Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6

2010/201
1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration (Model: FM 24)
apparatus consists of a classical Venturi made of clear acrylic. A
series of wall tappings allow measurement of the static pressure
distribution along the converging duct, while a total head tube is
provided to traverse along the centre line of the test section.
These tappings are connected to a manometer bank
incorporating a manifold with air bleed valve. Pressurization of
the manometers is facilitated by a hand pump.
This unit has been designed to be used with a Hydraulics Bench
for students to study the characteristics of flow through both
converging and diverging sections. During the experiment, water
is fed through a hose connector and students may control the
flow rate of the water by adjusting a flow regulator valve at the
outlet of the test section.
The venturi can be demonstrated as a means of flow
measurement and the discharge coefficient can be determined.
This test section can be used to demonstrate those
circumstances to which Bernoullis Theorem may be applied as
well as in other circumstances where the theorem is not
sufficient to describe the fluid behavior.
1
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
2.0 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The unit is mounted on a base board which is to be placed on top
of the Hydraulic Bench (Model: FM110). This base board has four
adjustable feet to level the apparatus.
The main test section is an accurately machined acrylic venturi of
varying circular cross section. It is provided with a number of side
hole pressure tappings, which are connected to the manometer
tubes on the rig. These tappings allow the measurement of static
pressure head simultaneously at each of 6 sections. The tapping
positions and the test section diameters are shown in Appendix
A. The test section incorporates two unions, one at either end, to
facilitate reversal for convergent or divergent testing as
illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
Gland Nut
Hypodermic probe
Adjustable feet Test section Water inlet
Unions
Manometer tubes
Air bleed screw
Figure 1: Front View of Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Unit (Model:
FM24)
Additional tapping
Flow control valve
Water outlet

Figure 2: Top View of Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration Unit (Model: FM24)
2
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
A hypodermic tube, the total pressure head probe, is provided
which may be positioned to read the total pressure head at any
section of the duct. This total pressure head probe may be
moved after slacking the gland nut; this nut should be re-
tightened by hand after adjustment. An additional tapping is
provided to facilitate setting up. All eight pressure tapings are
connected to a bank of pressurized manometer tubes.
Pressurization of the manometers is facilitated by connecting any
hand pump to the inlet valve on the manometer manifold.
The unit is connected to the hydraulic bench using flexible hoses.
The hoses and the connections are equipped with rapid action
couplings. The flexible hose attached to the outlet pipe which
should be directed to the volumetric measuring tank on the
hydraulics bench. A flow control valve is incorporated
downstream of the test section. Flow rate and pressure in the
apparatus may be varied independently by adjustment of the
flow control valve and the bench supply control valve.
Please familiarize with the unit before operating the unit. The unit
consists of the followings:
a) Venturi
The venturi meter is made of transparent acrylic with the
following specifications:
Throat diameter : 16 mm
Upstream Diameter : 26 mm
Designed Flow Rate : 20 LPM
b) Manometer
There are eight manometer tubes; each length 320 mm, for
static pressure and total head measuring along the venturi
meter.
The manometer tubes are connected to an air bleed screw for
air release as well as tubes pressurization.
c) Baseboard
The baseboard is epoxy coated and designed with 4 height
adjustable stands to level the venturi meter.
d) Discharge valve
One discharge valve is installed at the venturi discharge
section for flow rate control.
e) Connections
Hose Connections are installed at both inlet and outlet.
f) Hydraulic Bench
Sump tank : 120 litres
3
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
Volumetric tank : 100 litres
Centrifugal pump : 0.37 kW, 50 LPM
4
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
2.1 Parts Identification
Figure 3: Parts Identification Diagram
1. Manometer Tubes 6. Flow Control Valve
2. Test Section 7. Gland Nut
3. Water Inlet 8. Hypodermic Probe
4. Unions 9. Adjustable Feet
5. Air Bleed Screw
5
5
1
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
3.0 SUMMARY OF THEORY
3.1 Derivation Using Streamline Coordinates
Eulers equation for steady flow along a streamline is
s
v
V
s
z
g
s
p

