dark outside the room. But that is difficult when there is light outside the room. 4) Two rays of light converge on a point on a screen. A parallel glass plate is placed in the path of this light, and the glass plate is parallel to the screen. Will the point of convergence remain on the screen or change position ? Give reasons . 5) Explain and give reasons : When a blue light source is placed at the center of a solid glass cube with a white screen facing each side, a circular spot of light appears on each screen in front of each surface of the cube . When the blue source is replaced by a red color source, the shape of the spot changes from circular to square . 6) In the following figure, a fiber optic has an external layer from glass. Its refractive index is less than that of the glass of the core . If the light beam passes through it as shown in the figure.
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of distance 11 x 10-4 m apart, and the distance between the double slit and the screen was 5m. Find the distance between two successive similar fringes . 12) A rubber hose is connected to a tap, and the water flows through in a steady flow .Explain why the cross sectional area of the flowing water decreases when the end of the rubber hose is directed down, and increases when the end of the rubber hose is directed up. 13) A balloon filled with air is attached to the bottom of a glass tank. Then the tank is filled completely with water ,with this balloon completely immersed in water. Suppose that the tank with its contents were transferred from the Earth to the Moon. Discuss and give reason for all what would happen to the balloon? 14) A hollow copper ball is suspended under the surface of water in a tank. Discuss and give reason for all what would happen to the position of the ball in the tank if it were transferred from the Earth to the Moon? 15) Verify the following statement and correct the mistakes if any:When a person dives in a swimming pool near the bottom , each of the upthrust and pressure exerted over him increases. 16) An ice cube is placed in a glass beaker, then it is filled completely to the rim with water . Discuss in the light of Archimedes principle what changes may happen when the ice melts (fuses) . 17) A glass beaker filled to the rim with water is resting on a scale . A block is placed in water, causing some of it to spill over.The water that is spilled is wiped away ,and the beaker is still filled to the rim . Compare between the initial and final reading on the scale, if the block is made from: a) wood b) iron
378 379 385
a)explain why the direction of the beam does not change at each of S and P. b)explain why there is a total reflection at each of Q and R. c)explain why the double layer fiber optic is preferred to that of a single layer. 7- A teacher gave his students the following figure (A) which expresses a path of light beam from A to B through a triangular prism made of glass which has a critical angle 42. He asked the students to draw the path of the beam before reaching A and after leaving B. The figure (B) expresses the attempt of a student. But the teacher made it clear that the angles of X and Y were not correct. Suggest without calculations the changes required to correct the angles X and Y, and give reasons for your suggestion. (Fig A) (Fig B)
8) The tension of a stretched string is changed from 70N to 80N without a change in its length. Calculate the ratio of the fundamental frequencies as a result . 9) A string of length 0.06 m and mass 2.5 x 10-3 kg is stretched by a force of 400N. Find the frequency of the produced tone if it vibrates in three segments. 10) A triangular prism has an angle of 60 and refractive index of. 2 . Calculate the minimum angle of deviation and the corresponding angle of incidence. 11) A monochromatic light of 66 x 10-8 m wavelength strikes a double slit
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24) Show that Van der Waals effect can explain the conversion of gases into liquid state. 25) Give reason : Van der Waals effect on gases appears clearly at low temperatures. 26) Gas behavior deviates from that of the ideal gas as its density increases. Disuss this statement . 27) What is the scientific concept on which the Dewars flask is designed? 28) Give reason :Liquid helium is preferred as a cryogenic material. 29) Compare between the characteristics of the adiabatic change and the isothermal change . 30) What is meant by the transitional (critical) temperature of a metal? 31) Give reason : We use a superconductive coil in manufactering the levitated train. 32) Give reason : A superconductor is used in making satellite's antenna. 33) Give reason: Meissner effect appears only in superconductive materials. 34) Suppose that the atoms of helium gas have the same average velocity as the atoms of argon gas. Which of them has a higher temperature and why? 35) Calculate the average kinetic energy and root mean square of the velocity of a free electron at 300K , where Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K , the mass of electron is 9.1 x 10-31kg.
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where the density of water is 1000 kgm-3, that of wood is 550 kgm-3 and that of iron is 7860 kgm-3. 18) State the conditions which make the liquid flow in a steady flow and prove that in a steady flow, the velocity of liquid flow at any point is inversely proportional to the across sectional area of the tube at that point? 19) A major artery of radius 0.5 cm branches out into many capillaries,the radius of each is 0.2 cm . The speed of blood in the main artery is 0.4 m/s , and the speed of blood in each capillary is 0.25 m/s . Find the number of the capillaries ? 20) A cross sectional area of one end of a U- shaped tube is twice the other. When a suitable amount of water is placed in the tube and an amount of oil is poured into the wide end, the surface of water in the tube is lowered by 0.5 cm. Calculate the height of oil in the tube. Knowing that the density of water equals 1000 kg m-3 and that of oil equals 800 kg m-3.
21) The small and large piston cross sectional areas of a hydraulic press are 4 x 10-4m2 and 20 x 10-4m2, respectively, and a force of 200 N is exerted on the small piston. Calculate the mass required to be placed on the large piston to be in the same level with the small piston ,g = 10 m/s2. 22) What is the least area for a floating layer of ice of thickness 5 cm above the water of a river which makes this layer carry a car whose mass is 16 x103kg. The density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and that of ice is 920 kg/ m3. 23) A cork ball has a volume of 5 x10-3 m3,placed in water of density 1000 kgm-3. About 2/5 of its volume was immersed. Calculate the density of the cork and the force needed to immerse all the volume of the ball.
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step - up transformer decreases the current. 44) There are three essential factors that must be considered when designing transformers to decrease the loss of the electric energy. What are these factors and how? 45) Give reason: The eddy current is not generated in the metallic blocks unless a magnetic field of variable intensity exists. 46) Compare between an AC generator and a DC generator. 47) Give reason: To increase the power of a motor ,several coils seperated by small angles are used. 48) The following table shows values of resistance of wire of cross sectional area 0.1 m2 and different lengths.
Length l m Resistance R 1 2 5 4 10 6 15 10 25 14 35 16 40
