CHAPTER I TRANVERSE (CROSS-SECTION) PLANE -PASSES THROUGH THE DORSAL TO THE VENTRAL SAGGITAL PLANE -CUTS THROUGH THE

SPECIMEN AND DIVIDES LATERRALY MID-SAGGITAL PARA-SAGGITAL FRONTAL PLANE -SEPARATES THE DORSAL AND VENTRAL SIDE SYMMETRY -REFERS TO BALANCED PROPORTIONS -CORRESPONDENCE IN SIZE AND SHAPE OF PARTS ON OPPOSITE SIDES OF A MEDIAM PLANE SPHERICAL SYMMETRTY RADIAL SYMMETRY BIRADIAL SYMMETRY BILATERAL SYMMETRY SEGMENTATION OR METAMERISM -SERIAL REPITITION OF SIMILAR BODY SEGMENTS ALONG THE LONGITUDINAL AXIS OF THE BODY LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION 1. PROTOPLASMIC GRADE- UNICELLULAR WITH PROTOPLASM DIFFERENTIATED TO ORGANELLES 2. CELLULAR GRADE- EVIDENT DIVISION OF LABOR 3. CELL-TISSUE GRADE- CELLS OF THE SAME FUNCTION FORM DEFINITE PATTERNS AND LAYERS 4. TISSUE-ORGAN GRADE 5. ORGAN-SYSTEM GRADE ANIMAL CELLS DIFFER IN APPEARANCE BECAUSE OF THEIR SPECIFIC FUNCTION CATEGORIES OF ANIMAL TISSUE. 1. EPITHELIUM 2. CONNECTIVE 3. MUSCULAR 4. NERVOUS ** VASCULAR I. EPITHELIUM -EXTERNAL COVERING AND INTERNAL LINING -LITTLE INTERCELLULAR SPACE -AVASCULAR -POLARIZED

-SIDES: APICAL AND BASEMENT MEMBRANE APICAL -FREE SURFACE EXPOSED TO AIR OR FLUID -MAY CONTAIN MICROVILLI, CILIA, FLAGELLA BASEMENT MEMBRANE -ATTACHED TO THE BASAL LAMINA; CONDENSED REGION OF GROUND SUBSTANCE SECRETED BY BOTH EPITHELIAL AND CONNECTIVE TISSUES -3 TYPES OF INTERCELLULAR LINKS: TIGHT JUNCTIONS, DESMOSOMES, GAP JUNCTIONS. **ADHERING JUNCTIONS TIGHT JUNCTIONS -FUSION OF ADJACENT CELL MEMBRANE -MAINTAINS BLOOD-ORGAN BARRIER -PREVENTS PARACELLULAR TRANSPORT OR LEAKAGE OF EXTRACELLULAR FLUID DESMOSOMES -ANCHORING JUNCTIONS -LINKING PROTEINS (E.G. MUSCELS) -INCREASE STENGTH OF TISSUES -REINFORCED BY INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS OF KERATIN GAP JUNCTIONS -COMMUNICATIVE JUNCTIONS -PROVIDES CYTOPLASMIC CHANNELS BETWEEN ADJACENT CELLS ADHERING JUNCTIONS -ANCHORING JUNCTIONS -ATTACHED TO THE CYTOSKELETON OF ADJACENT CELLS TISSUE SQUAMOUS COLUMNAR CUBOIDAL GLANDULAR FUNCTION PROTECTION ABSORPTION EXRECTION SECRETION ORGAN SKIN INTESTINE KIDNEY STOMACH

-TYPES ACCORDING TO CELL FORM AND NO. OF CELLS: SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM -SINGLE LAYER OF FLATTENED CELLS -PERMITS DIFFUSION OF GASSES AND TRANSPORT OF MOLECULES STRATIFIES SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