1
(3.1)
If a fluid particle moves a distance, ds, along a streamline,
pressure) in change (the dp ds
s
p

(3.2)
elevation) in change (the dz ds
s
z

(3.3)

speed) in change (the dV ds
s
V

(3.4)
Thus, after multiplying Equation 3.1 by ds,
or 0 + + gdz VdV

dp
VdV gdz
dp

(3.5)
Integration of this equation gives:

+ + constant gz
V dp
2
2

(3.6)
The relation between pressure and density must be applied
in this equation. For the special case of incompressible
flow, = constant, and Equation 3.6 becomes the
Bernoullis Equation.
constant
2
2
+ + gz
V p

(3.7)
Restrictions:
i. Steady flow
ii. Incompressible flow
iii. Frictionless flow
iv. Flow along a streamline
6
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
3.2 Bernoullis Law
Bernoulli's law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing
along a pipe of varying cross section, then the pressure is
lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher, and the
pressure is higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid
stagnate. Many people find this situation paradoxical when
they first encounter it (higher velocity, lower pressure).
This is expressed with the following equation:
Constant + +
*
h z
g
v
g
p
2
2

(3.8)
Where,
p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section
= Density of the flowing fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with
respect to a datum
h* = Total (stagnation) head
The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation
represent the pressure head (h), velocity head (h
v
), and
elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is
known as the total head (h
*
). According to the Bernoullis
theorem of fluid flow through a pipe, the total head h
*
at
any cross section is constant. In a real flow due to friction
and other imperfections, as well as measurement
uncertainties, the results will deviate from the theoretical
ones.
In our experimental setup, the centerline of all the cross
sections we are considering lie on the same horizontal
plane (which we may choose as the datum, z = 0, and thus,
all the z values are zeros so that the above equation
reduces to:
Constant +
*
h
g
v
g
p
2
2

(3.9)
This represents the total head at a cross section.
For the experiments, the pressure head is denoted as h
i
and the total head as h
*
i
, where i represents the cross
sections at different tapping points.
3.3 Static, Stagnation and Dynamic Pressures
7
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
The pressure, p, which we have used in deriving the
Bernoullis equation, Equation 3.7, is the thermodynamic
pressure; it is commonly called the static pressure. The
static pressure is that pressure which would be measured
by an instrument moving with the flow. However, such a
measurement is rather difficult to make in a practical
situation.
As we know, there was no pressure variation normal to
straight streamlines. This fact makes it possible to measure
the static pressure in a flowing fluid using a wall pressure
tapping, placed in a region where the flow streamlines are
straight, as shown in Figure 4 (a). The pressure tap is a
small hole, drilled carefully in the wall, with its axis
perpendicular to the surface. If the hole is perpendicular to
the duct wall and free from burrs, accurate measurements
of static pressure can be made by connecting the tap to a
suitable pressure measuring instrument.
Flow
streamlines
Pressure
tap
(a) Wall pressure tap
Flow
Small holes
Stem
To manometer or
pressure gage
(b) Static pressure probe
(a) Wall Pressure Tapping
Flow
streamlines
Pressure
tap
(a) Wall pressure tap
Flow
Small holes
Stem
To manometer or
pressure gage
(b) Static pressure probe
(b) Wall Pressure Tapping
Figure 4: Measurement of Static Pressure
8
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
In a fluid stream far from a wall, or where streamlines are
curved, accurate static pressure measurements can be
made by careful use of a static pressure probe, shown in
Figure 4 (b). Such probes must be designed so that the
measuring holes are place correctly with respect to the
probe tip and stem to avoid erroneous results. In use, the
measuring section must be aligned with the local flow
direction.
Static pressure probes or any variety of forms are available
commercially in sizes as small as 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) in
diameter. The stagnation pressure is obtained when a
flowing fluid is decelerated to zero speed by a frictionless
process. In incompressible flow, the Bernoulli Equation can
be used to relate changes in speed and pressure along a
streamline for such a process. Neglecting elevation
differences, Equation 3.7 becomes
constant +
2
2
v p

