Diplomatic History of the Philippines One Hundred Years of Philippine-United States Relations: An Outline History Written by: Ricardo

T. Jose PhD

TOWARDS TO SELF RULE: THE PHILIPPINE COMMONWEALTH Reported by: Mark Louise O. Pacis

The Tydings-McDuffie Act , the 1935 Constitution and the Inauguration of the Commonwealth With the acceptance of Tydings-McDuffie Act, the roadto independence was clear. A Constitutional Convention was elected in 1934 which completed the work in February 1935. The 1935 Constitution is based on the model of United States Constitution including the system of three co-equal branches with the President as the head of the State and Government. o The form of government , a Republic and Democratic state(Representative Democracy) o The co-equal branches, the Executive, Legislative and Judiciary o The executive power is vested to the President as head of state. o The legislative power is vested to the Philippine Congress which is a bicameral, the House of Senate and Representatives. o The judicial power is vested to the Supreme Court. o The President shall serve for four years per term and can be reelected for another one term only (total of eight years). o The member of Congress both upper and lower house have no limitation regarding the terms. A member can be reelected for many consecutive terms. President Roosevelt approved the 1935 constitution in March 1935 after which it was submitted to the Filipino People. Manuel Quezon was elected President and Sergio Osmea as Vice President. The Philippine Commonwealth was inaugurated on 15th of November 1935. The first world power to let its colony for preparation of independence. Several Ranking officials attended in the ceremony like VP John Garner, Secretary of War George Dern, Speaker Joseph Byrnes of the House of Representatives ; 17 Senator and 26 Representatives. The Commonwealth and the United States of America Partnership and Suspicion The Commonwealth had ten short years to prepare itself for independence from the U.S. In preparing for independence, it had to have the close cooperation the U.S in many of its plans, lest these go awry. Although there was nearly autonomy in other matters, still the foreign relations and finance remained in the hands of Americans; any bill these fields had

to be approved by the American president. The Philippine flag was allowed to be flown but above it is the United States of America`s flag. Commonwealth officials and employees had to take oath of allegiance to the United States before they take oath to the Commonwealth. The Governor General was replaced by U.S High Commissioner as representative of President of the United States of America. The last American Governor General of the Philippines is Frank Murphy and he was also the first US. High Commisioner. He was succeeded by Paul V. Mc Nutt and the last was Francis Sayre. National Defenseo The National Defense is one of the major problem of the Commonwealth, Manuel Quezon sought and granted General Douglas McArthur as the Marshal of the Philippine Army assisted by Colonel Dwight D. Eisenhower and James Ord. Their plan wherein a small Philippine regular army would be built up based on PC or Philippine Constabulary while sizeable reserve force would be trained throughout the country. But it met many problems. Sixteen million pesos budget per year is too small to build a force considering the cost of modern military equipment and heavy for Philippine Commonwealth. Several equipment were funded by Washington and Philippine Department but they worried about the large scale aid of military equipment that may affect the US-Japan relations or may cause Filipino insurrection. Economic Policies o Extremely serious for the Commonwealth was the building of a healthy economy which could stand on its own after independence. During the American regime, the Philippine economy is U.S dependent. The Philippines still remain a agricultural economy. Social Justice and Culture o Quezon try to implement the land reform program that was started first by the American. He buys friar lands and redistributing it to the farmers. o He proclaim that Tagalog as the basis of the national language and develop the Philippine culture. He sought to increase of numbers of schools and developed a stronger sense of love of country. Foreign Relations o The diplomacy of the Philippine Commonwealth still relies in the American hands. Quezon attempted to established informal relations to China, Japan and Mexico. Some of the trips were not sanctioned by the United States Government. o Quezon sought to obtain from Japan some promise of security, wherein Japan recognize the neutrality of the Philippines. Immigration o This was another problem of the Philippine Commonwealth, the Immigration especially for the Japanese and Chinese. The government attempt to nationalize the retail trade so that it would be in the hands of Filipinos.