-ADAPTED TO WITHSTAND MILD MECHANICAL ABRASION AND DISTORTION -BASAL LAYER UNDERGO CONTINUOUS MITOTIC DIVISION -LINES THE ORAL CAVITY, ESOPHAGUS, ANAL CANAL, VAGINA OF MAMALS, SKIN SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM -SHORT, BOX-LIKE CELLS -LINES SMALL DUCTS AND TUBULES S. A. KIDNEY AND SALIVARY GLAND -HAS ACTIVE SECRETORY AND ABSORPTVE FUNCTIONS SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM -RECTANGULAR WITH ELONGATED NUCLEI -FOUND ON HIGHLY ABSORPTIVE SURFACES SUCH AS THE INTESTINAL TRACT (MAY HAVE MICROVILLI) AND THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE TRACT (CILIATED) STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM -FOUND ALONG SOME AREAS OF THE ANORECTAL REGION AND SALIVARY DUCT TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM -STRATIED EPITHELIUM SPECIALIZED TO ACCOMODATE GREAT STERCHING GLANDULAR EPPITHELIUM -ABSORBS OR SECRETES CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS -RELEASED THROUGH: EXOCRINE- WITH DUCTS ENDOCRINE- WITHOUT DUCTS MIXED (E.G. PANCREAS) PSEUDOSTRATIFIED EPITHELIUM -ALL CELLS ARE STILL ANCHORED ON THE BASAL LAMINA SPECIAL TYPES: MESOTHELIUM -SQUAMOUS CELLS LINING SEROUS CARIVTIES SUCH AS PERITINEAL AND PLEURAL CAVITIES AND LINING OF VISCERAL ORGANS ENDOTHELIUM -LINING OF THE BLOOD AND LYMPH VESSELS II. CONNECTIVE TISSUES -MECHANICAL SUPPORT

-BIND STRUCTURES TO PERSERVE INTEGRITY OF ORGAN -EXCHANGE OF METABOLITES BETWEEN THE BLOOD AND TISSUES -PAUCITY OF CELLS -EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (AMORPHOUS GROUND SUBSTANCE) CONSISTS OF WEB OF FIBERS EMBEDDED OR SUSPENDED IN A UNIFORM FOUNDATION THAT MAY BE LIQUID, JELLY-LIKE OR SOLID - TYPES OF CELLS: FIXED: -FIBROBLAST/ FIBROCYTE- SYNTHESIZE FIBERS -MESENCHYMAL- CAN BE DIFFERENTIATED TO OTHER TYPE OF CELLS -ADIPOSE- STORE FAT -MACROPHAGES- PHAGOCYTOSIS WANDERING: -MONOCYTE- CHANGES INTO A MACROPHAGE WHEN FACED WITH AN ANTIGEN -LYMPHOCYTE- T-CELL OR B-CELL: BECOMES A PLASMA CELL IN PRESENCE OF AN ANTIGEN -PLASMA CELL- FROM B-CELLS; PRODUCES ANTIBODIES -EOSINOPHIL -MAST CELL- WHEN DEGRANULATED RELEASES VISA ACTIVE; DILATES OR RESTRICTS THE BLOOD VESSLES -3 KINDS OF CONNCECTIVE TISSUE FIBERS: COLLAGENOUS FIBERS (WHITE) -MADE OF COLLAGEN -NONELASTIC AND DOES NOT TEAR WHEN PULLED ELASTIC FIBERS (YELLOW) -LONG THREADS OF ELASTIN -ELASTIN FIBER PROVIDES A RUBBERY QUALITY RETICULAR FIBERS (BRANCHING) -VERY THIN AND BRANCHED -COMPOSED OF COLLAGEN -GIVES SHAPE TO AN ORGAN -THEY FORM A TIGHTLY WOVEN FABRIC THAT JOINS CONNECTIVE TISSUE TO ADJACENT TISSUES -MAJOR TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUED -FASCIA, TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS

-COMPOSED LARGELY OF DENSELY PACKED FIBERS (COLLAGENOUS) AND LITTLE GROUND SUBSTANCE LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUES (AREOLAR) -HAS ALL THREE FIBER TYPES -BINDS EPITHELIA TO UNDERLYING TISSUES -FUNCTIONS AS PACKING MATERIALS, HOLDING ORGANS IN PLACE -PREDOMINATING CELL TYPE: FIBROBLASTS AND MACROPHAGES ADIPOSE TISSUE -SPECIALIZED FORM OF LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSE -STORE FUEL IN FOMR OF FAT IN ADIPOSE CELLS CARTILAGE -HAS AN ABUNDANCE OF COLLAGENOUS FIBERS EMBEDDED IN A RUBBERY MATRIX MADE OF A SUBSTANCE CALLED CHONDROITIN SULFATE, A PROTEIN-CARBOHYDRATE COMPLEX -CHONDROCYTES SECRETE COLLAGEN AND CHONDROITIN SULFATE -AVASCULAR HYALINE CARTILAGE -SUPPORT AND REINFORCEMENT -COVERS JOINT SURFACES AND RIB ENDS -PRESENT IN THE NOSE, LARYNX AND TRACHEA ELASTIC CARTILAGE -CONTAINS FINE COLLAGENOUS FIBERS AND MANY ELASTIC FIBERS -EXTERNAL, EUSTACHIAN TUBES, EPIGLOTTIES -MAINTIANES A STRUCTURES SHAPE WHILE ALLOWING GREAT FLEXIBILITY FIBROCARTILAGE -CONTAINS MANY LARGE COLLAGENOUS FIBERS -INTERVERTEBRAL DISKS, PUBIC SYMPHYSIS, DISKS OF KNEE JOINTS, AND PADS BETWEEN THE FEMUR AND TIBIA -ABORBS COMPRESSION SHOCK BONE -SKELETON SUPPORTING MOST VERTEBRATES -MINERALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE `

-OSTEOBLASTS DEPOSIT A MATRIX OF COLLAGEN -THEN CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM AND PHOSPHATE IONS COMBINE AND HARDEN THE MATRIX INTO THE MINERAL HYDROXYAPATITE BLOOD -THE MATRIX IS A LIQUID CALLED PLASMA, CONSISTING OF WATER, SALTS AND A VARIETY OF DISSOLVED PROTEINS -SUSPENDED IN THE PLASMA ARE ERYTHROCYTES, LEUKOCYTES AND CELL FRAGMENTS CALLED PLATELETS PLASMA (55%) -WATER (90%) -DISSOLVED SOLIDS PROTEINS: FIBRINOGEN, ALBUMIN, GLOBULIM SUPPLIED FOR CELLS CELL PRODUCTS CELLULAR WASTE -GASES FORMED ELEMENTS (45%) - RED BLOOD CELLS -BICONCAVE -TRANSPORT OXYGEN AND CO2 -WHITE BLOOD CELLS -GRANULAR: NEUTROHPIL EOSINOPHIL BASOPHIL -AGRANULAR: LYMPHOCYTE MONOCYTE MUSCLE TISSUE -COMPOSED OF LONG CELLS CALLED MUSCLE FIBERS THAT ARE CAPABLE OF CONTRACTING WHEN STIMULATED BY NERVE IMPULSES SMOOTH MUSCLES -SPINDLE-SHAPED CELLS -NO STRIATIONS -INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE SKELETAL MUSCLES -STRIATED CELLS WITH MULTIPLE NUCLEI (SYNCITIUM) -FUNCTIONS VOLUNTARILY

-OCCURS IN MUSCLES ATTACHED TO SKELETON CARDIAC MUSCLES -HAS CYLINDRICAL BUT BRANCHING STRIATED CELLS, EACH WITH A SINGLE NUCLEUS NERVOUS TISSUE -IRRITABILITY AND CONDUCTIVITY; SENSES STIMULI AND TRANSMITS SIGNALS FROM ONE PART OF THE ANIMAL TO ANOTHER -NEURON: FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE NERVOUS SYTEM SENSORY (AFFERENT) MOTOR (EFFERENT) INTERNEURON CHAPTER II INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM FUNCTIONS: -PROTECTIVE WRAPPING -REGULATORY FUNCTION -RECEPTION TO ENVIRONMENT STIMULI -EXCRETORY FUNCTION -RESPIRATORY FUNCTION -LOCCOMOTION -BEHAVIORAL INTERACTION BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS TYPES: PLASMA MEMBRANE -UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS -GAS EXCHANGE AND WASTE REMOVAL BY SIMPLE DIFFUSION -UPTAKE OF DISSOLVED NUTRIENTS (ENDOCYTOSIS) PELICLE -THICK PROTEIN COAT FOUND IN OTHER PROTOZOA -SEMIRIGID STRUCTURE THAT TRANSMITS THE FORCE OF CILIA OR FLAGELLA TO THE ENTIRE BODY AS THE ANIMAL MOVES EPIDERMIS -SOME INVERTEBRATES HAVE CUTICLE OVER THE EPIDERMIS MANTLE -GROUP OF CELLS THAT SECRET CALCIUM CARBONATE FOR SHELL FORMATION

