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Steps Involved
Step 1: Draw the position-step diagram. Position-step diagram is used to represent
movement of drive elements. In position-step diagram the X-axis represents steps i.e., the
sequence of operation is divided into a number of steps which are expressed as 1, 2, 3, 4
etc. The Y-axis represents position and is indicated as 0, 1. The functional lines are drawn
in thick lines and they determine the position of the driving unit. Any change of position
of a member has to start or stop at a corner of the squares.
Step 2: From the position-step diagram, the number of stepping units are decided.
Step 3: Draw the cylinders and their memory valves (D.C.Vs). Connect the memories to
the cylinders.
Step 4: Draw the step-counters.
Step 5: Draw the position sequence valves.
Step 6: Connect the stepping units and valves.
b. Pressure switches Pressure switches open or close their contacts based on system
pressure. They generally have high pressure and low pressure settings
c. Limit Switches Limit switches, open and close circuits when they are actuated either at
the end of the retraction or extension stroke of hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders. The
limit switches are mechanically actuated by various elements like plunger, cams, roller
and levers. The speed at which the limit switch is operated is very important from the
control point of view.
The symbols for limit switches are
Relays
• Relays are switches whose contacts (one or more) open or close when their
corresponding coils are energised. Relays are used for energising and de-
energising solenoids which operate at a high current level.
• A low voltage circuit can be used to energise relay coils which control the high
voltage contacts used to open and close the circuits containing solenoids.
• As shown in the figure, when i- SW is closed, the coil is energised. This pulls on
the spring loaded relay arm to open the upper set of normally closed contacts and
close the lower set of normally open contacts.
Regenerative Circuit
• A regenerative circuit is used to speed up the extending speed of a double acting
hydraulic cylinder.
• The figure illustrates a regenerative circuit controlled with two solenoid valves, a
pressure switch and two check valves.
The circuit operation is as follows
i) When switch 1-SW is manually turned to the extend position, solenoid A is energised
which causes the cylinder to extend.
ii) Oil from the rod end flows through check valve 4 tojoin the incoming oil from the
pump to provide a rapid cylinder extension in the regenerative condition.
iii) When oil pressure builds up due to loadings on the cylinder, it actuates a normally
open pressure switch I-PS. As a result, coil 1-CR and solenoid C become energised. Rod
end oil is vented directly back to the oil tank throughi valve 2. As a result, the cylinder
extends slowly as it drives a high resistive load. Relay contact 1-CR-A provides a holding
circuit for relay coil 1-CR and
Microelectronic Control of Fluid Power
PLC Construction
• A PLC can be defined as a digital electronic device that uses a programmable
memory to store instructions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and
arithmetic to control machines or proce,sses.
• It is a software based instrument and hence it can be programmed using an easy-
to-learn programming language.
The three basic elements of PLC are
I. Central processing unit (CPU) with an associated memory
2. Input modules
3. Output modules
Central Processing Unit
• The CPU receives input signals from the various input modules and based on the
programs stored in the memory, decides on the appropriate signals, which it
transmits to the respective output modules.
Memory
In choosing a PLC, the available memory capacity plays an important role. The different
memory types used in PLC of both volatile and non-volatile type are given below.
1. RAM (Random access memory) — Volatile to — prograimdevelopment
2. Read/Write memory—Non volatile
3. ROM (Read only memory) —Non-volatile to store execution program
4. PROM (Programmable read only memory)
5. EPROM (Erasable PROM)
6. I3EPROM (Electrically erasable PROM)
Programming The PLC
• PLC is programmed by means of a programming device. The programming
device is usually detachable from the PLC and it can be shared between the
different controllers.
• Different devices ranging from simple teach pendent type devices to special
programmed keyboards and CRT displays are adopted.
• Most of the programming methods used today for PLCs are based on the ladder
logic diagram. There are various approaches for entering the program into the
PLC.
1. Ladder diagram based
2. Low-level language based on Boolean expressions
3. Functional blocks
4. High-level languages
Ladder Diagram Based
• The ladder logic diagram is converted into a PLC ladder diagram by using the
conventions of PLC ladder diagram construction.
This method requires the use of a keyboard and a CRT with limited graphic capability to
display the symbols, representing components and their inter-relationships in the ladder
logic diagram.
Low-Level Language Based on Boolean Functions
• The second method makes use of tow-level language using the Boolean AND,
OR, NOT functions.
• Using the language instructions, the programmer constructs the ladder diagram by
specify the various components and their relationships for each rung. Some
common instructions are
Functional Blocks
• Functional blocks provide another means to input high-level instructions.