The National Assembly passed the Immigration law which limits the rights of aliens to migrate in the Philippine. It shall be 500 migrants from any country per year. The law is the same act passed in United States Congress which limits the migrants to migrate per year. It was discrimination for the Chinese and Japanese. Quezon Politics o Quezon`s influence on the Commonwealth government in its executive, legislative and judicial branch- was distinct and pervasive; the Commonwealth was virtually the government of Quezon. o Quezon further worked to unite some political parties like the Nacionalista and Liberal Party. o He got along with the first two High Commissioners of the United States, Frank Murphy and Paul McNutt. ALLIES IN WAR AND THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION The war between the U.S and Japan was increasingly seen as highly probable, particularly after the start of World War II in Europe and the alliance of Japan with Nazi Germany and Italy. American and Japanese relations grew strained over the issue of Japan`s continued aggression into China. U.S and the Philippine government tried to work out the system of civilian defense through the Civilian Emergency Administration. In July 1941, the Japanese troops entered the southern Indochina and were permitted by German sponsored French government, the Vichy France. The United States imposed oil embargo to Japan, no shipment of scrap iron and freeze all Japanese assets unless the Imperial Forces would withdraw to Indochina. But Japan cannot do it and prepare for war against the Americans. The Americans, realizing that Japan might resort to war, decided to build up their defenses and lead to the formation of United States Forces in the Far East (USAFFE). The USAFFE is the combination of Philippine Army regular and reserve force and the stationed US Army in the country. General Douglas MacArthur was recalled for duty to command the said force. Before the Fil-American Forces were ready, however the Japanese struck at Pearl Harbor on 7th of December 1941. As the sun rose, Japanese planes bombed Baguio and Davao without warning. The Japanese had been underestimated, however, and before the end of the first day of war, they had destroyed most of U.S air forces based in the Philippines. The Nichols Field, suburbs of Manila and the Cavite Naval Yard were also bombed by Japanese planes. It results the lost of control of the Americans in sea and air. Landings of the Japanese were made in Aparri, Vigan, Legaspi, Davao and Jolo. Although some Filipinos bravely fought back, most were forced to retreat. As the lines fell back, MacArthur had to order the execution of War Plan Orange- to pull all forces to Bataan and Corregidor to deny Manila Bay to the Japanese. After the bombing of Manila, MacArthur decided to evacuate all military forces from Manila and declared it an Open City. Quezon also decided to transfer the Commonwealth government to

Corregidor so that even the Japanese captured Manila, they would not have captured the existing government. Some Filipino officials were remain behind and instructed to deal to the Japanese as far as they can but no such oath of allegiance should be made or else MacArthur said When we come back, we`ll shoot you!. The USAFFE holed up in Bataan and Corregidor, but due to poor planning and incompetence, not enough food and medicine was transferred for the defensive forces. Reinforcements would not arrive because of the Europe-first policy by the Americans. By February 1942, it became apparent that the fall of Bataan and Corregidor would be matter of time. Washington thus ordered Quezon and his party including the High Commissioner Sayre to be evacuated from Corregidor. Quezon and the Commonwealth government were transferred from Corregidor to Australia and finally to Washington. There he established the Commonwealth government in exile. The Dilemma Japanese sponsored independence The Japanese took Manila on January 2 1942. They began to round up the remaining Commonwealth officials and established the Japanese Military Administration. The officials, Jose Laurel Sr., Jose Yulo, Jorge Vargas, Claro M. Recto and others decided to cooperate with the Japanese and also established the Philippine Executive Commission. The Japanese created a commission to draft a new constitution- which was closely patterned after the 1935 Constitution. This was the 1943 Constitution were the elected President of the Second Republic is Jose P. Laurel Sr. The Japanese offer the independence to the Filipino people and inaugurated the Second Republic in October 1943. Anti Japanese Filipino-American resistance Guerilla resistance groups mushroomed in countryside, virtually loyal to Unites States and MacArthur. Many of them were led by Americans who did not surrender, escaped or captured. Because of this, MacArthur ordered the division of the Philippines into pre-war military districts with his headquarters in Australia. But not all guerilla groups were loyal to United States. Among these were the Hukbalahap (Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon) who were led by communist leaders. The Commonwealth Government in Exile and the United States. Because of being an exile government, Roosevelt gave Commonwealth government a virtual independent status by allowing its representatives to attend the founding meetings for the United Nations and the World Bank. He was also allowed to participate in the Pacific War Council. A problem arose when the term of office of Quezon would expire in 1943. After 1943, Osmea as vice president would automatically become President. However, Osmea allowed Quezon to extend the term but unfortunately, Quezon died in August 1944. Liberation from the Japanese and the End of the War