Plot the relation between the length ( l ) on the X axis and Resistance (R) on the Y axis. From the plot find: a) resistance of a part of the wire of length 12 m . b) the resistivity of the material of the wire. c) the conductivity of the material of the wire. 49) A wire 30 cm long and 0.3 cm2 cross sectional area is connected in series with a DC source and an ammeter . The potential difference between the ends of the wire is
382 383 389
36) An amount of an ideal gas has a mass of 0.8 x 10-3 kg , a volume of 0.285 x 10-3 m-3,at a temperature of 12o C and under pressure of 105N/m2 . Calculate the molecular mass of the gas where the universal gas constant equals 8.31 J/K. 37) Calculate the mean kinetic energy of an oxygen molecule at a temperature of 50oC, where Boltzmann's constant is equal to 1.38 x 10-23 J/K. 38) If the temperature at the surface of the Sun is 6000oK, find the root mean square speed of hydrogen molecules at the surface of the Sun, knowing that the hydrogen is in its atomic state. Its atomic mass =1, Avogadro's number (NA)=6.02 x 1023, and Boltzmann's constant=1.38 x 10-23 J/K . 39) Give reason : Efficiency of the battery increases by the decrease of its internal resistance. 40) In electric circuits connected in parallel, thick wires are used at the ends of the battery,but at the ends of each resistor less thick wires are used. Why? 41) What is meant by: a) the effective value of AC. b) eddy current. c) the sensitivity of a galvanometer. d) the efficiency a transformer. 42) What is the physical concept for the operation of the following devices: galvanometer transformer current divider (or shunt) potential multiplier. 43) Give reason :The step- down transformer increases the current, and the
383 382 388
b) the efficiency of a transformer=90%. c) eddy currents. d) the effective value of an AC current =2A. 55) A step -down transformer of efficiency 100% is to be used to light a lamp of power 24 W at a potential difference 12 V. If the power source applied to the transformer is 240 V, the number of turns of the secondary coil is 480 turn. 1) calculate the current passing through each of the primary and secondary coils 2) the number of the turns of the primary coil. 56) When an electric current is flowing through a perpendicular wire in a uniform magnetic field, the wire is affected by a force. Which of the following instruments is based on this principle: (1) electromagnet. (2) motor. (3) generator. (4) transformer. 57) Calculate the emf of a source if the work done to transfer 5C is 100 J. 58)Three resistors 10 1 , 20 1 , 30 1 are connected to a power supply . If the currents are 0.15 A , 0.2 A , 0.05 A, respectively. Calculate the equivalent resistor for this circuit, and illustrate your answer with a labeled diagram. 59) Two resistors 400 1 and 300 1 are connected in series to a 130V power supply. Compare between the readings of a voltmeter of resistance 200 1 when connected across each resistor seperately ( neglecting the internal resistance of the power supply). 60) A wire has length 2 m and cross sectional area 0.1 m2 is connected to a source with emf 10 V. Calculate the resistivity and conductivity of its material if it carries a
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0.8 V, when a current of 2A passes through it. Calculate the conductivity of the wire material. 50) A rectangular coil of N turns and surface area A is placed parallel to the lines of a regular magnetic field of flux density B Tesla. If the coil starts rotation from this position with a regular angular velocity , until it compelets half a revolution. Clarify with a labeled diagram how the value of the emf changes with the rotational angle during this time, and what is the maximum value of the induced emf generated in this coil. 51) A galvanometer has a resistance 40 and reads up to 20 mA. Calculate the resistance of the shunt required to convert it into an ammeter, reading up to 100 mA. If the coil of the galvanometer is connected to a potential multiplier with resistance 210 .Calculate the maximum potential difference to be read. 52) Compare between each of a) a step -down transformer and a step- up transformer in terms of function, use, and number of turns of the secondary coil. b) dynamo and motor in terms of function and use. 53) Why does the transmission of the electric power from a generating station require wires under high voltage? Choose the correct answer and give account a) to be able to use the transformers . b) to insure that the current will flow for a long distance. c) to minimize the loss in the electric energy . d) to minimize the resistance of the wires. 54)What is meant by : a) the coefficient of mutual induction between two coils =2H.
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391 390
392 393
393 392
394 395
395 394
49)
R=
V I 0.8 R = = 0.4 2
e = 4 10 5 .m
g g 51) Rs = I I g
RA 0.4 0.3 10 4 e = = lL 30 10 2
I R
200 10-3 400 100 10 3 20 10 3 = 10 V = Vg + R m I g = = (20 10 3 40) + (210 20 10 3 ) V = 5V
55) Is =
Pw 24 = = 2A Vs 12 Vs I p = Vp Is
12 I p = 240 2 24 Ip = = 0.1A 240 Vs Ns = Vp N p 12 480 = 240 N p Np = 480 240 = 9600 12
396 397 403
32) A superconductive material is used in making satellites antenna, because it has no electrical resistance. This makes it easily affected by the weakest of electromagnetic waves. 33) Meissner effect appears only in superconductive materials, because they offer no electrical resistance to the electrons. They are easily affected by external magnetic fields and retain the kinetic energy acquired due to this field without any loss in the form of thermal energy. Hence, current flows continuously ,leading in turn to a counter magnetic field , so that the net field inside is zero (diamagnetic) .This is why a superconducting magnet is always repulsive to the external magnetic field . 34) The temperature of argon gas is higher than that of helium gas, because the mass of the argon atom is more than that of a helium atom , so the kinetic energy of an argon atom is more than that of a helium atom.
mv2 = 3 kT 35) 1 2 2
1 mv2 = 3 x 1.38 x 10-23 x 300 2 2
= 6.21 x 10-21 J
-21 x 22 2= 1.17 x 105 m/s v = 6.21 x 10 -31 9.1 x 10
39) As the internal resistance of the battery decreases, the lost work done (wasted energy) is reduced during operation. 40) Because the current intensity in parallel circuits is greater at the input and output compared to the current in each branch.
397 396 402
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57) VB =
100 W = =20V Q 5
64)The wasted potential difference is the potential (voltage) drop on the internal resistance of the cell . VB I = R+r = 12 =4.8 2+0.5 Ir = 4.8 X 0.5 =2.4V Percent drop = 2.4 X 100 = 20% 12
399 398 404
serial
quantity potential energy power impulse temperature quantity of matter pressure quantity of heat specific heat heat capacity
symbol
unit J W , Js-1 (watt)
21 22 23 24 25 26 28 29 30
PE Pw Iimp tC , tF , TK n P Qth Cth qth Bth Lth V P Pa
Ns
Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin
mole pascal , Nm-2 pascal , Nm-2 J J kg-1 K JK-1 J kg-1 J kg-1 per degree rise per degree rise kg/s m3/s Ns m-2
______ -1
27 atmospheric pressure
31 latent heat for evaporation 32 latent heat for fusion 33 volume expansion coefficient 34 pressure expansion coefficient 35 mass rate of flow 36 volume rate of flow 37 viscosity coefficient 38 39 40 42 efficiency electric charge electron charge battery voltage
401 407
Qm QV vs Q,q e V VB
C (Coulomb) C V (Volt) V
41 potential difference
Appendix 1
Symbols and Units of Some Physical Quantities

