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Authors Declaration
I hereby certify that I am the sole author of this thesis and that no part of this thesis has been published or submitted for publication. I certify that, to the best of my knowledge, my thesis does not infringe upon anyones copyright nor violate any propriety rights and that any ideas, techniques, quotations, or any other material from the work of other people included in my thesis, published or otherwise, are fully acknowledged in accordance with Harvard APA referencing 5th Ed standards. Furthermore, to the extent that I have included copyright material that surpasses the bounds of fair dealing within the meaning of the United Kingdom Copyright Act, I certify that I have obtained a written permission from the copyright owner(s) to include such material(s) in my thesis and have included copies of such copyright clearances to my appendix. I declare that this is a true copy of my thesis, including any final revisions, as approved by the thesis committee at the Architecture School, University of Portsmouth, UK, and that this thesis has not been submitted for a higher degree to any other University or Institution.
Contents
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1.1 - THESIS DESIGN INTRODUCTION 1.2 - FLOODING TYPOLOGIES 1.2 - FLOODING TYPOLOGIES & SITE 1.2 - FLOODING TYPOLOGIES & SITE 1.3 - THE CURRENT POLICY 1.3 -THE CURRENT POLICY 1.3 - THE CURRENT POLICY 1.3 - THE CURRENT POLICY 1.4 - FLOOD RISK 1.4 - FLOOD RISK 1.5- FLOOD RISK RESPONSE CHAPTER 2 - THE RISK 2.1 - THE RISK 2.2 - FLOOD RESISTANCE ECONOMIC RISK 2.2 - FLOOD RESISTANCE ECONOMIC RISK CHAPTER 3 - ARCHITECTURAL & DESIGN SOLUTIONS 3.1 - LANDSCAPE SOLUTIONS 3.1 - LANDSCAPE SOLUTIONS 3.1 - LANDSCAPE SOLUTIONS 3.1 - LANDSCAPE SOLUTIONS 3.1 - LANDSCAPE SOLUTIONS 3.1 - LANDSCAPE SOLUTIONS 3.2 - ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS 3.2 - ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS 3.2 - ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS 3.2 - ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS 3.2 - ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS 3.3 - PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS 3.3 - PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS 3.3 - PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS 3.3 - PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS 3.3 - PRACTICAL SOLUTIONS CHAPTER 4 - CONCLUSION 4.1 - CONCLUSION APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES REFERENCES GLOSSARY P.01 P.02 P.03 P.04 P.05 P.06 P.07 P.08 P.09 P.10 P.11 P.12 P.13 P.14 P.15 P.16 P.17 P.18 P.19 P.20 P.21 P.22 P.23 P.24 P.25 P.26 P.27 P.28 P.29 P.30 P.31 P.32 P.33 P.34 P.35 P.36 P.37 P.38 P.39 P.40 P.41 P.42 P.43 P.44
List of Figures
Figure 01. Tidal Surge Diagram Figure 02. Site Map Figure 03. Flood Levels Portsmouth City Council (2012) Landscape Character Assessment: Portsea Island Coastal Defence Flood Risk Areas, Retrieved January 08, 2013 from http://www.portsmouth.gov. uk/media/LCA_Complete_report_-_Portsea_Island.pdf Figure 04. Open Spaces in Portsmouth Portsmouth City Council (2012) Landscape Character Assessment: Portsea Island Coastal Defence Flood Risk Areas, Retrieved January 08, 2013 from http:// www.portsmouth.gov.uk/media/LCA_Complete_report_-_Portsea_Island.pdf Figure 05. Flooding Typologies RIBA. (2009). Designing for Flood Risk. Retrieved December 10, 2012, from http://www.architecture.com/Files/RIBAHoldings/PolicyAndInternationalRelations/Policy/ Environment/2Designing_for_floodrisk.pdf Figure 06. Portsmouth Coast Defences & Tidal Flooding Portsmouth City Council (2012) Landscape Character Assessment: Portsea Island Coastal Defence Flood Risk Areas, Retrieved January 08, 2013 from http://www.portsmouth.gov.uk/media/LCA_Complete_report_-_Portsea_Island.pdf Figure 07. Section Through Pier, Clarence Parade and Rear Site Figure 08. Panoramic of Portsmouth Esplanade & South Parade Pier Portsmouth City Council (2012) Landscape Character Assessment: Portsea Island Coastal Defence Flood Risk Areas, Retrieved January 08, 2013 from http://www.portsmouth.gov.uk/media/LCA_Complete_report_-_Portsea_Island. pdf Figure 09. Panoramic Brighton Pier and Tiered Flood Defences/Public Space Wessex Tourist Board (2012) Retrieved January 15, 2013, from www.wessex.me.uk Figure 10. Population at risk from 2m sea level rise Jha, A. (2010, January 29). Cost of UK flood protection doubles to 1bn a year. The Guardian, Retrieved November 28, 2012, from http://www. guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/jan/29/cost-of-uk-flood-protection Figure 11. Graph of sea level rise over time Hinton, C., Ian, H., Townend, Nicholls, R.J. (2007). Coastal Process. In C.R. Thorne, E.P. Evans, E.C. Penning-Rowsell (Eds.), Future Flooding and Coastal Erosion Risks (pp. 132-147). London: Thomas Telford Publishing. Figure 12. PICSS Flood Strategy Zones Portsmouth City Council. (2011). Strategy Approval Report: The Portsea Island Coastal Strategy Study. (Version 4). Retrieved December 3, 2012, from Havant Goverment: http://www.havant.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/1.0_Portsea-StAR2_11_FINALExec-Summary_RevC.pdf Figure 13. Flooding Response Strategies Institution of Civil Engineers, & RIBA. (2009). Facing Up to Rising Sea Levels. Retrieved November 29, 2012, from Building Futures: http://www.buildingfutures. org.uk/assets/downloads/Facing_Up_To_Rising_Sea_Levels.pdf Figure 14. Potential Water Encroachment Institution of Civil Engineers, & RIBA. (2009). Facing Up to Rising Sea Levels. Retrieved November 29, 2012, from Building Futures: http://www.buildingfutures. org.uk/assets/downloads/Facing_Up_To_Rising_Sea_Levels.pdf Figure 15. Natural & Urban Catchment Diagrams Susdrain (2012) Retrieved January 06, 2013, http:// www.susdrain.org/images/catchments_resized_png.png Figure 16. Site of Adaption Measures for SLR City of Boston. (2010). A Climate of Progress. Retrieved December 13, 2012, from Boston City: http://www.cityofboston.gov/Images_Documents/A%20 Climate%20of%20Progress%20-%20CAP%20Update%202011_tcm3-25020.pdf Figure 17. Increased Flooding with SLR in Boston City of Boston. (2010). A Climate of Progress. Retrieved December 13, 2012, from Boston City: http://www.cityofboston.gov/Images_ Documents/A%20Climate%20of%20Progress%20-%20CAP%20Update%202011_tcm3-25020.pdf Figure 18. Flood Resistant Architecture Typologies BACA Architects. (2009). LifE: Long Term Initiatives for Flood-risk Environments. Retrieved November 25, 2012, BACA Architects, from http://www.baca. uk.com/#/projects/view/058-6 Figure 19. Lamb Drove Sustainable Drainage Susdrain (2012) Retrieved January 07, 2013, http://www. susdrain.org/images/cs_ld_10.jpg Figure 20. Swale Diagram Susdrain (2012) Retrieved January 06, 2013, http://www.susdrain.org/ images/Swale_Resized.png Figure 21. Infiltration Diagram Susdrain (2012) Retrieved January 06, 2013 http://www.susdrain.org/ delivering-suds/using-suds/benefits-of-suds/flood-risk-management.html Figure 22. Krishna Avanti Primary School - Photographs of Green Roofs Utilized as Part of Drainage Strategy Anthony Coleman (2012) Retrived January 01, 