 By August 1944, American planes were once again over Mindanao; in September, they would be over Manila and Luzon. October 1944, American landings were made in Leyte and next year January, they landed in Luzon and in February 1945, they entered to Manila. United States military campaigns in the Philippines were officially closed by MacArthur in July 1945 and finally in August, the Japanese surrendered to the Americans resulting a victory of the Allied Forces. The Commonwealth government was again transferred back from Washington to Tacloban, Leyte and finally to Manila. MacArthur turned over the reins of civil government to Osmea in simple ceremonies on 27th of February 1945.

Collaboration issue The United States Army formed the Counter Intelligence Corps units to investigate the Filipinos who sworn in Japanese oath of allegiance and they were charged treason. Among of them were the officials of Laurel government and Executive Commission. People`s Court was created by Philippine Congress (but Osmea let the collaborator suspects legislator to take the seat in the house and become immune from prosecution). However, when Roxas became president, in 1948, the issue was put to rest by a general amnesty for all political, economic and cultural collaboration suspects. A TENOUS INDEPENDENCE The End of Commonwealth As World War II ended, the U.S and the Philippines emerged as close allies united in a war fighting against a common foe. U.S Army provided various supplies, commodities and electric power. Osmea had to go to United States to negotiate aid money and assistance just to keep the government running. But the war had ended, and the Philippine independence, as set by the Tydings-McDuffie Act was fast approaching. The Philippine Congress members met for the first time since they were elected in 1941 but the problem is the term of the representatives and senators of the Congress. Osmea reffered the problem to US Congress and passed the legislation fixing the life of the Philippine Congress to 30th of December 1945 and stipulated that elections be held before the end of April 1946. They set the election on 23rd of April and Senate President Manuel Roxas Sr. was elected President of the Third Republic with Elpidio Quirino as Vice President. Independence amidst the Ruins of War and the Onset of the Cold War According to the schedule, the Philippine Independence was restored to the Philippines on July 4 1946, amid solemn ceremonies at the Luneta. The said event was attended by General

Douglas MacArthur, Senator Millard Tydings and High Commissioner Paul McNutt as representative of the President of the United States of America, Harry Truman. The United States emerged as one of the two major powers in the world but already emerging was an ideological showdown with the Union Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR), as communist movements began to rise up in the world. Philippine Foreign Policy vis a vis US Foreign Policy Priorities Direction of Philippine Foreign Policy President Roxas, who was a close friend of MacArthur , believed that under the realities of the postwar world, the closest possible ties between the Philippines and U.S were necessary and had to be developed. In his inaugural address in 1946, he said that Our safest course is in the glistening wake of America, whose sure advance with mighty prow breaks for smaller craft the waves of fear. The first formal treaty signed by the 3rd Republic was the Treaty of General Relations with the United States, signed by Roxas and McNutt(Ambassador of the U.S.A to the Philippines). It includes the withdrawal of American sovereignty in the Philippines except those military and naval bases which were allowed to remain under the TydingsMcDuffie Act. Roxas died of heart attack in 1948 and Elpidio Quirino succeeded as President, only to finish the remaining terms of Roxas until 1950. He opted to place the U.S as a top priority in Philippine foreign relations. Quirino ran for president in 1950 elections and described as the dirtiest election in the Philippines up to that time. His administration became infamous for corruption, and even U.S President Harry Truman urged Quirino, then in a state visit to Washington, to end corruption and mismanagement in government. Following Quirino was Ramon Magsaysay, who was popular with the people as well as supported by the Americans. He believed that Philippine and American interest were identical and on several occasions defended U.S policies in Asia. Security Issues The extreme closeness of the Philippines to U.S is the desire to prevent from getting to another war. Communist take overs in Europe and Asia seemed to be part of a world plan for Communist domination which threatened the Philippines. Bases in the Philippines would allow the Americans to station forces which could protect those interest, a vital for projecting the American presence in Asia and blocking the spread of communism into the region.

