Mechanics of Materials Laboratory

Principal Stresses and Strains

David Clark
Group C:
David Clark

Jacob Parton

Zachary Tyler

Andrew Smith

10/13/2006
 Abstract
Principal stress refers to the magnitudes of stress that occur on certain planes
aligned with a solid body of which they occur. For a rectangular beam, a corner of the
beam could be thought of as the origin of this coordinate system with each of the planes
parallel to the three touching faces of the beam at that point. In the following experiment,
two principal stresses and strains were determined using a rosette, an array of three strain
gauges. When a 3.77 lb load was applied to a beam measuring 1" x 0.125" x 11.250"
demonstrated a principal strain of 1528 and -463 με longitudinally and laterally
(respectively) at 1 inch from the clamp. The stress was therefore calculated to be 15.9 and
0.0 ksi longitudinally and laterally (respectively) at the same position.

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 Table of Contents
1. Introduction & Background............................................................4
1.1. General Background..............................................................4
1.2. Determination of Principal Stresses.......................................4
2. Equipment and Procedure............................................................6
2.1. Equipment..............................................................................6
2.2. Experiment Setup...................................................................6
2.3. Initial Calibration.....................................................................7
2.4. Procedure...............................................................................7
3. Data, Analysis & Calculations.......................................................7
3.1. Known information..................................................................7
3.2. Gage Readings.......................................................................8
3.3. Further Calculations...............................................................8
4. Results........................................................................................10
5. Conclusions.................................................................................10
6. References..................................................................................10
7. Raw Notes...................................................................................11

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1. Introduction & Background

1.1.General Background

When a cantilever beam experiences a single load, the magnitude of the stress can
be modeled as a directional result. Since stress is difficult to visualize, an important
relation to help explain this phenomenon is the relation between stress and strain. Since
strain can be seen visually, it is easy to confirm the amount of strain occurring
longitudinally is far greater than the lateral strain. The same is true of stress.

Principal stresses refer to the magnitudes of stress that occur on certain planes
within a solid body. This coordinate system is aligned such that no shear stresses occur
along these principal planes. For a rectangular beam, a corner of the beam could be
thought of as the origin of this coordinate system with each of the planes parallel to the
three touching faces of the beam at that point.

1.2.Determination of Principal Stresses

Principal stresses can be determined simply by aligning strain gages along axis.
The procedure below explains how to use a rosette, an array of strain gages placed in
different orientations around a single point, to determine principal strains.

Figure 1

To perform the required analysis, consider a rectangular rosette with an axis

aligned to one of the gages. The strain at any angle can be found using a set of
expressions in the form of the following.

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 εx +εy εx −εy
εθ = + cos(2θ ) + γ xy sin( 2θ )
2 2

Equation 1

Applying Equation 1 to each of the three gages with θ measured counterclockwise

from the x axis, expressions for 1, 2, 3 can be formed.

For a rectangular rosette, the two principal strains along the two-dimensional
surface is characterized by

ε1 + ε 3 1
ε p ,q = ± (ε1 − ε 2 ) 2 + (ε 2 − ε 3 ) 2
2 2

Equation 2

and

1 2ε − ε 1 − ε 3
θ p ,q = tan −1 2
2 ε1 − ε 3

Equation 3

Stress can commonly be calculated by using Hooke's Law. Since the strains
measured are not aligned with the load and resulting stress, the generalized form of
Hooke's Law is used.

σp =
E
(ε p + v ⋅ ε q )
1− v2

Equation 4

and

σq =
E
(ε q + v ⋅ ε p )
1− v2

Equation 5

where E is the elastic modulus.

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2. Equipment and Procedure

2.1.Equipment

1. Cantilever flexure frame: A simple apparatus to hold a rectangular beam

at one end while allowing flexing of the specimen upon the addition of a
downward force.

2. Metal beam: In this experiment, 2024-T6 aluminum was tested. The beam
should be fairly rectangular, thin, and long. Specific dimensions are
dependant to the size of the cantilever flexure frame and available weights.

3. P-3500 strain indicator: Any equivalent device that accurately translates

to the output of strain gages into units of strain.

4. One rectangular rosette:

5. Micrometers and calipers:

2.2.Experiment Setup

The specimen should be secured in the flexure frame such that an applied force
can be placed perpendicular and opposite of the securing end of the fixture. A rosette
containing three strain gages should be mounted as shown in figure one. In this setup, θp
and θq are known.

