Forces and Friction

Investigation Lab:
Coefficients of Static and Kinetic
Friction

Michael Mohamed
SPH4U0-C
March 20th, 2009
INTRODUCTION:
In the study of Newtonian physics is it is useful to consider almost all
objects which are not within a vacuum to be subject to the force of friction; in
this usage ‘friction’ refers to the overall effect that can be approximated in
terms of applied forces by various particles colliding against the object while
they are in contact. These forces are typically used in applying resisting
forces against objects in motion, as to adhere them to the surfaces that they
are lateral to, or in contact with through a motion. An example of this might
be air particle friction; when an object moves through a medium comprised
of air, the particles of that air colliding against the object, creating a resisting
force in the opposite direction of the motion. Because of this, the effect of
terminal velocity takes place whereby an object moving with a constant force
acting on it (for example, gravity) can only attain a certain speed while in a
medium of air due to the forces of air particle friction acting on it in the
opposite direction.

There are two main types of friction for objects that are relevant to
objects that are placed with their surfaces in contact, excluding the air
particle friction force. One is static friction; this can be described as the
friction which keeps a body that is not moving resistant to forces that could
potentially put it in motion. The force needed to overcome static friction is
specific for two objects of specific material types, as well as the mass of the
object with a force being applied to it; when static friction is overcome the
object will enter motion of some kind. While the object is in motion, there is
still friction acting on it which resists it from moving with acceleration; while
this force is not overcome the object will remain at a constant speed. This is
known as kinetic friction; when it is overcome the object will begin moving in
non-uniform motion, with the force affecting the acceleration being the
difference between the applied force and the force of kinetic friction.

In both cases, the force of friction can be related by a coefficient which

is specific to the two materials in contact; this force is equal to the applied
force needed to overcome each type of friction divided by the normal force
acting on the object, and it is represented by the symbol μ. For example, the
coefficient of kinetic friction can be described as the force needed to be
overcome in order to cause an object to move non-uniformly divided by the
normal force acting on the object, or μK = FK/FN. Similarly, the coefficient of
static friction can be described as the force needed to overcome inertia on a
non-moving object divided by the normal force acting on the object, or μS =
FS/FN. These coefficients are useful in calculating the total force on an object
against a surface where the materials of the surface and the object are
known.

PURPOSE:
The purpose of this lab was to investigate various ways of calculating
coefficients of static and kinetic friction through experiments both using and
not using Newton scales. The question of how one can measure static friction
in two ways is addressed and the results of the experiments compared. For
static friction, a comparison was made between the calculated coefficient
using a Newton scale and the coefficient calculated without a Newton scale;
percent difference was calculated to try and show possible sources of error
from one compared to the other. A comparison was also made from the
calculated coefficients of static friction, as the coefficient of kinetic friction is
typically of a lower value.
METHOD:
Experiment 1 - Static Friction without Newton scale:
1. A measured plywood surface was attached to a retort stand by a retort
clamp at a very low height above the surface of the table it was placed
on.
2. The plywood was attached such that it would form a right angle
triangle with the retort stand perpendicular to the table, with an acute
angle formed between the plywood and the table.
3. A massed textbook was placed onto the very top edge of the plywood
surface. Because of the low height of the retort clamp to the table, the
textbook was stable and did not move.
4. A ruler was held against the retort stand, and the clamp itself was
loosened to allow for adjustment.
5. The retort clamp was raised higher and higher in very small
increments, causing the angle formed between the end of the plywood
and the table to increase.
6. When the retort clamp reached a height at which the textbook began
to fall down the slope formed by the plywood surface, the retort clamp
was tightened and the ruler held against the retort stand was used to
measure the height of the top of the plywood to the table.
7. Steps 5 and 6 were repeated 4 times more to ensure accuracy of
measurements.