ARTHROPODS - EPIDERMIS SECRETS PROCUTICLE AND EPICUTICLE -CUTICLE MAY BE HARDENED BY: CALCIFICATION- BY CaCO2 SCLEROTIZATION- SCLEROTIN -MOLTING: DIGESTION OF PROCUTICLE AND FORMATION OF A NEW EPICUTICLE THROUGH THE ENZYME ECDYSONE DERIVATIVES EPIDERMIS -STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM -CORNIFIED CELLS, HIGHLY RESISTANT TO ABRASION AND WATER DIFFUSION -KERATINIZATION TAPES PLACE WHEN SHEDDING OF OUTERMOST LAYER DERMIS -DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE LAYER -SUPPORT, CUSHION AND NOURISH THE EPIDERMIS HAIRS -EPIDERMAL GROWTH THAT FUNCTION IN PROTECTION -SHAFT, ROOT AND FOLLICLE; SEBACEOUS GLANS AND ARRECTOR PILI MUSCLE NAILS -PLATES OF HIGHLY PACKED, KERATINIZED CELLS -EPONYCHIUM- CUTICLE SKIN GLANDS SEBCEOUS (OIL) GLANDS -CONNECTED TO HAIR FOLLICLE -FATS, CHOLESTEROL, PROTEINS, SALTS AND CELL DEBRIS -MOISTENS HAIR AND WATERPROOFS SKIN SWEAT (SUDORIFEROUS) GLANDS - ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS -WATER, SALTS, WASTES -HAIRLESS REGIONS, SCATTERED OVER THE BODY -FUNCTION IS TO COOL THE BODY APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS -LARGER

-MORE VISCOUS- FATTY ACIDS AND PROTEINS -ODOR OCCURS WHEN BROKEN DOWN BY BACTERIA CERUMINOUS GLANDS -MODIFIED SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS -SECRETE CERUMEN (EAR WAX) MAMMARY GLANDS -SECRETE MILK ANIMAL COLORATION STRUCTURAL COLOR -PRODUCED BY THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE SURFACE TISSUE; TISSUE REFLECTS CERTAIN LIGHT WAVELENGTHS -DIFFERENT RESPONSE DEPENDING ON THE DIRECTION OR DIRECTIONALITY OF ILLUMINATION COLOR DUE TO PIGMENTS -BIOCHROMES -REFLECT LIGHT RAYS -CHROMATOPHORES OR PIGMENT CELLS: MELANOPHORES/ MELANOCYTES (MELANIN) XANTHOPHORES (CAROTENOID) IRIDOPHORES (CRYSTALS OF PURINE; SILVERY OR METALLIC) SKELETAL SYSTEM FUNCTIONS: -SUPPORT -PROTECTION -MOVEMENT -MINERAL DEPOSIT -BLOOD SYTHESIS HYDROSTATIC SKELETON -SUPPORT BODY FORM -PROVIDES RESISTANCE FOR THE CONTRACTION OF MUSCLES TO ACT AGAINST MUSCULAR HYDROSTATS -LIKE HYDROSTATIC SKELETONS, THESE WORK BECAUSE THEY ARE COMPOSED OF INCOMPRESSIBLE TISSUES THAT REMAIN AT CONSTANT VOLUME RIGID SKELETON -EXOSKELETON AND ENDOSKELETON EXOSKELETON -EXTERNAL