2013, from http://www.archdaily.com/192729/ the-krishna-avanti-primary-school-cottrell-vermeulen-architecture/ Figure 23. Section Describing SUDS Drainage Scheme RIBA. (2007). Living With Water: Visions of a Flooded Future. Retrieved December 03, 2012, from the RIBA: http://www.architecture.com/Files/ RIBAHoldings/PolicyAndInternationalRelations/Policy/Environment/LivingWithWater.pdf Figure 24. Greenwich Riverbank Terrace NPA, (2009) Retrieved January 06,2013, http://www. npaconsult.co.uk/images/projects/1108/538.jpg Figure 25. BACA Architects Proposed Scheme of Flood Resilient Units in Dordrecht BACA Architects. (2009). LifE: Long Term Initiatives for Flood-risk Environments. Retrieved November 25, 2012, BACA Architects, from http://www.baca.uk.com/#/projects/view/058-6 Figure 26. Maasbomel Housing Section Alix Kroger (2007) Dutch pioneer floating eco-homes, Retrieved January 06, 2013, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6405359.stm Figure 27. Maasbomel Housing Photograph Alix Kroger (2007) Dutch pioneer floating eco-homes, Retrieved January 06, 2013, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6405359.stm
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ARCHITECTURE &WATER
A DA M S M IT H 391951 W R ITTE N TH E S IS
The UK is an island with many low lying areas and flooding is a particular problem in low lying, dense urban areas like Portsmouth. In the UK in total there are 490,000 properties at serious risk of flooding which is likely to increase to 830,000 by 2035 due to the effects of climate change on our flooding patterns. (Environment Agency, 2012) In more rural areas flooding is important to our ecosystem as biodiversity in river channels depends on the frequency of flooding. (Watkinson, Nicholls, Sear, & Ledoux, 2007, p. 29) Despite this, these kinds of areas, along with salt marshes can be damaged by infrequent large floods so we should look to provide as stable environment as we are able to when investigating possible flood protection and prevention measures. As we continue to develop flood plains, due to the inflated value of land in some areas of the country it can become a complex task identifying where we should be allowed to build on flood plains e.g. much of Southern London lies on a flood plain but is particularly well protected. (Barclay, 2012, p. 2)
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Trafalgar Bicentenna
Over the course of this piece of writing I will be looking not only at how flooding has Only a small area at Kendalls Wharf on the northeast shore is privately owned land for handling and sorting of shingle aggregates, with a footpath skirting this to affected architecture but also at how it will commercial directly affect my design work.
INTRODUCTION & BACKGROUND
the land side. In addition the eastern end of Eastney beach is owned by the MOD, but public access is allowed. At the farthest point access around the tip is only possible at low tide.
of flinty marine and valley gravels, of gravel and brickearth. Underlying ne of which forms Portsdown Hill h natural fault and cutting (for the M27 down from these hills, where there are
e changed the landform of the island, affected by tidal erosion and rising continue to amend the shoreline, as ore, tidal areas influence greatly the y.
Areas at risk of flood (January 2011) Zone 3 0.5% chance of flood by sea (1 in 200) Zone 2 0.1% chance of flood by sea (1 in Gross dwelling density (dwellings per 100 or more 75 to 100 50 to 75 Land height above sea level (metres) 121 70 25 to 50 Up to 25
h Geological Society Fig. 4 - Portsmouth Topography Source - Urban Characterisation Study PCC Planing Department
Fig. 10 - Portsmouth Open Space Source: Urban Characterisation Study - PCC Planning Department
, and demonstrates how large a part nd 5b illustrate the natural form of the 5c, 5d, and 5e illustrate the harbour illustrates the salt water lake at Hilsea fence purposes to create moats and
30 10 3 0 Population density 2010 (persons per hectare) in output area 150 or more 100 to 150 50 to 100 Up to 50 Protected open space
4 Figure 02 Outlines both of my sites. Figures 03 & 04 show the flood risk across Portsmouth and the distribution of open spaces across the city.
Transport infrastructure Bus priority corridor Railway station Railway line Motorway Major roads Ferry Major junction
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Flood Risk Ground Water flooding typically takes places underlain by aquifers. The flooding is a in Context
Pluvial flooding is caused by rainwater run off from landscape with low levels of absorbency. This type of flooding has inevitably increased in frequency Flooding from rivers, particularly in recognised with greater floodplains, can usually be predicted with urban density and larger urban centres composed, of impermeable good accuracy.primarily, However flash floods from sudden downpours such as those in Carlisle surfaces. This type of flooding is difficult to ofpredict as it often occurs outside of It is often possible to forecast this type continue to challenge the capability of flooding with reasonable accuracy, due to the detection and forecasting systems. recognised flood plains. It can also be quick onset and high level, as such this type predictability of the tide and trackability of Water over about 250mm in depth may low pressure systems. The duration of this of flooding is particularly dangerous. (RIBA, 2009, p. 5) particularly in urban locations carry debris type of flooding is also limited by the cycle
of the tides where drainage is available. and can also be very cold. Even travelling at low speeds this can make it extremely hazardous to people caught in it.
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weather in Britain. During the summers, temperatures average 25C / 77F, peaking at more than 30C / 86F on the sunniest days, with pleasantly warm evenings& due 1.2 -often FLOODING TYPOLOGIES SITE to the urban heat effect of the citys buildings. The Portsdown Hills to the north of the city protect it from the worst of the northerly winds, but its proximity to the English Channel mean that wintersoften tend to be a little wetter in Portsmouth, they remain verywhose mild, Sewer flooding occurs where there combined although storm and foul sewers with temperatures rarely falling below freezing. Furthermore rainfall cansort still of bebackup high in can capacity is exceeded by a high level of surface water run off. This summer months in spite of warm temperatures. also be caused by blockages in the system. There are severe dangers from this type Strong winds from the south-west are somewhat tempered by the Isle of Wight to the can be quick onset and difficult to predict. (RIBA, 2009, p. 5) south, however the seafront is still quite exposed, and is vulnerable to turbulent weather patterns and seasonal storms. The low-lying coastline is prone to flooding, and in coming Infrastructural Flooding can occur where man made structures likeas canals, reservoirs years faces rising sea levels and more unpredictable weather patterns a result of global are overwhelmed by run off. This type of flooding also encompasses systems like climate change.
