Gauss' Law for Electricity

• The electric flux out of any closed surface is

proportional to the total charge enclosed within
the surface.
• The integral form of Gauss’ Law finds application
in calculating electric fields around charged
objects.
• In applying Gauss' law to the electric field of a
point charge, one can show that it is consistent
with Coulomb’s law.
• While the area integral of the electric field gives
a measure of the net charge enclosed,
The divergence of the electric field gives a measure of the
density of sources.
.
It also has implications for the conservation of charge
 QUICK QUIZ 1
Consider the electric fields E1 at a distance r1  and E2 at a distance r2 from 
the center of a uniformly charged insulating sphere of total positive charge Q and 
radius a.  If the radius of the sphere were suddenly doubled and the total charge Q 
were now uniformly spread throughout this new volume, the electric fields at the same 
locations, r1 and r2, would be
 a) E1 and E2, 
 b) 2E1 and E2,
 c) E1/2 and E2, 
 d) E1/8 and E2,
 e) E1/2 and 2E2, or
 f) E1/8 and 8E2.   
 
 Answer (d)
The electric field inside the sphere is proportional
to the charge density and the distance from the
center of the sphere. The distance does not
change but the charge density is reduced by a
factor of 8 (since the volume increases by a
factor of 8) when the radius increases by a factor
of 2. Outside the sphere, since the total charge
has not changed and the distance has not
changed, Gauss’s law shows that the electric
field must remain the same.
 QUICK QUIZ 2
A conducting spherical shell (below) is 
concentric with a solid conducting 
sphere.  Initially, each conductor carries 
zero net charge.  A charge of +2Q is 
placed on the inner surface of the 
spherical shell.  After equilibrium is 
achieved, the charges on the surface of 
the solid sphere, q1, the inner surface of 
the spherical shell, q2, and the outer 
surface of the spherical shell, q3, are 
a) q1 = ­Q, q2 = +Q, q3 = +Q
b) q1 = 0, q2 = 0, q3 = +2Q
c) q1 = 0, q2 = +2Q, q3 = 0
d) q1 = +Q, q2 = ­Q, q3 = +3Q
 Answer (b)
• (b). Since the electric field inside the spherical conducting shell is zero, the
net charge contained in a gaussian surface inside the shell that encloses
the charges q1 and q2 will be zero. Since the solid sphere had initially zero
net charge, from charge conservation, it will remain with zero net charge.
Therefore, q1 must be zero, and since q1 + q2 = 0, q2 must also equal zero.
The +2Q excess charge on the spherical shell will migrate to the outer
surface of the shell. This is consistent with the fact that like charges repel
and will spread as far apart from one another as possible.
 Quick Quiz 3

Suppose the radius of a sphere (radius 1.00 m, with a charge

of +1.00 μC at its center) is changed to 0.500 m. What
happens to the flux through the sphere and the magnitude of
the electric field at the surface of the sphere?
(a) The flux and field both increase.
(b) The flux and field both decrease.
(c) The flux increases and the field decreases.
(d) The flux decreases and the field increases.
(e) The flux remains the same and the field increases.
(f) The flux decreases and the field remains the same.
Answer: (e).
The same number of field lines pass
through a sphere of any size. Because
points on the surface of the sphere are
closer to the charge, the field is stronger.
 Quick Quiz 4.

In a charge-free region of space, a closed container is

placed in an electric field. A requirement for the total
electric flux through the surface of the container to be zero
is that
(a) the field must be uniform
(b) the container must be symmetric
(c) the container must be oriented in a certain way
(d) The requirement does not exist – the total electric flux is
zero no matter what.
Answer: (d).
All field lines that enter the container
also leave the container so that the total flux is
zero, regardless of the nature of the field or the container.
 Quick Quiz 5

If the net flux through a gaussian surface is zero, the

following four statements could be true. Which of the
statements must be true?
(a) There are no charges inside the surface.
(b) The net charge inside the surface is zero.
(c) The electric field is zero everywhere on the surface.
(d) The number of electric field lines entering the surface
equals the number leaving the surface.
Answer: (b) and (d).
Statement (a) is not necessarily true because an equal number
of positive and negative charges could be present inside the
surface. Statement (c) is not necessarily true, a nonzero electric
field exists everywhere on the surface, but the charge is not
enclosed within the surface; thus, the net flux is zero.
 Quick Quiz 6

Consider the charge distribution shown in the figure. The

charges contributing to the total electric flux through surface
S’ are
(a) q1 only

(b) q4 only

(c) q2 and q3

(d) all four charges

(e) none of the charges
Answer: (c).
The charges q1 and q4 are outside the
surface and contribute zero net flux through S’.
 Quick Quiz 7

Again consider the charge distribution shown in this figure.

The charges contributing to the total electric field at a
chosen point on the surface S’ are
(a) q1 only

(b) q4 only

(c) q2 and q3

(d) all four charges

(e) none of the charges
Answer: (d).
We don't need the surfaces to
realize that any given point in space will
experience an electric field due to all local source charges
 Problem1
• A spherical shell is placed in a uniform
electric field. Find the total electric flux
through the shell.
• Answer: zero
 Problem 2
• (a) A point charge q is located a distance d from
an infinite plane. Determine the electric flux
through the plane due to the point charge. (b) A
point charge q is located a very small distance
from the center of a very large square on the line
perpendicular to the square and going through
its center. Determine the approximate electric
flux through the square due to the point charge.
(c) Explain why the answers to parts (a) and (b)
are identical.
• Answer: (a) q/2ε0; (b) q/2ε0; (c) The plane and
the square look the same to the charge.
 Gauss' Law for Magnetism
The net magnetic flux out of any closed surface is zero. This amounts to a statement
about the sources of magnetic field.