-MOLLUSCS- CALCIUM CARBONATE -ARTHROPODS- COMPOSED OF CHITIN -PROTECTION AND LOCCOMOTION ENDOSKELETON -INTERNAL -MINERALIZED BONE AND CARTILAGE -SUPPORT, PROTECTION AND RESERVOIR OF CALCIUM AND PHOSPHATE NOTOCHORD -SEMIRIGID SUPPORTIVE AXIAL ROD OF PROTOCHORDATES AND ALL VERTEBRATE LARVAE AND EMBRYOS -COMPOSED OF LAGE VACUOLATED CELLS SURROUNDED BY ELASTIC AND FIBROUS SHEATHS CARTILAGE -SOFT, PLIABLE TISSUE THAT RESISTS COMPRESSION BONE -ENDOCHONDRAL OR REPLACEMENT BONE -CANCELLOUS OR SPONGY -COMPACT BONE BONE GROWTH AND RENEWAL -CARTILAGE STRUCTURES IN EARLY DEVELOPMENT ACT AS MODELS FOR FUTURE BONES; ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION -OSTEACLASTS- WORK WITH OSTEOBLASTS TO HEAL BROKEN BONES STAGES OF INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION 1. AN OSSIFICATION CENTER APPEARS IN THE FIBROUS CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANE -MESENCHYMAL CELLS DIFFERENTIATE INTO OSTEOBLASTS, FORMING AN OSSIFICATION CENTER 2. BONE MATRIX (OSTEOID) IS SECRETED IN THE FIBROUS MEMBRANE -OSTEOBLASTS BEGIN TO SECRETE OSTEOID, WHICH IS MINERALIZED -TRAPPED OSTEOBLASTS BECOME OSTEOCYTES 3. WOVEN BONE AND PERIOSTEUM FORMS 4. BONE COLLAR OF COMPACT BONE FORMS AND RED MARROWS APPEAR MAIN DIVISIONS: AXIAL AND APPENDICULAR HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM -SUPPORT AND PROTECTS THE BODY

-PERMITS MOVEMENT -PROVIDES RESISTIVE FOUNDATION FOR MUSCLES TO ACT AGAINST AXIAL SKELETON VERTEBRAL COLUMN -SUPPORTS THE HEAD AND TRUNK -PROTECTS THE SPINAL CORD AND ROOTS OF SPINAL NERVES -SEGMENTS: CERVICAL-NECK THORACIC-CHEST LUMBAR- SMALL OF BACK SACRAL- SACRUM/ PELVIC COCCYX- TAILBONE -INTERVERTEBRAL DISKS OF FIBROCARTILAGE ACT AS PADDING RIB CAGE -PROTECTS THE HEART AND LUNGS, AND ASSISTS BREATHING -SUPPORT BY THE THORACIC VERTEBRAE TWELVE PAIRS OF RIBS TRUE RIBS- 7, CONNECT DIRECTLY TO STERNUM FALSE RIBS- 5 APPENDICULAR SKELETON PECTORAL GIRDLE -BONES OF THE SHOULDER -SUPPORTS THE ARMS AND HANDS PELVIC GIRDLE -BONES OF THE PELVIS -SUPPORTS THE LEG AND FEET CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS FIBROUS JOINTS (SYNARTHROSES) -IMMOVABLE -BETWEEN CRANIAL BONES, TIBIA AND FIBULA, RADIUS AND ULNA CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS (AMPHIARTHROSES) -SLIGHTLY MOVABLE -BETWEEN VERTEBRAE SYNOVIAL JOINTS (DIARTHROSES) -FREELY MOVABLE -BONES SEPARATED BY A CAVITY

CHAPTER III THREE PRINCIPAL KINDS OF MOVEMENT: AMEBOID CILIARY AND FLAGELLAR MUSCULAR AMEBOID -AMEBAS, WHITE BLOODY CELLS, EMBRYONIC MESENCHYMA CELLS -MOVEMENT: ENDOPLASM FLOWS TO THE HYALINE CAP IN THE FOUNTAIN ZONE TO THE ECTOPLASM CILIA -MINUTE, HAIRLIKE, MOTILE PROCESSES FLAGELLA -WHIPLIKE -UNDULATORY MOVEMENT; FORCE IS GENERATED PARALLEL TO THE FLAGELLUMS AXIS CILIA AND FLAGELLA MOVEMENT -THE BENDING OF CILIA AND FLAGELLA IS DRIVEN BY THE ARMS OF A MOTOR PROTEIN, DYNEIN BIVALVE MOLLUSCAN MUSCLES -2 KINDS OF FIBERS: FAST AND SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBERS INSECT FLIGHT MUSCLES (FIBRILLAR MUSCLE) -LIMITED EXTENSIBILITY; SHORTEN ONLY SLIGHTLY SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL -ACTIN FILAMENTS AT BOTH ENDS OF SACROMERE -MYOSIN FILAMENTS SUSPENDED IN BETWEEN 2 PLATES MUSCLE INNERVATION -NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION -THE SYNAPTIC CONTACT BETWEEN A NERVE FIBER AND A MUSCLE FIBER -NERVE IMPULSES BRING ABOUT THE RELEASE OF A NEUTROTRANSMITTER THAT CROSS THE SYNAPTIC CLEFT HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM -ARRANGED IN ANTAGONISTIC PAIRS -A MUSCLE AT REST EXHIBITS TONE (MINIMAL CONTRACTION) -A MUSCLE IN TETANY IS AT MAXIMUM SUSTAINED CONTRACTION