of flooding, both to property and people through contaminated water. The flooding
The city of Portsmouth is a particularly dense centre of population with a very limited amount of permeable surface for water infiltration meaning that sewer flooding is a clear risk, especially given the combined storm and foul sewer system. The city is also at a greater risk of sewerage flooding from overflowing drains due to the limited capacity of the sewerage network and the Victorian drainage system. (Climate South East, n.d., p. 1) Both of my chosen sites are directly affected by the sea and are at risk of tidal flooding despite the existing defences. One example of such risk when, In March 2008, the tide reached 5.53 metres (2.8 metres above sea level) [...] and caused flooding in Clarence Parade, (Portsmouth City Council, 2012, Summer event at bandstand green,Southsea. 2009 Outdoor cafe terrace, Mozzarella Joesp. 2)
The other half of my chosen site proposal is based on the regeneration and redevelopment of South Parade Pier which sits at a slightly raised elevation from the existing tidal flood defences. I will be looking to try and improve the general 1.6 Historical character of the Overview area through the enhancement of these defences as they are a significant cultural, historical and topographical feature in one the largest areas of A full historical report has beenThrough carried out by Wessex Archaeology of forflood the Initial public space in Portsmouth. a thorough examination defences and Assessment, and should be referred to for a complete background to the archaeology how they affect architecture and our landscape I hope to be able to propose a and history of Portsea Island. It also identifies key assets, potential opportunities and scheme that responds in appropriate manner to the inherent risks of the site as well vulnerabilities. as gaining an understanding of how current systems might be improved.
Figure 07. Section Through Pier, Clarence Parade and Rear Site
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The pier itself is unlikely to be severely affected by rising sea levels and storm surges given its elevation, although the cost of the routine maintenance that needs to take place on pier structures would likely increase. The proposed music venue will be carefully designed using a palette of resistant materials to minimise the effects of strong winds and damp sea air.
Figure 09 shows a set of tiered flood defences on Brighton bridge with Brighton Pier in the background; these defences are an example of how an engineered response to tidal flood risk can contribute to an environment.
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The costs of annual damage from flooding could rise from the present level of approximately 1-2 billion to between 20-70 billion in the worst case scenario. (Evans, Simm, Thorne, Arnell, Ashley, Hess, Lane, Morris, Nicholls, PenningRowsell, Reynard, Saul, Tapsell, Watkinson & Wheater, 2008 p. 51) The cost of flood damages is typically borne by the insurers of a property. The government currently has an agrement in place with the insurers based in the UK to provide flood risk insurance to all properties even if at high risk of flooding. There have however been complaints made about this provision as some see it as an encouragement of construction and dwelling in floodplains. The UK policy on insuring flood prone locations is somewhat uncommon in that the insurance is not government subsidised but rather maintained by a competitive market (cost is managed through cross subsidization (charging higher prices for one group to allow reasonable prices for another group.)) (Parker, 2000, p. 52)
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Portsmouth has already taken one of the more common steps in providing sea front protection, across a large part of the southern boundary of the city, in the long linear park which provides both a possibility for a conservation area and also creates a buffer zone between the built landscape and the water but this is simply one of many necessary measures over the course of the next decade to ensure that flood risk doesnt increase dramatically. Flood risk is typically managed in the construction industry through the completion of flood risk assessments which are either level 1,2 or 3 indicating a rising level of risk. A level 1 assessment will be primarily focussed on surface water run off and preventing and increase in this area. Areas in flood zone 1 will be assessed as having a 1 in 1000 annual likelihood of flooding and the risk assessment would be required of sites exceeding 1 hectare. (Environment Agency, n.d., p. 1) A level 2 assessment incorporates All applications with a site area less than 1 ha in Flood Zone 2 which are: i) more vulnerable; ii) less vulnerable; iii) water compatible development (no accommodation); or iv) essential accommodation for water compatible developments. (Environment Agency b, n.d., p. 1) A level 3 assessment would be looking at an area with a 1 in 100, or higher, annual likelihood of flooding or a 1 in 200 probability of sea flooding anually. As such my site would probably fall into the Level 3 flood risk assessment category. This would require an extensive analysis of the risks presented in the area. (Environment Agency c, n.d., p. 1)
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This is a reserved and measured plan with careful cost analysis of every move proposed but they do propose potential opportunities to enhance Portsmouths urban and natural environment. These opportunities might offer an economic way to offset some of the costs through social and economic benefits to the city. My site falls within the eastern end of Flood cell 1 (shaded in pink) and falls within the current 1 in 200 year flood Figure 12. PICSS Flood Strategy Zones risk area.
April 2011
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Civil Engineers looked at the extreme solutions in Portsmouth if the strategy for flood management was solely based around either retreating, defending or attacking. (Institution of Civil Engineers, RIBA, 2009, p. 24)
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While many schemes actually implemented are likely to encompass all or more than one of these options it is an interesting exercise to look at the extreme hypothetical and then try and generate a practicable solution from that point. This set of schemes seems to tie in with the IPCC coastal zone management sub groups who defined three strategic responses required to protect human life and property from impacts of sea level rise. These schemes were retreat, accommodation (living with flood risk) and protection. (Watson & Adams, 2011, p. 211) The first scheme looks at retreating from the majority of Portsmouths coastline with the conversion of some areas to beach land while the displaced residents can relocate to new settlements built towards Portsdown Hill. The military docks are defended due to their importance to the nation and the economy but otherwise the coastline of Portsmouth is shrunk dramatically. Proposals are made for converting some of the northern floodplain to a salt marsh sheep farm.