(3.10)
If the static pressure is p at a point in the flow where the
speed is v, then the stagnation pressure, P
o
, where the
stagnation speed, V
o
, is zero, may be computed from
2 2
2 2
V p V p
o o
+ +

(3.11)
Therefore,
2
2
1
V p p
o
+
(3.12)
Equation 3.12 is a mathematical statement of stagnation
pressure, valid for incompressible flow. The term V
generally is the dynamic pressure. Solving the dynamic
pressure gives:
p p V
o

2
2
1

(3.13)
Or
( )

p p
V
o

2
(3.14)
Thus, if the stagnation pressure and the static pressure
could be measured at a point, Equation 3.14 would give the
local flow speed.
9
0
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
To manometer or
pressure gage
Small hole
Flow
Figure 5: Measurement of Stagnation Pressure
(b) Pitot-static tube
Flow
Small holes
Stem
(a) Total head tube used
with wall static tap
Flow
p po
p
B
C
po
A
Total
head
tube
(a) Total Head Tube Used with Wall Static Tap
(b) Pitot-static tube
Flow
Small holes
Stem
(a) Total head tube used
with wall static tap
Flow
p po
p
B
C
po
A
Total
head
tube
(a) Pitot-Static Tube
Figure 6: Simultaneous Measurement of Stagnation and Static
Pressures
Stagnation pressure is measured in the laboratory using a
probe with a hole that faces directly upstream as shown in
Figure 5. Such a probe is called a stagnation pressure
probe (hypodermic probe) or Pitot (pronounced pea-toe)
tube. Again, the measuring section must be aligned with
the local flow direction.
10
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
We have seen that static pressure at a point can be
measured with a static pressure tap or probe (Figure 4). If
we know the stagnation pressure at the same point, then
the flow speed could be computed from Equation 3.14. Two
possible experimental setups are shown in Figure 6.
In Figure 6(a), the static pressure corresponding to point A
is read from the wall static pressure tap. The stagnation
pressure is measured directly at A by the total head tube,
as shown. (The stem of the total head tube is placed
downstream from the measurement location to minimize
disturbance of the local flow)
Two probes often are combined, as in the Pitot-static tube
shown in Figure 6(b). The inner tube is used to measure the
stagnation pressure at point B, while the static pressure at
C is sensed using the tapping on the wall. In flow fields
where the static pressure variation in the streamwise
direction is small, the Pitot-static tube may be used to infer
the speed at point B in the flow by assuming p
B
=p
C
and
using Equation 3.14. (Note that when p
B
p
C
, this
procedure will give erroneous results)
Remember that the Bernoulli equation applies only for
incompressible flow (Mach number, M 0.3).
Note:
c
u
Ma
(3.15)
where,
u = fluid velocity
c = sonic velocity
3.4 Pressure Varies Along the Pipe
A number of factors can cause for pressure to vary along
the pipe such as:
Friction from the pipes inner surface,
The diameter of the pipe; if it is small the pressure
is lower because the velocity is increased (Bernoullis
Theory),
Density of the fluid in the pipe,
The height of the pipe at which the pipe stands or
the height at which the flow through i.e. gravity,
Turbulence of the fluid
11
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
3.5 Venturi Meter
The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential
pressure gauge. The venturi tube has a converging portion,
a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the figure
below. The function of the converging portion is to increase
the velocity of the fluid and lower its static pressure. A
pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus
developed, which pressure difference is correlated with the
rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the
area of the stream back to the entrance area and convert
velocity head into pressure head.
Figure 7: The Venturi Tube


Assume incompressible flow and no frictional losses, from
Bernoullis Equation
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
Z
g
v p
Z
g
v p
+ + + +

(3.16)
Use of the continuity Equation Q = A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
, equation
(1) becomes
1
1
]
1

,
_

2
1
2
2
2
2 1
1
2
2 1
A
A
g
Z Z
p p

(3.17)
Ideally,

2 / 1
2 1
2 / 1
2
1
2
2 2 2
2 1
2 1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