However the format in which the instructions are entered is the same as the ladder
logic diagram.
• The instructions are composed of operational blocks. Each block has one or more
input and output. Within the block, certain operations take place on the inputs to
transform the signals into the desired outputs.
• The functional blocks include operations such as timers and counters, control
computations using equations, data manipulations and data transfer to other
computer based systems.
High-Level Languages
• The principal advantage offered by the high-level language for programming the
PLC is their capability to perform data processing and calculations on values
other than binary.
• This permits the use of a more complex control algorithm for communication with
computer based systems and to display the data on a CRT control.
PLC Operation
• In the PLC, the program steps defined by the ladder diagrams are executed
simultaneously and continuously. First the inputs to the PLC are sampled by the
processor and the contents are stored in memory. Next the control program is
executed.
• The input values stored in memory are used in the control logic calculations to
determine the value of the output. Finally the outputs are updated to agree with
the calculated values.
• This cycle consisting of reading inputs, executing the control program and
revising the outputs is referred to as a scan.
Microprocessor Construction
• The word microprocessor is popularly used when referring to a microcomputer.
But a microprocessor forms only a part of a microcomputer and must be used
along with other devices.
• The basic elements of a microcomputer are (i) Microprocessor (ii) Memory (iii)
Input/output device (iv) Power supply. This system is on a single board and it is
interfaced with the fluid power system and provided with a power supply and a
program. A typical arrangement of a microcomputer is shown in Fig 16.4.
Microprocessor
• The microprocessor is the brain of a microcomputer. Microprocessors are
described as large scale integrated circuits.
• This is due to the many thousands of tiny electronic circuits from which they are
made. However, to use them they are represented by groups of registers each with
its own purpose. Typically a register consists of 8 bits.
Memory
• The memory of a microcomputer holds the program or programs currently being
used and provides storage for information such as input values, results of
calculations etc.
DC Power Supplies
• A complete fluid power system with a microcomputer will require various power
supplies at different voltage levels. For example, atypical microcomputer needs a
stable supp of 5V while a solenoid will have a moderately stable 24V DC supply
or even an AC voltage supply.
• Power provided by the mains need to be converted to produce DC voltage. There
are two main types of power supply.
1. Linear (low frequency)
2. Switch mode (high frequency)
Bus
• An interconnecting structure of the microcomputer is called the bus. An 8-bit
microprocessor will have 8 lines for transferring words of data, perhaps 16 lines
for carrying a memory address and a few lines for control and power supply.
• Data are transferred through the bus system to the various devices. Information on
the locations of the addresses are transferred via the address bus.
Interfacing
• Microcomputers usually work with different levels ofvoltage and currents than
those used by sensors and actuators. The means of effecting the connection
between items which are not directly compatible is called interfacing.
• For example, the microcomputer is incapable of driving the solenoid directly and
an interface is needed.
Programming the Microprocessor
A microprocessor can be programmed using either a low-level language or a high-level
language or a combination of the two.
Low-Level Language Programming
• Both machine code and assembly language are commonly referred to as low-level
language.
• Machine code is the one that the microprocessor executes. Hexadecimal (HEX)
number system is used for this.
• As the hexadecimal number is to a base of 16, the digits are from Ito 9 and A, B,
C, D, E, F are used to represent the rest of the numbers upto 16. Assembly
language is a symbolic or mnemonic form of machine code.
High-Level Language Programming
• There are many high-level languages available. A program which is written in
high- level language is the easiest and therefore cheaper to produce.
• In applications concerning control and monitoring of machinery, it is invariably
found that certain portions of the program require precise time or extra speed.
• In these circumstances, it may be necessary to write these portions as subroutines
in machine code and then insert them into the program in high-level language. As
processing speed of processors increases so the proportion of programming
needed to be done in machine code will decrease.
• A high-level language must also be translated into machine code. This is done by
a program called a ‘compiler’ or alternatively executed at the time of use by a
program called an ‘interpreter’.
Microprocessor Operation
• Microprocessor does its work by moving data or information between itself, the
memory and the 1/0 device. It performs simple logical operations on data.
• The sequence in which it performs the operations is stored in the memory. Data
are coded in the form of binary digits called bits.
• Information is handled in units of a fixed number of bits called bytes. The rate at
which a microprocessor executes instructions is governed by a timing device
referred to as a clock.
Difference Between PlCs And Microcomputers
• The question usually is whether to use a microcomputer or a PLC. So it might be
useflul to know the difference between PLCs and microcomputers.