riBa and iCe: reproduced with the kind permission of the ordanance survey
To retreat is to step back from the problem To defend is to ensure the sea water does and avoid a potentially catastrophic blow. not enter the existing built environment. it is to move critical infrastructure and This will require built defences to ensure housing to safer ground and to allow the standard of protection will be met the water into the city to alleviate flood in the distant future as sea-levels rise. risk. This is critically different from although it is currently an expensive policy to adopt, can the defences themselves abandonment, as we propose a long-term be designed in a way to make them planned and managed process. economically and commercially viable? Managed retreat, or Managed Many of the hard engineered realignment is a method of removing defences of the 20th century have been or breaching coastal defences, allowing criticised for being unsustainable, reducing tidal seawater to flood areas previously access to water, damaging to coastal protected. The line of defence is then habitats and costly to maintain and improve. relocated landwards. an advantage of this however, they have provided protection is to reduce the flood risk to vulnerable and reduced risk from flooding, allowing sites further inland and along the coast activities to go on uninterrupted in the by moderating the tide and wave energy. built environment. But what if the defences however, the main driver is a reduction of whole-life costs to the defence scheme and themselves served a dual function? For instance, could the defence structure be a increased long-term sustainability. Much part of a commercial development allowing needed inter-tidal habitat is also created, for the developer to benefit from the such as salt-marsh and mud-flats. proximity to water? alternatively, there in retreating, investment in existing are several land uses suitable to locate structures and infrastructure is lost as poRtsmouth RetReats within the inter-tidal zone that could be the area is claimed or reclaimed by the incorporated into a sustainable response sea. new investment must also be made in What iF the Long coastLine suRRounDing poRtsmouth anD its haRbouRs too gReat a Length to DeFenD? We couLD RetReat FRom the FRinges to rising sea-levels, including public relocating communities and becomes infrastructure to the higheR gRounD Within the centRe oF poRtsea isLanD. this Loss oF recreational space. out of harms way. however, money is saved DeveLopeD LanD WouLD neeD to be compensateD FoR anD neW, teRRaceD hiLLsiDe settLements couLD taKe on anD maintain the existing anD gRoWing popuLation. By choosing to defend, the existing by significantly decreased investment in What LanD uses WouLD be appRopRiate at the Wet FRinges oF the citY? built infrastructure of a city is protected flood defences. from floods and does not need to be To date, several pilot sites of relocated to higher ground or rebuilt after managed realignment have been 2025 created 2100 flooding. however, as mentioned above and the monitoring process is showing 01 flood defence is an extremely costly promising results. however, these endeavour. sites were previously free from human 08 07 practice is Currently, defensive habitation. hoW do We reTreaT FroM 07 conducted in a piecemeal fashion, owing to a PoPulaTed area, and one WiTh the number of bodies involved and funding inFrasTruCTure CriTiCal To The available. Could a CiTyWide deFenCe naTion? is it possible and practical to 02 sCheMe Be iMPleMenTed and retreat from such an area? 2050 CreaTiVely FinanCed, ProTeCTinG 06 The CiTy FroM any seVere 06 Tidal Flood? The proposed line of defence is 05 able to hold, advance, or03 retreat the existing line of defence where necessary to accommodate the future needs of the city.
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To attack is to advance and step seaward of the existing coastline. There is massive development potential to be gained for coastal cities by building out onto the water. This further reduces the need to sprawl into the countryside and ensures their sustained social and economic vitality. although it leaves parts of the city still vulnerable to flooding, can the long term benefit of new development outweigh this risk? We have several means of building out onto the water and they have been practiced for centuries. stilts that allow waters to rise, fall and surge underneath inhabitable space have been used on piers around the world, as well as individual buildings. Floating structures, from boats to pontoons, have been used for housing and civil infrastructure. land reclamation is practiced extensively in some parts of the world, creating new land for development. hoW Can These PraCTiCes oF neW Marine deVeloPMenTs Be iMPleMenTed in a susTainaBle Manner? These strategies of attack could unlock a vital planning tool and give flexibility to our extremely dynamic 21st CenTury cities. Moreover, it could encourage a new breed of developers to fill this gap as demand for the prime waterfront sites grows. This commercial competition will need to be matched in long-term management and responsibility. if new development in coastal cities starts to prepare for rising sea-levels now, the livelihood of the city could be maintained for generations to come.
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The major elevated artery connects the mainland and M27 traffic to the shrunken island. it also serves the through-traffic heading to the continent via the ports.
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The hayling island coast is now host to a variety of industries that work with the water; for instance algae farming and alternative energy production.
09 10 after lengthy consultation it was accepted that the loss of some national monuments such as coastal
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9 ADAPTATION
Department of Public Health to determine effective means of partnership. Staff from MassDOT recently joined a Boston City Government-led team that participated in a three-day academy focused on climate adaptation.
Boston City Government is a member of the Metropolitan Area Planning Council (MAPC), the lead organization for regional transportation issues, important in both climate mitigation and adaptation. The MAPC develops for Boston its Natural Hazards Mitigation Plan (see below). Recently, Boston joined a coalition led by the MAPC that received a federal $4-million Sustainable Communities Regional Planning Grant. City Government is working with MAPC on how to include climate change more explicitly in the grant-funded activities ranging from rewriting local zoning bylaws to developing transitoriented neighborhoods.
In the first scenario they proposed a continuation of current development in flood plain and waterfront areas which would result in a cumulative threefold increase in flood area when combined with the expected SLR. The damages costs for a 0.62m rise would be $20 billion or for a 1m rise, $36 billion. These costs include adaptation and emergency costs. The second scenario proposes continued development rate without floodproofing buildings although it is now assumed that after the first 1 in 100 year storm event the region would construct further seawalls and bulkheads to provide further protection to the area. This protection would mitigate flood losses, with damages from a 0.62m sea level rise costing $5.9 billion. The defence construction would cost $3.5 billion and there would be relatively high maintenance costs associated with the scheme along with a large environmental and visual impact on the seafront. The third scheme proposed the new developments in the 100 and 500 year flood plains would be flood proofed using both wet and dryproofing where appropriate. This flood proofing would be implemented for existing residences as well as commercial and industrial buildings being resold. The refitting of the residential properties was estimated to cost between $3500 and $17,000 per property. The total expenditure of flood proofing was estimated at $1.8 billion and the expected damages from a 0.62m sea level rise was $4 billion. (City of Boston, 2010, p. 9) (Watson & Adams, 2011, p. 227)
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CHAPTER 3 - ARCHITECTURAL & DESIGN SOLUTIONS Architectural & Landscape Design Solutions
Through the integration of architectural solutions into our built environment we can start looking towards a solution to flooding in flood prone areas that doesnt negatively affect the existing environment. Unpredictable environmental hazards e.g. The development of levees or dikes around New Orleans, alongside the building of the Harbour Navigation Canal, resulted in the lowering of the water table across the area which in turn caused subsidence in various areas of up to 2.4m. We can look at minimising this type of risk with larger scale environmental solutions and smaller scale architectural solutions. (Karlin & Dunford, 2009, p. 40) Rainwater Harvesting and local storm water use has been generally recommended for use at a household level and avoids the problems offered by complex siphonic (drainage systems operating on the principle of atmospheric pressure differentials) drainage systems which can be difficult to integrate into the main drainage network as the standards for designing these systems are only now being set out. (Tapsell & Ball, 2007, p. 322) (Scott, Wright, & Swaffield, 2004, p. 794) One of the more common ways of managing flood risk is by simply raising all habitable rooms above the base flood level (required by the EA when building on floodplains) .This is generally achieved either by extending the building foundations CASE STUDY: of by extending the external walls, the latter solution isFlood moreRisk commonly seen in Assessment American examples of flood resistant architecture and will generally create a crawl space under the ground flood level. When elevating a building a full storey with parking and garages being placed on the ground floor, there is a problem however with lifeless and uninteresting street elevations. (Watson & Adams, 2011, p. 11) The idea of large landscaped areas being used as water detention areas, which will eventually allow the water to infiltrate back into the ground, has already been covered Resilient but Units man made structures can also serve the same function if carefully designed. carparks, stadia and courtyards all used have the and potential to At higher Underground levels a mix of dryproof and wetproof construction techniques are to resist cope with waterdetention inundation respectively. Secondary accessis decks and escape serve as water areas if the intention planned for. routes are provided above ground floor during times of flood to allow continued use of the property and access for (Sustainable Architecture and Urbanism: Design, Construction, Examples pg 52)
emergency services.