Experiment 2 - Static Friction with a Newton Scale

1. A measured piece of plywood was attached to a retort stand by a retort
clamp at a low height from the table that it was resting on.
2. A massed textbook was tied to a piece of string going through the
middle of the book, and then placed on top of the plywood surface.
3. The height from the top of the plywood surface relative to the table it
was resting on was measured.
4. Using a Newton scale attached to the string going through the
textbook, an applied force was measured pulling in the direction
upwards the slope of the plywood surface; the force was not high
enough to move the textbook.
5. The force applied was slowly increased while the measurement of the
force was monitored closely. At the point when the textbook began to
 move, the force applied decreased. The force that was measured
before the textbook began to move was measured.
6. Steps 4 and 5 were repeated 4 times more to ensure accuracy of
measurements.
Experiment 3 - Kinetic Friction with a Newton scale:
1. A measured plywood surface was attached to a retort stand by a retort
clamp held at a low height from the surface of the table it was resting
on.
2. The height of the plywood surface from the table was measured.
3. A massed textbook was attached to a tied string going through the
middle of the book.
4. The textbook was place on the inclined plywood and a Newton scale
was attached to the string going through the textbook.
5. An applied force was used to drag the textbook up the inclined surface
using the Newton scale, the force applied was measured.
6. Step 5 was repeated four times to ensure accuracy.
MATERIALS:

retort clamp retort stand

textbook string
sheet of plywood Newton scale
mass scale ruler
calculator pencil

OBSERVATIONS:
Table 1 - Static Friction without Newton Scale
Measurement Value
 Length of plywood 84.2 cm
Mass of textbook 2.005 kg
1st height measure 24.6 cm
2nd height measured 25.4 cm
3rd height measured 24.9 cm
4th height measured 24.8 cm
5th height measured 24.8 cm
Average height measured 24.9 cm

Table 2 - Static Friction with Newton Scale

Measurement Value
Length of plywood 84.2 cm
Mass of textbook 2.005 kg
Height above table 19.3 cm
1st Newton scale reading 11.4 N
2nd Newton scale reading 11.5 N
3rd Newton scale reading 11.7 N
4th Newton scale reading 11.9 N
5th Newton scale reading 11.5 N
Average Newton scale reading 11.6 N

Table 3 - Kinetic Friction with Newton Scale

Measurement Value
Length of plywood 84.2 cm
Mass of textbook 2.005 kg
Height above table 19.3 cm
1st Newton scale reading 9.3 N
2nd Newton scale reading 9.5 N
3rd Newton scale reading 9.8 N
4th Newton scale reading 10.0 N
5th Newton scale reading 8.9 N
Average Newton scale reading 9.5 N

RESULTS:
Results 1 - Static Friction without Newton scale:
In this case, one value that can be found is the amount of force acting
on the textbook in the positive direction of the x-axis, this should be equal to
the frictional force acting upon the textbook in the negative direction of the x
axis at that time. When the specific angle was reached at which the textbook
began to move, the force was enough to just overcome the force of static
friction. Using the height above the ground and the length of the plywood,
Pythagorean Theorem can provide the angle of the plywood’s incline; this
angle is all that is needed to find the coefficient of friction.
 Normal Force:
Force of Static Friction:
Force of Gravity:
Acceleration due to Gravity:
Mass of textbook:
Coefficient of Static Friction:
FG) = tan(θ)
Angle of Incline:
FN = -FGy = -(cos(θ) * FG)
FS = -FGx = -(sin(θ) * FG)
FG = g * m
g = 9.8 m/s2 [down]
m = 2.005 kg
μS = FS/FS = (sin(θ) * FG) / (cos(θ) *
θ = sin-1(24.9 cm/84.2 cm) = 17o

Therefore μS = tan(17) = 0.306

Results 2 – Static Friction with a Newton Scale:

In this case the force being applied to the object by the Newton scale
should be equal to the force acting on the object in the positive direction, the
force of gravity in the x-axis and the force of static friction.
Force Applied: FA = -(FGx+FS)
Force of Gravity: FG = 9.8 m/s2 * 2.005 kg = 19.649 N
Angle of Incline: θ = sin-1(19.3/84.2) = 13.251o
Force of Gravity in x-axis: FGx = sin(θ) * FG = -4.304 N
Force of Static Friction: FS = -(FGx+FA) = -(-4.304 N + 11.6N) =
-7.296 N
Normal Force: FN = -FGy = cos(θ) * FG = -19.126 N
Coefficient of Static Friction: μS = FS/FN =7.296/19.126 = 0.371

As can be seen, there is some difference in the values for μS found.

Results 3 – Kinetic Friction with Newton Scale:
In this experiment, while the object moves at a constant speed up the
incline, the force applied should be equal to the sum of the force of gravity in
the x-axis and the force of kinetic friction. Using the angle of incline, this
along with the normal force can be found; the two can then be divided to
provide the coefficient of kinetic friction.
Angle of Incline: θ = 13.251o
Normal Force: FN = -19.126 N
Force of Gravity in x-axis: FGx = -4.304 N
Force of Kinetic Friction: FK = -(FGx + FA) = -(-4.304 + 9.5) =
-5.196 N
Coefficient of Kinetic Friction: μK = FK/FN = 5.196/19.126 = 0.272
 Therefore μK < μS

DISCUSSION:
Interpretation of Results
The results from this experiment follow the trend seen in the vast
majority of objects with a friction force between them; the coefficient of
static friction is higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction. The results are
realistic in terms of being a coefficient of friction between wood and paper.
However, the 2nd experiment had a much higher coefficient of static friction
found as compared to that of the 1st experiment; this shows that between
one of the two experiments there was a source of error.

Possible Sources of Error

The most common source of error would be the fact that a person was
the one applying the force measured on the Newton scales as well as a
person reading the scale as motion was taking place; the fact that the
coefficient of static friction is overcome at a very exact measure of force
made it difficult to accurately read on a Newton scale while the change in
force between static and kinetic friction was instantaneous. Another source
of error would be the equipment used: the textbook was used to measure
friction against the plywood was used and uneven on either side of the cover
with many areas of dirt, indents, or torn paper. The Newton scales used
themselves were very well used and had a slightly unstable calibrating
mechanism. The string used to tie the scale to the textbook may not have
been perfectly even, dividing out the force to one side of the textbook more
than the other, uneven as compared to the straight two dimensional
diagrams used to calculate the coefficients.

Percent Difference between Experiments 1 and 2

μS % Diff = 2|x1-x2|/(x1+x2) * 100 = 2|0.371-0.306|/(0.371+0.306) * 100
= 19.2%
This percent difference is taken due to the difference between the values of
μS calculated. This shows that the percent difference is fairly high; due to the
aforementioned difficulties with measuring coefficients of static friction using
a Newton scale, the results of the first experiment (μS = 0.306) should be
considered the more accurate result of the two.

CONCLUSION:
In terms of investigating coefficients of friction, a few things can be
noted. The first is that while using a Newton scale may provide a measured
amount of force being applied to the object, the recoil caused by the switch
from static to kinetic friction (due to the object being forced out of stability)
tends to make measuring the force applied difficult. In comparison, a method
of measuring static friction while only measuring the angle of the inclined
surface that it is on as the gravitational force pulls it down provides a simple
means of calculating the coefficient without much measurement or
calculation (μS = tanθ). When these results were compared to those of the
coefficient of kinetic friction, the measurement using a Newton scale is
roughly accurate; reading the Newton scale is not difficult as the force
applied remains constant at a magnitude that is equal to the force of kinetic
friction, causing uniform motion. The coefficient of kinetic friction can be said
to be calculated with rough accuracy, and as expected it is lower than the
coefficient of static friction calculated. Overall, the conclusion can be made
that using a Newton scale works well for measuring kinetic friction, and
poorly for measuring static friction.