Z Z
p p
g
A
A
A V A Q
i

(3.18)
However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be
expected to be less than that given by equation (3.18)
12
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
because of frictional effects and consequent head loss
between inlet and throat. Therefore,
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
2
2 1
2 1
1
1
]
1

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

Z Z
p p
g
A
A
A C Q
d a

(3.19)
In metering practice, this non-ideality is accounted by
insertion of an experimentally determined discharge
coefficient, C
d
that is termed as the coefficient of
discharge. With Z
1
= Z
2
in this apparatus, the discharge
coefficient is determined as follow:
i
a
d
Q
Q
C
(3.20)
Discharge coefficient, C
d
usually lies in the range between
0.9 and 0.99.
13
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
4.1 General Start-up Procedures
The Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration (Model: FM 24) is
supplied ready for use and only requires connection to the
Hydraulic Bench (Model: FM 110) as follows:
1. Ensure that the clear acrylic test
section is installed with the converging section
upstream. Also check that the unions are tighten (hand
tight only). If necessary to dismantle the test section
then the total pressure probe must be withdrawn fully
(but not pulled out of its guide in the downstream
coupling) before releasing the couplings.
2. Locate the apparatus on the flat top of
the bench.
3. Attach a spirit level to baseboard and
level the unit on top of the bench by adjusting the feet.
4. Fill water into the volumetric tank of
the hydraulic bench until approximately 90% full.
5. Connect the flexible inlet tube using
the quick release coupling in the bed of the channel.
6. Connect a flexible hose to the outlet
and make sure that it is directed into the channel.
7. Partially open the outlet flow control
valve at the Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration unit.
8. Fully close the bench flow control
valve, V1 then switch on the pump.
9. Gradually open V1 and allow the
piping to fill with water until all air has been expelled
from the system.
10. Also check for Trapped Bubbles in
the glass tube or plastic transfer tube. You would need
to remove them from the system for better accuracy.
Note:
To remove air bubbles, you will have to bleed the air out
as follow:
i. Get a pen or screw driver to press the air bleed valve
at the top right side of manometer board.
ii. Press air bleed valve lightly to allow fluid and trapped
air to escape out. (Take care or you will wet yourself
or the premise).
Allow sufficient time for bleeding until all bubbles
escape.
11. At this point, you will see water
flowing into the venturi and discharge into the collection
tank of hydraulic bench.
14
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
12. Proceed to increase the water
flowrate. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there
is no trapped bubble, start to close the discharge valve
to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow
rate.
13. You will see that water level in the
manometer tubes will begin to display different level of
water heights. If the water level in the manometer board
is too low where it is out of visible point, open V1 to
increase the static pressure. If the water level is too
high, open the outlet control valve to lower the static
pressure.
Note: The water level can be adjusted facilitate by the
air bleed valve.
14. Adjust V1 and outlet control valve to
obtain a flow through the test section and observe that
the static pressure profile along the converging and
diverging sections is indicated on its respective
manometers. The total head pressure along the venture
tube can be measured by traversing the hypodermic
tube.
Note:
The manometer tube connected to the tapping adjacent
to the outlet flow control valve is used as a datum when
setting up equivalent conditions for flow through test
section.
15. The actual flow of water can be
measured using the volumetric tank with a stop watch.
4.2 Discharge Coefficient Determination
Objective: To determine the discharge coefficient of the
venturi meter
Procedures:
1. Perform the General Start-up Procedures in Section 4.1.
2. Withdraw the hypodermic tube from the test section.
15
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
3. Adjust the discharge valve to the maximum measurable
flow rate of the venturi. This is achieved when tube 1
and 3 give the maximum observable water head
difference.
Note: Refer to the venturi specification for the designed
flow rate.
4. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate
using volumetric method and record the manometers
reading.
5. Repeat step 4 with at least three decreasing flow rates
by regulating the venturi discharge valve.
6. Obtain the actual flow rate, Q
a
from the volumetric flow
measurement method.
7. Calculate the ideal flow rate, Q
i
from the head difference
between h
1
and h
3
using Equation 3.18.
8. Plot Q
a
Vs Q
i
and finally obtain the discharge coefficient,
C
d
which is the slope.
Results:
Volum
e (L)
Tim
e
(s)
Q
a