serial
quantity displacement area volume time periodic time velocity / speed angle angular velocity mass electron mass density acceleration linear momentum force weight torque work energy kinetic energy
symbol x,y,z,d A Vol t T v
unit m (meter) m2 m3 s (second) s m s-1 deg , rad rad s-1 kg kg kg m-3 m s-2 m s-2 kg m s-1 N , kg ms-2 N(Newton) Nm J(Joule) J J
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
,, m,M me
a g
13 acceleration due to gravity
PL F Fg W E KE
400 406
Appendix 2 Fundamental Physical Constants Physical Constant 1-Universal gravitation constant 2-Boltzmann constant 3-Avogadros number 4- Universal gas constant 5-Coulombs law constant 6-Permeability of free space 7-Speed of light in vacuum 8-Elementary charge 9- Electron rest mass 10-Specific charge of electron 11-Proton rest mass 12-Plancks constant 13-Atomic mass unit 14-Rydberg constant 15-Neutron rest mass 16-Molar volume of ideal gas at S.T.P 17-Standard gravity at the Earths surface 18-Equatorial radius of the Earth 19- Mass of the Earth 20-Mass of the Moon 21- Mean radius of the Moons orbit around the Earth
403 409
symbol G k NA R K c e
e me
value
6.677x10-11 N m2 kg-2 1.38x10-23 JK-1 6.02x1026 Molecule.kmol-1 8.31x103 J.kmol-1 K-1 9x109 Nm2C-2 4x10-7 Weber m-1A-1 3x108 m.s-1 1.6x10-19 C 9.1x10-31 kg 1.79x1011 C.kg-1 1.673x10-27 kg 6.63x10-34 Js 1.66x10-27 kg 1.096x107 m-1 1.675x10-27 kg 22.4x10-3 m3 9.8066 ms-2 6.374x106 m 5.976x1024 kg 7.35x1022 kg 3.844x108 m
me
mp h u RH mn g re Me Mm rm
serial
quantity field intensity electric flux electric current electrical resistor resistivity conductivity transistor gain
symbol
unit V Vm-1 Gauss A (Ampere) (Ohm) m -1 m-1