MUSCLE PERFORMANCE -SLOW OXIDATIVE FIBERS (RED MUSCLES) -SLOW, SUSTAINED CONTRACTIONS WITHOUT FATIGUE -CONTAIN EXTENSIVE BLOOD SUPPLY -HIGH DENSITY OF MITOCHONDRIA -ABUNDANT STORED MYOGLOBIN -RELIES ON GLUCOSE AND OXYGEN -FAST GLYCOLYTIC FIBER (WHITE MUSCLES) -LACKS EFFICIENT BLOOD SUPPLY - RELIES ON ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSYS -FATIGUE RAPIDLY -FAST OXIDATIVE FIBER -EXTENSIVE BLOOD SUPPLY -HIGH DENSITY OF MITOCHONDRIA -ABUNDANT STORED MYOGLOBIN -RELIES ON GLUCOSE AND OXYGEN CHAPTER IV DIETARY CATEGORIES 1. HERBIVORES 2. CARNIVORES 3. OMNIVORES 4. SAPROPHAGOUS FEEDING ADAPTATION 1. SUSPENSION FEEDER -SIFTS THROUGH FOOD PARTICLES IN THE WATER 2. DEPOSIT FEEDER -EATS ITS WAY THROUGH DIRT OR SEDIMENTS AND EXTRACT PARTIALLY DECAYED ORGANIC MATERIAL (DETRITUS) CONSUMED ALONG WITH THE SOIL OR SEDIMENTS 3. SUBSTRATE FEEDER -LIVES IN OR ON ITS FOOD SOURCE, EATING ITS WAY THROUG THE FOOD 4. FLUID FEEDER -SUCKS NUTRIENT-RICH FLUIDS FROM LIVING HOSTS AND IS CONSIDERED A PARASITE 5. BULK FEEDER -EATS RELATIVELY LARGE PIECES OF FOODS

A BIRDS UPPER BILL IS HOOKED FOR SEIZING AND TEARING PREY TYPES OF TEETH FOUND IN MAMMALS: INCISORS- BITING, CUTTING STRIPPING CANINES- SEIZING, PIERCING, TEARING PREMOLARS- GRINDING AND CRUSHING MOLARS- GRINDING AND CRUSHING ELEPHANTS TUSK IS A MODIFIED UPPER INCISOR USED FOR DEFENSE, ATTACK AND ROOTING TYPES OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM INCOMPLETE -THERE IS ONLY OPENING, NO ANUS COMPLETE -THERE IS A MOUH OPENING AND AN ANUS FOUR MAIN STAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING A. INGESTION- THE ACT OF EATING B. DIGESTION- BREAKING FOOD DOWN INTO MOLECULES C. ABSORPTION- MOLECULES ARE TAKEN IN D. ELIMINATION- UNDIGESTED MATERIAL PASSES OUT THE DIGESTIVE COMPARTMENT EXTRACELLULAR OR INTRACELLULAR DIGESTION GUT MOVEMENT -SEGMENTATION -ALTERNATE CONSTRICTION OF RINGS OF SMOOTH MUSCLE OF THE INTESTINE -FOR MIXING FOOD -PERISTALSIS -WAVES OF CONTRACTION OF CIRCULAR MUSCLE BEHIND THE GUT AND RELAXATION IN FRONT OF BOLUS -SWEEPS FOOD DOWN GUT TRYPSIN, CHYMOTRYPSIN AND CARBOXYPEPTIDASE ARE SECRETED IN INACTIVE FORM BY THE PANCREAS. THE INTESTINAL ENZYME, ENTEROPEPTIDASE, CONVERTS INACTIVE TRYPSINOGEN INTO ACTIVE TRYPSIN. ACTIVE TRYPSIN THEN ACTIVATES THE OTHER TWO. THE COLON RECOVERS WATER THAT HAS ENTERED THE ALIMENTARY CANAL AS THE SOLVENT TO VARIOUS DIGESTIVE JUICES. THE LARGE INTESTINE HARBORS A ICH FLORA OF MOSTLY HARMLESS BACTERIA. THE TERMINAL PRTION OF THE COLON IS CALLED THE