Figure 2

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 2.3.Initial Calibration

Record the dimensions of the beam, as well as the gage factor for each strain
gage. Strain gage specifications are usually provided by the manufacturer. Before any
deflection is added on the beam, the strain indicator should be calibrated using the gage
factor the gage 1 (labeled below.) Since there is no forced deflection, the indicator should
be balanced such that a zero readout is achieved.

2.4.Procedure

Utilizing a quarter bridge configuration, measure and record each of the

individual strain gage readings. The gage factor should be readjusted if the gage factor
varies for any of the gages.

After the last gage result has been measured, a known load should be applied to a
point. This location should be at a known length from the clamp of the flexure fixture, as
well as be located in the center of the bar laterally.

The strain for each gage should be measured in reverse order. It is important that
the gage factor be readjusted for each location. Upon completion of recording the
measurements, the load should be removed from the bar and the indicator should return
to the initial zero reading.

3. Data, Analysis & Calculations

3.1.Known information

The applied load was 3.77 pounds.

The following table catalogs other known information within this experiment
setup.

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 Beam Dimensions Gage Factors Orientation Angles
(inches) ((ΔR/R) / Strain) (degrees)
b= 1.000 Sg1 = 2.060 Tp = 30
t= 0.125 Sg2 = 2.075 Tq = 120
x= 1.000 Sg3 = 2.060
L= 11.250

Table 1

3.2.Gage Readings

Gage Initial Final

1 0 1018
2 -90 1314
3 -401 -343

Table 2

To find the strain induced by the deflection, the net strain was found by,

ε n = ε n , final − ε n ,initial

Equation 6

The table below catalogs the net strains by each gage.

Gage Net Strain

1 1018
2 1404
3 58

Table 3

3.3.Further Calculations

The principal strains εp and εq, is found using Equation 2.

1018 + 58 1
εp = + (1018 − 1404) 2 + (1404 − 58) 2 = 1528 µε
2 2

Equation 7

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 1018 + 58 1
εq = − (1018 − 1404) 2 + (1404 − 58) 2 = −463 µε
2 2

Equation 8

Poisson's ratio is defined as the lateral strain divided by the longitudinal strain.
Expressed mathematically,

εq − 463
v= = = 0.303
εp 1528

Equation 9

Equation 3 is used to determine the angle between Gage 1 and the principal axes.

1 2 * 1404 − 1018 − 58
θp = tan −1 = 30.5 
2 1018 − 58

Equation 10

The stress along the principal axes is determined from the generalized Hooke's
Law, as expressed in Equation 4 and 5.

10.4 × 10 6
σp =
1 − 0.303 2
( )
1528 × 10 −6 + 0.303 ⋅ −463 × 10 −6 = 15.9 ksi

Equation 11

10.4 × 10 6
σq = (
− 463 × 10 −6 + 0.303 ⋅ 1528 × 10 −6 = 0.00ksi)
1 − 0.303 2

Equation 12

As a comparison, theory can be used in calculating the principal stresses.

6 ⋅ P ⋅ ( L − x ) 6 ⋅ 3.77 ⋅ (11.250 − 1.000)

σ longitudinal = = = 14.8 × 10 3 psi
b⋅t 2
1.000 ⋅ 0.125 2

Equation 13

σ lateral = 0 psi

Equation 14

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4. Results
Utilizing Equation 1, εp and εq were found to be 1528 and -463 με respectively.
This corresponds to a Poisson's ratio of 0.303. This corresponds to a 1% error from the
theoretical value 0.3. Possible sources for this error is the uncertainty of the machine, and
imperfections in the adhesive used to secure the strain gage.

The angle at which the gage was placed was calculated to be 30.5º, which varies
by 1.67%.

Utilizing Hooke's Law, the longitudinal and lateral strain was calculated to be
15.9 and 0 ksi respectively. Though the lateral stress contains no error, the longitudinal
stress exhibited a 7.43% error from the theoretical 14.8 ksi.

5. Conclusions
The results generated within this experiment demonstrated high integrity when
compared against the theoretical values, and therefore are acceptable for a starting point
in design verification. The rosette is a powerful tool for determining stress along a 2-D
plane.

6. References
Gilbert, J. A and C. L. Carmen. "Chapter 8 – Cantilever Flexure Test." MAE/CE 370 –
Mechanics of Materials Laboratory Manual. June 2000.

Kuphaldt, Tony R. (2003). "Chapter 9 – Electrical Instrumentation Signals."

AllAboutCircuits.com. Retrieved September 19, 2006, from Internet:
"http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_1/chpt_9/7.html

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7. Raw Notes

Figure 3

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Figure 4

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Figure 5

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Figure 6

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