(L
P
M)
Water Head (mm)
h
A
h
B
h
C
h
D
h
E
h
F
16
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
4.3 Flow Rate Measurement with Venturi Meter
Objective: To measure flow rate with venturi meter
Procedures:
1. Perform the General Start-up Procedures in Section 4.1.
2. Withdraw the hypodermic tube from the test section.
3. Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow
rate.
4. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate
using volumetric method and record the manometers
reading.
5. Repeat step 4 with three other decreasing flow rates by
regulating the venturi discharge valve.
6. Calculate the venturi meter flow rate of each data by
applying the discharge coefficient obtained.
7. Compare the volumetric flow rate with venturi meter
flow rate.
Results:
Volum
e (L)
Tim
e
(s)
Q
a

(LPM
)
Water Head (mm)
h
A
h
B
h
C
h
D
h
E
h
F
4.4 Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration
Objective: To demonstrate Bernoullis Theorem
17
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
Procedures:
1. Perform the General Start-up Procedures in Section 4.1.
2. Check that all manometer tubings are properly
connected to the corresponding pressure taps and are
air-bubble free.
3. Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow
rate.
4. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate
using volumetric method.
5. Gently slide the hypodermic tube (total head measuring)
connected to manometer #G, so that its end reaches
the cross section of the Venturi tube at #A. Wait for
some time and note down the readings from manometer
#G and #A. The reading shown by manometer #G is the
sum of the static head and velocity heads, i.e. the total
(or stagnation) head (h
*
), because the hypodermic tube
is held against the flow of fluid forcing it to a stop (zero
velocity). The reading in manometer #A measures just
the pressure head (h
i
) because it is connected to the
Venturi tube pressure tap, which does not obstruct the
flow, thus measuring the flow static pressure.
6. Repeat step 5 for other cross sections (#B, #C, #D, #E
and #F).
7. Repeat step 3 to 6 with three other decreasing flow
rates by regulating the venturi discharge valve.
8. Calculate the velocity, V
iB
using the Bernoullis equation
where;
) ( 2
8 i iB
h h g V
9. Calculate the velocity, V
iC
using the continuity equation
where
V
iC
= Q
av
/ A
i
10. Determined the difference between two calculated
velocities.
Results:
Cross
Sectio
n
Using Bernoulli equation
Using
Continuity
equation
Differe
nce
i
h*=h
G
(mm
)
h
i
(mm
)
V
iB
=
[2*g*(h
*
-
h
i
)]
(m/s)
A
i
=
D
i
2
/
4
(m
2
)
V
iC
=
Q
av
/
A
i
(m/s
)
V
iB
-V
iC
(m/s)
A
B
C
D
18
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
E
F
* Please refer to Appendix C for Cross Section
Diameter
4.5 General Shut-down Procedures
1. Close water supply valve and venturi discharge valve.
2. Turn off the water supply pump.
3. Drain off water from the unit when not in use.
19
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
5.0 MAINTENANCE AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not
in use. The apparatus should be stored properly to prevent
damage.
2. Any manometer tube, which does not fill with water or slow
fill, indicates that tapping or connection of the manometer is
blocked. To remove the obstacle, disconnect the flexible
connection tube and blow through.
3. The apparatus should not be exposed to any shock and
stresses.
4. Always wear protective clothing, shoes, helmet and goggles
throughout the laboratory session.
5. Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and
procedures.
20
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
6.0 REFERENCES
Applied Fluid Mechanics 5th Edition, Robert L. Mott, Prentice-Hall
Elementary Fluid Mechanics 7
th
Edition, Robert L. Street, Gary Z.
Watters, John K. Vennard, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Fluid mechanics 4th Edition, Reynold C. Binder
Fluid Mechanics with applications, Anthony Esposito, Prentice-
Hall International Inc.
21
Thermal-Fluid Engineering Lab Semester 6
2010/201
1
APPENDIX C Venturi Meter Drawing
22