CEPHALOPOD MOLLUSCS HAVE BEAK-LIKE JAWS WHICH SERVE AS TEASING DEVICES

RECTUM, WHERE FECES ARE STORED UNTIL THEY CAN BE ELIMINATED. THE LENGTH OF THE VERTEBRATE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM IS ALSO CORRELATED WITH DIET. UNDERNOURISHMENT -THE DIET OF A PERSON OR OTHER ANIMAL IS CHRONICALLY DEFICIENT IN CALORIES MALNOURISHED -DIET IS MISSING ONE OR MORE ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS MARASMUS -GENERAL UNDERNOURISHMENT FOR DIET LOW IN BOTH CALORIES AND PROTEIN KWASHIORKER -PROTEIN MALNOURISHMENT OVERNOURISHMENT -EXCESSIVE FOOD INTAKE APPETITE-REGULATING HORMONES GHRELIN -STOMACH WALL -TRIGGERS FEELINGS OF HUNGER AS MEAL TIMES APPROACH LEPTIN -ADIPOSE TISSUE -SUPRESSES APPETITE -GIVES A COMPLEX FEEDBACK MECHANISM REGULATING FAT STORAGE AND USE PYY -SMALL INTESTINE -APPETITE SUPPRESANT; COUNTERS GHRELIN INSULIN -PANCREAS -A RISE IN BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL, SIGNALS BRAIN TO SUPRESS APPETITE PROTEINS -NEED 20 AMINO ACIDS TO FORM VITAMINS -13 ESSENTIAL TO HUMANS -REQUIRED IN SMALL QUANTITIES FOR DIET -WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS GENERALLY FUNCTION AS CO-ENZYMES

MINERALS -INORGANIC NUTRIENTS NEEDED IN SMALL AMOUNTS - CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS FOR THE BONE -IRON FOR CYTOCHROMES AND HEMOGLOBIN -OSMOTIC BALANCE: SODIUM, POTASSIUM AND CHLORIDE CHAPTER V CELLULAR RESPIRATION -OXIDATIVE PROCESS WITH IN THE CELL EXTERNAL RESPIRATION -EXCHANGE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE BETWEEN THE ORGANISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT GAS EXCHANGE SURFACES -FOR DIFFUSION TO BE EFFECTIVE, GAS EXCHANGE REGIONS MUST BE: MOIST, THIN, RELATIVELY LARGE -EFFECTIVENESS OF DIFFUSION IS ENHANCED BY VASULARIZATION RESPIRATORY ORGANS CUTANEOUS RESPIRATION (DIRECT DIFFUSION) TRACHEAL SYSTEMS (BRANCHING TUBES) GILLS OR BRANCHIA (EXTERNAL OR INTERNAL) LUNGS -A FROG VENTILATES ITS LUNGS BY POSITIVE PRESSURE BREATHING -A HUMAN VENTILATES ITS LUNGS BY NEGATIVE PRESSURE BREATHING - THE VOLUME OF AIR IN ANIMAL INHALES AND EXHALES WITH EACH BREATH IS CALLED TIDAL VOLUME (500 ML) -THE MAXIMUM TIDAL VOLUME DURING FORCED BREATHING IS THE VITAL CAPACITY (3.4 TO 4.8 L) -MOST ANIMALS TRANSPORT MOST OXYGEN TO SPECIAL PROTEIN CALLED RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS; HEMOCYANIN AND HEMOGLOBIN - MOST CARBON DIOXIDE IS TRANSPORTED IN THE FORM OF BICARBONATE ION OR COMBINES WITH HEMOGLOBIN TO FORM CARBAMINOHEMOGLOBIN BHOR SHIFT- DROP IN PH LOWERS THE AFFINITY OF HEMOGLOBIN FOR OXYGEN