______
43 electromotive force (emf) 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
emf e I R
e
e , e
H B m L M md c f n
51 magnetic field intensity 52 magnetic flux density 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 61 62 63 magnetic flux self inductance mutual inductance permeability magnetic dipole speed of light frequency of wave wave length refractive index dispersive power
Am-1 Tesla , Wb m-2 Wb (Weber) H (Henry) H Weber A-1 m-1 Nm Tesla-1 ms-1 Hertz (Hz) Hz m
______ ______
60 frequency of electric current
402 408
Appendix 3
Standard Prefixes
power of 10 10-24 10-21 10-18 10-15 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021 1024 name Yocto Zepto Atto Femto Pico Nano Micro Milli Centi Deci ___ Deka Hecto Kilo Mega Giga Tera Peta Exa Zetta Yotta
405 411
Physical Constant 22-Mass of the Sun

23- Mean radius of the Earths orbit around the Sun
symbol Ms res
yr __ __ __ __
value
1.989x1030 kg 1.496x1011 m 3.156x107 s 7.5x1020 m 2.7x1041 kg 7x108 m 0.134 J cm-2 s-1
24-Period of the Earths orbit around the Sun 25- Diameter of our galaxy 26- Mass of our galaxy 27- Radius of the Sun 28- Suns radiation intensity at the Earths surface
404 410
Appendix 5 Gallery of Scientists