For a magnetic dipole, any closed surface the magnetic flux directed inward toward
the south pole will equal the flux outward from the north pole. The net flux will always
be zero for dipole sources.

If there were a magnetic monopole source, this would give a non-zero area integral.

The divergence of a vector field is proportional to the point source density, so the
form of Gauss' law for magnetic fields is then a statement that there are no magnetic
monopoles.
 Problem 3
The following charges are located inside a submarine:
5.00μC, -9.00 μC, 27.0 μC, and -84.0 μC. (a)
Calculate the net electric flux through the hull of the
submarine. (b) Is the number of electric field lines
leaving the submarine greater than, equal to, or less
than the number entering it?
 Problem 4.
The electric field everywhere on the surface of a
thin spherical shell of radius 0.750m is
measured to be 890N/C and points radially
toward the center of the sphere. (a) What is the
net charge within the sphere’s surfaces? (b)
What can you conclude about the nature and
distribution of the charge inside the spherical
shell?
 Faraday's Law of Induction

The line integral of the electric field around a closed loop is equal to the negative of
the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the loop.

This line integral is equal to the generated voltage or emf in the loop, so Faraday's law is
the basis for electric generators. It also forms the basis for inductors and transformers.
 QUIZ
For a long solenoid with closely spaced turns, each coil will a) exert
an attractive force on the next adjacent coil, b) exert a repulsive force on the
next adjacent coil, c) exert zero force on the next adjacent coil, or d) exert
an attractive or repulsive force on the next adjacent coil, depending on the
current direction in the solenoid.
(a). Because the coils are closely spaced, the distance between
adjacent coils will be much smaller than the radius, r, of each
coil and the forces between the coils can be approximated as
the same as the force between two parallel wires of length 2pr.
Since the currents are in the same direction, the force will be
attractive.
 Ampere's Law
In the case of static electric field, the line integral of the magnetic field around a
closed loop is proportional to the electric current flowing through the loop. This is
useful for the calculation of magnetic field for simple geometries.
Q. A wire carrying a current of
5.00 A is to be formed into a
circular loop of one turn. If the
required value of the magnetic
field at the center of the loop is
10.0 μT, what is the
required radius?

Answer: 31.4 cm
Q. A cylindrical conductor of radius R = 2.50 cm carries
• a current of I = 2.50 A along its length; this current is
• uniformly distributed throughout the cross-section
• of the conductor.
• (a) Calculate the magnetic
field midway along the radius of the wire
(that is, at r = R/2).
(b) Find the distance beyond the surface of the
conductor at which the magnitude of the magnetic
field has the same value as the magnitude of
the field at r = R/2.
Answer: (a) 10.0 μT; (b) 2.50 cm
Q. A current path shaped as shown in Figure produces
a magnetic field at P, the center of the arc. If the arc subtends
an angle of 30.0° and the radius of the arc is 0.600 m,
what are the magnitude and direction of the field
produced at P if the current is 3.00 A?

Answer: 261 nT, into the page

 Problem
• A wire carrying a current of 5.00 A is to be
formed into a circular loop of one turn. If
the required value of the magnetic field at
the center of the loop is 10.0 μT, what is
the required radius?
• Answer: 31.4 cm
 Problem
• A cylindrical conductor of radius R = 2.50 cm
carries a current of I = 2.50 A along its length;
this current is uniformly distributed throughout
the cross-section of the conductor. (a) Calculate
the magnetic field midway along the radius of
the wire (that is, at r = R/2). (b) Find the distance
beyond the surface of the conductor at which the
magnitude of the magnetic field has the same
value as the magnitude of the field at r = R/2.
• Answer: (a) 10.0 μT; (b) 2.50 cm
 Problem
• A uniform ring with a radius of 2.00 cm
and a total charge of 6.00 μC rotates with
a constant angular speed of 4.00 rad/s
around an axis perpendicular to the plane
of the ring and passing through its center.
What is the magnetic moment of the
rotating ring?
• Answer: 4.80 × 10–9 A ∙ m2
Continuity Equation
We know that the current density j and current I are
related as
→ →
I = ∫∫
S
j • dS

The magnitude and direction of current are same

everywhere and remain unchanged with time for the
steady current.

But, if the current is not steady, both current and

current density vary from point to point as well as
from time to time.
Thus we may express current as well as current density
as → →
I ≡ I ( x, y , z , t ) and j ≡ j ( x, y , z , t )

Let V be a volume of the current carrying conductor and

ρ be the volume charge density, then total charge in the
volume V is given by
q = ∫∫ ρ dV
V

Since current is defined as the rate of flow of charge, the

current through the conducting cylinder is
 dq d  
I=− = −  ∫∫∫ ρ dV 
dt dt  V 
Where -ve sign signifies the outflow of charges
from the cylinderical surfaces.
→ →
Also I= ∫∫ j • d S
Therefore, from last two equations we have
→ → d  
∫∫ j • d S = −  ∫∫∫ ρ dV 
dt  V 
 Also according to the Gauss's divergence theorem
→ → →

∫∫ j • d S = ∫∫∫ div • j dV
V
From the above two equations, we get
→ d dρ
∫∫∫
V
div • j dV = − ∫∫∫ ρ dV =
dt V ∫∫∫
V
− dV
dt
→ dρ
Div j = −
dt

Is known as equation of continuity and represents the

physical fact of conservation of charge.