Floating Units
Amphibious Units
Resilient Units
*A swale is a low track of land, generally one that is moist or marshy, the can be either natural or artificially created. They are often used to manage water run off as well as providing greater water infiltration and filtering pollutants from the water that runs into them.
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Figure 15 shows a careful consideration of the falls across every area of the site, most specifically in areas with impermeable surfaces allowing for a complete understanding of the likely water run off direction and accumulation over the site.
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The measures would be primarily focused on the inclusion of permeable surfaces, drainage basins, swales, rainwater harvesting and green roof systems. This should reduce or preferably eliminate any reliance upon Portsmouths drainage system. Infiltration techniques like those mentioned above can be used across a site to facilitate drainage, with porous materials and coverings used in public space to aid drainage, even on cramped sites the inclusion of green roofs or rainwater harvesting can help to reduce surface water run off which can contribute to flooding.
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Figure 22. Krishna Avanti Primary School - Photographs of Green Roofs Utilized as Part of Drainage Strategy
In larger cities the height of the buildings can restrict air movement which can result in the air at street level is renewed frequently enough resulting in a polluted and unhealthy environment with unnaturally high temperatures and low humidity. Through the implementation of green roofs this effect can be reduced; the water retained in the roof will in part evaporate contributing to the levels of humidity in the area while also helping to settle airborne dust. These green roof schemes are encouraged in Germany through tax and planning incentives which help to offset the up front cost of a green roof. (Gauzin, 2002, p. 60) Green roofs are either one of two different types, intensive or extensive. An intensive green roof will have a relatively deep and nutrient rich substrate layer (between 150mm-1000mm) in which a larger scale of planting take place. An extensive green roof will have a shallower substrate layer (between 60mm-150mm) and should be relatively self sustaining. A green roof will improve storm water attenuation and can generally retain between 70 and 80% of rainwater run off, as would be expected ,the greater the thickness of substrate and planting, the greater the water attenuation offered. (Environment Agency b, 2012, table 1) The planting that makes up the roofs also helps to act as a filtering system for the water falling onto the roof helping to remove nitrates from the water. (Sutton Council, n.d., p.12) If considered early on in the development of urban areas we can do our best to encourage the development of large urban green areas Stuttgart is an example of a city with large amounts of green surfaces which help protect from the flooding that the area was previously liable to. (Gauzin, 2002, p. 64) Only 40% of the ground is built on making Stuttgart one of Europes greenest cities, this is achieved by making use of a 8km long green U strip which wraps itself around the major transport hub, the train tracks and station.
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Figure 23. Section Describing SUDS Drainage Scheme
While these defences can be an excellent way of managing the ecological, social and economic aspects of sustainabilty they can also fail to take into account that flooding is larger scale problem. (Tourbier & White, 2007, p. 15) It is recommended that SUDS systems could be amended to include conveyance systems that would help the individual SUDS systems work as a larger scale solution to the problem of exceedance overflows. Then they could be effectively included in a flood management scheme which needs to tackle the overarching issues of prevention, protection, preparedness, emergency response and recovery.
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Figure 25. BACA Architects Proposed Scheme of Flood Resilient Units in Dordrecht
Dry proofing solutions refer to solutions that will prevent water from entering into a property. (Dhonau, & Lamond, 2011, p.293) This type of flood protection is suitable when the flooding is likely to be short term and the majority of damage is caused from the initial flow of water through a property. This method is only suitable for short term flooding because there are many different routes through which water can enter a building. Another approach to waterproofing is called either wet proofing or resilience where water is allowed into the buildings lower level, with plans in place to recover quickly and minimise damage like the use of waterproof coatings and materials that dry quickly and absorb water slowly. This strategy can be employed in most buildings but should be carefully considered as it can damage the structural integrity of the building if the water is evacuated too slowly, these measures are generally used as a back up rather than as primary flood protection measures, although if implemented thoroughly throughout a new build they could represent a possible route to efficient and economic flood protection. (Watson & Adams, 2011, p. 174)
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A sometimes less radical and more economic solution is simply to move the proposed building to elevated ground that lies above the base food elevation. Another option on a site without a natural fall, or where the re-siting of the building would be an impractical option, is a man made hill that can be built with the consultation of geotechnical and structural engineers.
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The house was constructed along American best practice guidelines with an elevated base construction of slab on grade (concrete poured into ground mould over gravel bed, typically used in warmer US climates). It was also built along a continuous path structural design; this construction type requires structural elements laid out on a grid, preferably symmetrically to resist lateral loads. The structural elements should also be on a rectangular grid to minimise torsional forces which can cause deflection and damage non structural elements of the building. The structural materials were also used to provide resistant finishes to the building and an heavy extensive green roof to help reduce run off. (Watson & Adams, 2011, p. 176) One of the primary considerations when building in a flood prone area is the chosen palette of construction materials. (Watson & Adams, 2011, p. 189) A list of some of the more common materials would be comprised of glazed brick, concrete, concrete blocks, stone, steel trusses, naturally decay resistant lumber, recycled plastic lumber , marine grade plywood, clay/concrete/rubber/steel tiles, cement board, cement fibreboard, mastic, silicone, polyurethane, closed cell plastic foam insulation, pvc, water resistant glue, polyester epoxy paint and stainless steel fixings.
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the landscape or to create prototypes for new buildings at risk of flooding. It is possibly of greater importance for most UK residents to look at simpler ideas It is important to know the type of wall in your property and the consequences this has designed to be into standardised construction. I will look at how various during flooding, before carrying out integrated flood improvement measures. There are three common types of wall construction in UK homes: type of common construction practices stand up to flooding and how these practices Cavity walls with bricks and/or blocks Solid brick or masonry walls be improved or better integrated into the construction process in the could possibly Timber framed walls. future.
Type of wall Cavity walls Description Issues
When looking at flood resistance in wall construction there are several weaknesses Present in almost all modern houses, Floodwater can pass in construction weathering that through can cause problems. Firstly and cracks or common after aboutor 1930. the outer leaf of Have an air gap (typically measuring the cavity wall, through intentional gaps, such as weep holes can allow water into a cavity or to permeate between 50 and 100mm wide) between an cracks and gaps. Floodwater can porous seep inner wall and Water an outer wall. a solid wall. can also permeate through building materials and once The walls are constructed of blocks, bricks through the bricks, water has entered a Solid cavity it can travel laterally and can extremely difficult to No cavity. can pass be Outer face Floodwater of timber-framed walls is Timberor stone (each typically about 100mm thick) blocks and mortar. May consist of closely spaced bricks or normally made walls through the solid wall, of brick or masonry framed FloodwaterA can build up and the inner wall may of different extricate. (CIRIA , be 2003, p.2) See Appendix for further details. blocks or stone inner and outer faces with a through cracks and
material to the outer. walls in the cavity, saturate rubble infill. the insulation, and soak into the inner leaf. Cavity allows water to migrate along the walls and can make it difficult to dry out.
F t t g F t b W i f w c W t w S r c d
May have a render coating. gaps, Floodwater can seep through the bricks, blocks and mortar. Will dry out from the internal and external faces, but thick solid walls may take a considerable time to dry. Will only dry out from the internal face if the wall finishes allow. Some solid walls have a rubber infill in the centre; this will delay drying considerably.