Ibn Malka A pioneer in medicine and the discoverer of the laws of motion A pioneer in astronomy and the inventor of the simple pendulum. A pioneer in geography and astronomy.
(1072 -1152 )
Ibn Unis
(952 -1009 )
Al Baironi
(973 - 1048 )
Ibn Al-Haytham
A pioneer in mathematics, astronomy, medicine and the founder of optics. A pioneer in philosophy, physics , particularly optics. The inventor of the phonograph and the electric lamp, and other inventions 1000".
The discoverer of the ratio of the radius of a circle to its circumference, buoyancy and the reflecting mirror.
(965 - 1040)
Al Kindy
(800 - 873)
Edison (Thomas) (1847-1931)
Arkhimds
(287 -212 BC)

Avogadro (Amedeo) (1776 - 1856)
The discoverer of the molcular theory
607 413
Appendix 4
Greek Alphabet
606 412
Torricelli (Evangelista) (1608 - 1647) Galileo (Galilei) (1564 - 1642) Galvani (Luigi) (1737 - 1798) Dalton (John) (1766 - 1844)
The inventor of the barometer
The inventor of the telescope and the discoverer of accelration due to gravity.
The discoverer of the electric charge in muscles. The discoverer of the law of mixing gases.
Rutherford (Ernest) (1871 - 1937) Ruhmkorff (Heinrich) (1803 - 1877) Rontgen (Wilhelm) (1845 - 1923) Schrodinger (Erwin) (1887 - 1961) Al-Khazin
The discoverer of radioactivty.
The discoverer of the induction coil.
The discoverer of X-rays.
The discoverer of Quantum Mechanics. A pioneer in hydrostatics.
609 415
Ampre (Andr - Marie) (1775 - 1836) Oersted (Christian) (1777 - 1851) Ohm (George) (1789 - 1854) Einstein (Albert) (1879 - 1955) Pascal (Blaise) (1623 - 1662) Al Joazri
He performed studies on electricity, telegraph and magnetism. The founder of the theory of electromagnetism in 1820 The discoverer of Ohms law
He was awarded Nobel prize in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, the founder of the theory of relativity The discoverer of Pascals rule.
A pioneer in fine mechanics and water clocks. The founder of X-ray diffraction.
Bragg (William) (1862 - 1942) Bohr (Neils) (1885 - 1962) Boyle (Robert) (1627 - 1691)
He produced a model for the atom.
The discoverer of Boyles law.
608 414
Lenz (Heinrich) (1804 - 1865) Planck (Max) (1858 - 1947) Maxwell (James)
The discoverer of Lenzs rule. The discoverer of the photon and the blackbody radiation.
The discoverer of Maxwells equations.
Newton (Isaac) (1642 - 1727) Hertz (Heinrich) (1857 - 1894) Huygens (Christian) (1629 - 1695) Young (Thomas) (1773 - 1829)
The discoverer of the laws of motion, gravity and colors. The discoverer of the electromagnetic waves He proposed the secondary sources in the from of a wave.
The discoverer of interference.
411 417
Faraday (Michael) (1791 - 1867) Van Der Waals (Johannes) (1837 - 1923) Fraunhofer (Joseph Von) (1787 - 1826) Volta (Alessandro) (1745 - 1827) Fermi (Enrico) (1901 - 1954) Kamelingh (Onnes) (1853 - 1926) Kepler (Johannes) (1571 - 1630) Copernicus (Nicolas) (1473 - 1543) Kirchhoff (Gustav) (1824 - 1887)
The discoverer of the laws of electromagnetics.
The discoverer of Van Der Waals effect. He interpreted the atomic spectra and diffraction The inventor of the battery.
He contributed to the atomic bomb.
The discoverer of liquid helium.
The discoverer of the laws of planetary motion. He proved that the Earth rotates around the Sun. The discoverer of Kirchhoffs law.
410 416
381
Appendix 6
Selected Physics Sites on the Internet
http://www.dke-encyc.com http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov http://csep10.phys.utk.edu http://www.howstuffworks.com http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/index.pl http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics http://www.physlink.com http://www.intuitor.com/moviephysics http://www.newport.com/spectralanding http://www.mathpages.com/home/iphysics.htm http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html http://www.smsec.com
412 418