F t t g F t b W t t c E t d i a f
Figure 31. Cavity, Solid & Timber Frame Wall Timberframed walls Page 1 of 8
Outer face of timber-framed walls is Floodwater can pass normally made of brick or masonry through the outer leaf How to find out the typethrough of wall cracks and May have a render coating. There are various measures that can be taken a part of common construction 22 as May 2003 gaps. The types of walls the age and style of construction. If the withFloodwater can seep practice to increase the flood resistance of walls. Applying avary breathable sealant is stated in your building survey, or not known by your neighbours or lo through the bricks, one measure which has the benefit that it can beable applied after Raising to find out whatconstruction. type of walls and you mortar. have by looking at the inside a blocks makingwaters, some small, drilled holes. Water can build up in or the DPC will also help prevent the ingress of flood Otherwise external the cavity and soak into internal tanking can be applied to the walls. See Wall Appendix A for further details. surfaces may be covered can hide the main wall material. thewhich inner timber frame can be used to identify the type of material your property is made of: construction. If the outside of the is fair-faced (without wall Exposing the frame andfurther coating) it wall is of brick or stone. the outer leaf to replace damaged boards and internal finishings can assist in drying after Page 2 of 8 flooding if necessary.
How to find out the type of wall The types of walls vary with the age and style of construction. If the type of wall is not stated in your building survey, or not known by your neighbours or local builder, you will be able to find out what type of walls you have by looking at the inside and outside surfaces and making some small, drilled holes. Wall surfaces may be covered which can hide the main wall material. The following methods can be used to identify the type of material your property is made of: If the outside of the wall is fair-faced (without further coating) it should be obvious if the wall is of brick or stone.
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22 May 2003
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There are also various products to prevent back flow from plumbing and resilient materials can be used throughout buildings at risk areas. All points in a buildings walls that could potentially allow for water ingress should be sealed, this can be done either through the use of a complete facade treatment like render or though sealing with foams at specific points e.g. TV & telephone cables. These products provide simple and relatively cost effective ways of providing flood protection in standard domestic settings.
These methods would fall under the heading of resilience measures which are deemed appropriate when a building cannot be moved from the area of possible flooding and when flooding is likely to reach or exceed 600mm. These are all mostly measures that could be easily incorporated into an initial design or into repair work following a flooding even but are often neglected due to a lack of interest in the construction industry. Commercial buildings can be a greater challenge when dealing with flood risk given the open nature of the frontages in many commercial buildings. This can make temporary defensive measures, like flood skirts and other temporary barriers a necessity.
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Drainage Effluents
Effluent ~ can be defined as that which
Roof drainage is a key aspect of dealing with water run off, a primary cause of pluvial flooding.
the earth primarily to lower the water table to level in the subsoil. from storm sewer It is sometimes possible for roof downspouts be disconnected It is considered to be clean and therefore requires no treatment and rather be allowed to discharge into vegetated areas. The land surrounding the and can be discharged direct into an approved water course. building in this situation should be graded away from the building to avoid pooling. Stormwater planters are often placed adjacent to external downspouts to absorb the 2. Surface water ~ effluent collected from surfaces such as roofs roofs run off. These planters should designed to to be allow water and paved areas and like subsoil water be is considered clean and to either infiltrate into the landscape or direct discharge the storm water sewer course to negate can be discharged into into an approved or the possibility of soakaway overflow. 1. Subsoil Water ~ water collected by means of special drains from
The seams between lengths of gutter are also a common area for the system to break and will likely require some maintenance given the forces they are under. Otherwise seamless or continuous gutters which are rolled aluminium profiles which only have seams at the building corners significantly reducing the risk of breakages. (Balmforth, Digiman, Kellagher, & Butler, 2006, p. 100)
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4.1 - CONCLUSION
In terms of an architectural response to my site I will look in part towards what I have written about flood resistant design but I will also look to the local community group we are working with regarding proposals for the existing pier who all have ties to the local area and will serve as a good example of the local knowledge taking precedence over government policies. If this line of research were to continue I would hope that it could be used to produce a practical piece of documentation to provide to those in the construction industry and to the general public that would inform people about flood risk and about potential solutions to their problems. In conclusion it seems as though the temptation of innovation and romanticised schemes associated with water have clouded the role that architects can take in regard to flood risk, with the result that we have a raft of impractical solutions, often involving elevated or raft based structures, when simple measures will often suffice; if these measures could be integrated into common building practice it could easily reduce flood risk and damages over the coming years. This is not to say that we shouldnt look for ways innovatively interact with the water through architecture but rather that these investigations and proposals should take place in a outside the forum of flood recovery and resistance efforts so as not to cloud peoples views. This should allow landscape, urban and practical construction solutions to come to the fore.
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APPENDIX A
Appendix A Wall Construction type Resistance Cavity Walls Water can pass through cracks and gaps e.g. weep holes Water can permeate through porous materials e.g. certain bricks Water can build up in cavity, soak insulation and soak into inner leaf Cavity allows water to move laterally along the wall spreading the damage and making the water difficult to remove. (CIRIA advice sheet 4) Brick walls perform best when the cavity is ventilated properly so complete sealing is often inadvisable but it also makes flooding a greater risk, the CIRIA recommend that this is determined on a case by case basis. (CIRIA , 2003, p.1) Solid walls Water can pass through cracks and gaps Water can permeate through porous materials e.g. certain bricks or blockwork Will dry out eventually from the internal and external exposed faces but this may be a slow process depending on wall thickness and this is dependent on the internal finish. If there is a rubber infill in the centre this can delay drying time (CIRIA , 2003, p.2) Timber Framed Walls Water can pass through cracks and gaps Water can permeate through porous materials Water can build up in cavity and soak into the internal timber frame compromising the structure. Removal of boards due to flood damage can help lower drying times for the framework. (CIRIA , 2003, p.2) Measures for Improving Wall Flood Resistance Apply breathable sealant Raise DPC Tanking involves applying a waterproof layer to floors or walls, most effective when applied to external side of wall or underside of floors although this is obviously not always appropriate. Internal tanking operates in the same way as external tanking but if water does manage to pass through the barrier it will take longer for the wall to dry out. These tankings can be easily perforated by nails or screws e.g. for attaching skirting boards. (CIRIA , 2003, p.5)
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APPENDIX B
Appendix B Internal finishing resistance Gypsum plasterboard is cheap but has little resistance to flooding although it does provide the possible benefit of being relatively easy to remove if it is necessary to try and dry the walls internal structure. Alternate options with greater water resistance include water resistant plaster, lime plaster finish, hydrated lime coatings or ceramic tiles. (CIRIA , 2003, p.7) Ceramic tiles should be level cement or sand layer using water resistant grout. Dont use over layers of gypsum plaster. Plastic and glued on skirtings are less likely to require replacement and will be easier to remove should the wall require ventilation, otherwise treated wood skirting that is covered on all sides Insulation Resistance Lightweight and blown insulation materials are likely to be damaged by flooding and can be particularly difficult to remove. Suggested products are water resistant, low absorption products like polystyrene sheets or self-draining mineral wool slabs. Cavity walls can be filled with closed cell foam which shouldnt be damaged by flooding and can help reduce the penetration of water into the wall. (CIRIA , 2003, p. 8)
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APPENDIX C
Appendix C Window and Door Fittings Resistance Requirements Wherever floodwater must come into contact with glass a robust floor board should be used to protect the glass from the water pressure (deflection could lead to the glass shattering) Wooden frames should be treated with oil based or water proof treatments to prevent warping which could create gaps in the building envelope Various sealants can be used in different situations to fill gaps between 1-50mm wide. For smaller gaps a liquid penetrating sealant may be more appropriate. Floor Type Resistance Suspended timber floors These floors will typically have a vent to the outside to prevent damp from building up underneath the floor. The flood risk here can be reduced by using a periscope ventilator typically used post 1960 The cavities in these floors can be difficult to dry and clear after flooding. Solid concrete slab DPM below slab typically in post 1950s properties Generally stop water rising through the floor and suffer less damage than suspended timber floors. In all solid floors a good connection between DPC and DPM is necessary Suspended concrete floors These are simple beam and block floors that use precast concrete beams set on sleeper walls, the DPC will be placed level with the base of the beams. Like the suspended timber floor the cavity will require cleaning and drying after a severe flooding event. For suspended floors a low point or well can be created in the cavity subfloor, this is particularly effective if a pump is linked to this well to extract the water. Alternatively the void can be filled to water build up. Temporary coverings should be attached with Velcro or hook and eye fixings to allow for easy removal. Floor boards should also be relatively simple to remove.
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REFERENCES
References Ashley, R., Blanksby, J., Chapman, J., & Zhou, J. (2007). Towards Integrated Approaches to Reduce Flood Risk in Urban Areas. In R.M. Ashley (Ed.), Advances in Urban Flood Management (pp. 415-433). Andover: Thomson Publishing Services. Association of British Insurers. (2008). The Summer Floods 2007: one year on and beyond. Retrieved January 02, 2013, from the ABI: www.abi.org.uk/content/ contentfilemanager.aspx?contentid=45757 (Association of British Insurers, 2008, p. 9) BACA Architects. (2009). LifE: Long Term Initiatives for Flood-risk Environments. Retrieved November 25, 2012, BACA Architects, from http://www.baca.uk.com/#/ projects/view/058-6 Balmforth, D., Digiman, C., Kellagher, R., & Butler, D. (2006). Designing for Exceedance in Urban Drainage: good practice. London: CIRIA. (Balmforth, Digiman, Kellagher, & Butler, 2006, p. 149) Barclay, C. (2012). Planning and Flooding. 12/02/2012, from the Parliament: www. parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN04100.pdf Barker, R. (2011). Blue Space Thinking. In Lamond, L.E., Proverbs, D.G., Booth, C.A., Hammond, F.N. (Eds.), Flood Hazards: Impacts and Responses for the Built Environment (pp. 191-206). New York: CRC Press. Benjamin, L.W. (1983) The Art of Designed Environments: The Netherlands. Amsterdam, Stichting Kunst en Bedrijf. Burton, I., Kates, K.W., & White, G.F. (1993). The Environment as Hazard (2nd ed.). New York: The Guildford Press. City of Boston. (2010). A Climate of Progress. Retrieved December 13, 2012, from Boston City: http://www.cityofboston.gov/Images_Documents/A%20Climate%20 of%20Progress%20-%20CAP%20Update%202011_tcm3-25020.pdf Climate South East. (n.d.). Portsmouth Thresholds. Retrieved November 15, 2012, from the Climate South East: http://www.climatesoutheast.org.uk/images/uploads/ Portsmouth_Thresholds.pdf Construction Industry Research and Information Association. (2003). Advice sheet 4: Flood-resilient walls. Retrieved January 10, 2013, from CIRIA : http://www.ciria. org.uk/flooding/pdf/CIRIA_Advice_sheet_4.pdf Construction Industry Research and Information Association b. (2003). Advice sheet 7: Flood-resilient services. Retrieved January 10, 2013, from CIRIA : http://www. ciria.org.uk/flooding/pdf/CIRIA_Advice_sheet_7.pdf
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Construction Industry Research and Information Association. (2003). RP664: Model agreements for sustainable water management systems. Retrieved November 29, year, from the Name of CIRIA: http://www.ciria.org.uk/suds/pdf/ciria_rp664_ legislation_review.pdf Dhonau, M., Lamond, J.E. (2011). Flooding in the Built Environment: Changing Risk and an Overview of Impacts. In Lamond, L.E., Proverbs, D.G., Booth, C.A., Hammond, F.N. (Eds.), Flood Hazards: Impacts and Responses for the Built Environment (pp. 291-305). New York: CRC Press. Environment Agency. (n.d.). Flood Risk Assessment: Guidance Note 1. . Retrieved January 10, 2012, from the Environment Agency: http://www.environment-agency. gov.uk/static/documents/Research/FRAGuidanceNote1.pdf Environment Agency b. (n.d.). Flood Risk Assessment: Guidance Note 2. . Retrieved January 10, 2012, from the Environment Agency: http://www.environment-agency. gov.uk/static/documents/Research/FRAGuidanceNote2.pdf Environment Agency b. (n.d.). Flood Risk Assessment: Guidance Note 3. . Retrieved January 10, 2012, from the Environment Agency: http://www.environment-agency. gov.uk/static/documents/Research/FRAGuidanceNote3.pdf Environment Agency. (2006). Building a Better Environment: A guide for developers. Retrieved November 28, 2012, from the Environment Agency: http://www. environment-agency.gov.uk/static/documents/1_GETH1106BLNE-e-e%281%29. pdf Environment Agency [EA]. (2009). Investing for the Future: Flood and coastal risk management in England. Retrieved 01,01,2013, from the Environment Agency: www.environment-agency.gov.uk Environment Agency. (2010). Case study Surface water flooding in London, July 2007. Retrieved January 06, 2013, http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/ library/publications/115643.aspx Environment Agency. (2012). Climate change explained. 12,16,2012, from http:// www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/climatechange/31802.aspx Environment Agency b. (2012). EA Green Roof Toolkit. Retrieved January 01, 2012, from Environment Agency: http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/business/ sectors/92088.aspx. Evans, E.P., Simm, J.D., Thorne, C.R., Arnell, N.W., Ashley, R.M., Hess, T.M., Lane, S.N., Morris, J., Nicholls, R.J., Penning-Rowsell, E.C., Reynard, N.S., Saul, A.J., Tapsell, S.M., Watkinson, A.R., Wheater, H.S. (2008) An update of the Foresight Future Flooding 2004 qualitative risk analysis. Cabinet Office, London. Gauzin, M.D. (2002). Sustainable Architecture and Urbanism: Design, Construction, Examples. Basel: Birkhauser - Publishers for Architecture.