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Arab republic of egypt Ministry of Education Book Sector

Chapter 1: Wave Motion

Waves spreading from a point source

starting point of motion.

Frequency () (Hertz or Hz): is the number of complete oscillations made by

T position or its equilibrium origin. It is a vector quantity.

Simple Harmonic Motion:

rest position amplitude

Fig (1 -5) Yoyo

To study vibrations, we need to define some relevant physical quantities

displacement, amplitude, complete oscillation, periodic time and frequency as follo

Unit 1: Waves Chapter 1: Wave Motion

Frequency () (Hertz or Hz):Fig is the of complete oscillations made by (1-7number a)

Displacement of a pendulum bob as time goes by

Simple Harmonic Motion:

same phase (same displacement and direction)

pulling the spring

releasing the spring

Wave Motion Chapter 1: Unit 1: Waves

A vibrating spring forming a longitudinal wave

A vibrating spring forming a transverse wave

crest rest position

Wavelength in a transverse wave

energy manifested in the vibration of the particles of

direction of wave propagation

Wave Motion Chapter 1: Waves

Frequency () (Hertz) and wavelength () (meter):

A piece of foam floating on the top of

A train of waves at velocity v generated by a vibrator

at the end of 1/4 period

at the end of 1/2 period

at the end of 3/4 period

at the end of one period

The distance which a wave moves in a periodic time T is the wavelength

Solution:c = v = 3 x 108 m/s = 5 x 103 x 10-10 = 5 x10-7 m c=

Questions and Drills

Unit 1: Waves Chapter 1: Wave Motion

Wave Motion Unit 1:

How does a bat see ?

A bat (ultrasonic radar)

Imaging the embryo

Use of ultrasonic waves for imaging an embryo

Chapter 2: Waves Unit 1:

Reflection and Refraction of Sound:

Firstly: Reflection of Sound:

source cold air

hot air ground hot air at night

cold air ground

Sound travels easier at night

Secondly: Refraction of sound

Therefore, the path difference equals (m + 1 ) , where m is an integer, then we have

Can we see the interference of sound waves ?

Interference fringes between two waves

Interference and diffraction of sound

Firstly: Interference of sound

lines of constructive interference (maximum sound intensity)

lines of destructive interference (minimum sound intensity)

Destructive interference of the waves

The resultant wave is the sum of two waves

Secondly: Sound Diffraction

spreading of sound in the form of concentric spheres

Sound as a wave motion

string and hand at rest