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Hoeksema, R. (2006). Designed for Dry Feet : Flood Protection and Land Reclamation in the Netherlands. Retrieved January 05, 2013, http://site.ebrary.com/ lib/portsmouth/Doc?id=10435358&ppg=14 Han, D., Davis, J., Hu, Z., Lan, G., Maren, E. Twyman, C. (2002). Design Studies on Flood-Proof House. Retrieved December 18, 2012, from the University of Bristol: http://www.bris.ac.uk/civilengineering/research/water/projects/flood-proof-house. pdf Hinton, C., Ian, H., Townend, Nicholls, R.J. (2007). Coastal Process. In C.R. Thorne, E.P. Evans, E.C. Penning-Rowsell (Eds.), Future Flooding and Coastal Erosion Risks (pp. 132-147). London: Thomas Telford Publishing. Harrison, H.W., Saunders, G.K., & Trotman, P.M. (2009). Roofs and roofing: performance, diagnosis, maintenance, repair and the avoidance of defects (3rd ed.). Garston: IHS BRE Press 2009. Hawbaker, L. (2011). Living on Water. Retrieved November 30, 2012, from http:// tyglobalist.org/front-page/theme/living-on-water/ HM Government. (2010). Planning Policy Statement 25: Development and Flood Risk. Retrieved December 01, 2012, from the Government UK: https:// www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/7772/ pps25guideupdate.pdf HM Government. (2012). National Planning Policy Framework. . Retrieved December 21, 2012, from the Government UK: https://www.gov.uk/government/ uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/6077/2116950.pdf HM Government. (2012). Policy Context. Retrieved January 15, 2013, http://www.local.gov.uk/web/guest/local-flood-risk-management/-/journal_ content/56/10171/3572110/ARTICLE-TEMPLATE#building Institution of Civil Engineers, & RIBA. (2009). Facing Up to Rising Sea Levels. Retrieved November 29, 2012, from Building Futures: http://www.buildingfutures. org.uk/assets/downloads/Facing_Up_To_Rising_Sea_Levels.pdf Jha, A. (2010, January 29). Cost of UK flood protection doubles to 1bn a year. The Guardian, Retrieved November 28, 2012, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/ environment/2010/jan/29/cost-of-uk-flood-protection. Karlin, A., & Dunford, L. (2009). New Orleans: City Guide. London: Lonely Planet. Lamond, L.E., Proverbs, D.G., Booth, C.A., Hammond, F.N., (2011). Flooding in the Built Environment: Changing Risk and an Overview of Impacts. In Lamond, L.E., Proverbs, D.G., Booth, C.A., Hammond, F.N. (Eds.), Flood Hazards: Impacts and Responses for the Built Environment (pp. 1-9). New York: CRC Press.
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Morphosis Architects. (2012). The FLOAT House. Retrieved December 07, 2012, http://www.archdaily.com/259629/make-it-right-house-morphosis-architects/ Morris, J., Wheater, H. (2007). Catchment land-use. In C.R. Thorne, E.P. Evans, E.C. Penning-Rowsell (Eds.), Future Flooding and Coastal Erosion Risks (pp. 6480). London: Thomas Telford Publishing. Parker, D.J. (2000). Floods Volume II. London: Routledge. Portsmouth City Council. (2011). Strategy Approval Report: The Portsea Island Coastal Strategy Study. (Version 4). Retrieved December 3, 2012, from Havant Goverment: http://www.havant.gov.uk/sites/default/files/documents/1.0_PortseaStAR2_11_FINAL-Exec-Summary_RevC.pdf Portsmouth City Council. (2012). Headline Summary - How the Climate Will Change. Retrieved 12/15/2012, from the Portsmouth City Council: http://www.portsmouth. gov.uk/media/Headline_summary_final.pdf RIBA. (2007). Living With Water: Visions of a Flooded Future. Retrieved December 03, 2012, from the RIBA: http://www.architecture.com/Files/RIBAHoldings/ PolicyAndInternationalRelations/Policy/Environment/LivingWithWater.pdf RIBA. (2009). Designing for Flood Risk. Retrieved December 10, 2012, from Architecture RIBA: http://www.architecture.com/Files/RIBAHoldings/ PolicyAndInternationalRelations/Policy/Environment/2Designing_for_floodrisk.pdf Scott, A., Wright, G., & Swaffield, J. (2004). Operational performance of siphonic roof drainage systems. Retrieved January 20, 2013, from Heriott Watt: Ihttp://web. sbe.hw.ac.uk/staffprofiles/bdgsa/Scott%20Arthur%20Papers/Building%20and%20 Environment%20-%20Operational%20performance%20of%20siphonic%20 roof%20drainage%20systems%20Arthur%20Wright%20Swaffield.pdf Southern Water. (2012). Overview Portsmouth. Retrieved January 02, 2013, from http://mediacentre.southernwater.co.uk/media-centre/in-your-region/portsmouth/ overview Sutton Council (n.d.). Three Green Space Measures. Retrieved January 07, 2013, from Sutton Council: http://www.sutton.gov.uk/CHttpHandler.ashx?id=16149&p=0 Tapsell, S., Ball, D. (2007). Flood Event Management. In C.R. Thorne, E.P. Evans, E.C. Penning-Rowsell (Eds.), Future Flooding and Coastal Erosion Risks (pp. 320338). London: Thomas Telford Publishing. Thorne C.R., Evans E.P., Penning-Rowsell E.C. (2007). Introduction. In C.R. Thorne, E.P. Evans, E.C. Penning-Rowsell (Eds.), Future Flooding and Coastal Erosion Risks (pp. 3-11). London: Thomas Telford Publishing.
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Tourbier, J.T., White, I. (2007). Sustainable Measures for Flood Attenuation: Sustainable Drainage and Conveyance Systems SUDACs. In R.M. Ashley (Ed.), Advances in Urban Flood Management (pp. 13-29). Andover: Thomson Publishing Services. Watkinson, A.R., Nicholls, R.J., Sear, D.A.,& Ledoux, L. (2007). Environmental Impacts of Future Flood Risk. In C.R. Thorne, E.P. Evans, E.C. Penning-Rowsell (Eds.), Future Flooding and Coastal Erosion Risks (pp. 29-44). London: Thomas Telford Publishing. Watson, D., Adams, M. (2011). Design for Flooding: Architecture, Landscape, and Urban Design for Resilience to Climate Change. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
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GLOSSARY
Glossary Alphabetically arranged list of specialist terms, abbreviations and acronyms used in this essay. CIRIA - EA - FCERM - IPPC - MAFF - PICSS - PPG - PPS - SLR - SUDS - Construction Industry Research and Information Association Environment Agency Flood and Coastal Erosion Risk Management Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food The Portsea Island Costal Strategy Study Planning Policy Guidelines Planning Policy Statement Sea Level Rise Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems
Aquifers - Underground layer of water bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated material e.g. gravel Swale - Swales are grass lined channels which transport rainwater from a site as well as controlling flow and quality of surface runoff. Some of the flow infiltrates into the groun. There may be an overflow at the end into another form of infiltration device or a watercourse. They are particularly suitable for treatment of runoff from small residential development, parking areas and roads. (BR Document H pg48)
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