 To formalize the status of the bases, the Philippine and the United States signed, on March 1947, the Military Bases Agreement. It granted U.S to maintain its bases , free to determine how to use the bases in accordance with military necessity for a period of ninety nine years . Complementing the MBA was the Military Assistance Pact. Under this, the US wouls provide arms, ammunition, equipment and supplies to the Philippine Armed Forces. They also establish the Joint U.S Military Advisory Group which would provide technical and professional advise on military affairs. The Americans provide weapons, equipment and some advise to the Philippine troops in campaigning against the Huks in late 1940`s to early 1950`s. In the Korean War, the Americans requested Philippine military support, and the Philippines willing to show its readiness. U.S also decided it was time to end the allied occupation of Japan and to sign a formal peace treaty. The U.S tried to convince the Philippines to sign but met with stiff resistance. However, the Philippines signed it reluctantly. It resulted the definitive promise of more protection form external threat, the Mutual Defense Treaty which was signed in August 1954 . On other issue, Quirino and Magsaysay worried about the regional security. Quirino had tried to organize a Pacific Pact after the fall of China to the Communist in 1949, calling for a conference in Baguio in 1950, including the United States, R.O.C and other powers in Asia and the Pacific to reach a regional non-military alliance to foster economic and cultural ties. U.S initiated a move to organize a NATO like body and a conference was called in Manila. It was was called SEATO or Southeast Asian Treaty Organization. The members are the Philippines, Thailand, United States, France, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Pakistan. Economic Ties Bell Trade Relations Act o It was authored by Senator Jasper C. Bell. o It proposed at first that there should be an extension of free trade relationship between the United States for twenty years. o It was opposed being as detrimental to the Philippine economy. o It was modified by Senator Bell , after much debate, was passed by U.S Congress and approved by U.S Harry S. Truman on April 30, 1946. o An economic relationship between the Philippines and U.S for eight years to expire in 1954. Gradual imposition of duties would then commence five percent a year, until full duties would be achieved in 1974. o To become acceptable to the Filipinos, the U.S Congress linked it the Philippine Rehabilitation Act that provided $620,000,000 to be given to those who had suffered losses during the war. U.S. Economic Survey Mission to the Philippines(Bell Mission) o Daniel Bell was appointed by President Truman to head the mission.

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It points the major ills of the economy particularly the failure to diversify it and increase productive efficiency; corruption in the government; and the wide gap of the rich and poor. The report was submitted to Washington and to Quirino`s government. As a result, Quirino would recommend legislation suggested by the Americans to the Philippine Congress to develop the economy. The Philippine Congress created the Philippine Council for U.S Aid which collaborated with U.S Economic Cooperation Administration, also known as U.S. Agency for International Development or U.S.AID.

Laurel-Langley Agreement o Pres. Magsaysay sent a mission led by Senator Jose P. Laurel Sr. to Washington and to negotiate a more gradual application of duties and ease the end of free trade. o The American counterpart of Laurel, Senator James Langley, they reached to an agreement and finally accepted by both countries in December 1954. o It provided for among other things, the accelerated application of Philippine duties on American products entering the Philippines, while American duties levied on Philippine products entering U.S. would be decelerated. War Rehabilitation and Veteran Benefits To investigate the extent of war damage, Sen. Tydings was sent to the Philippines. On four months of investigation, he recommended that U.S. grant the Philippines one hundred million dollars for rehabilitation and reconstruction, plus the turnover of surplus U.S. military equipment to the Philippine government and the training of Filipinos in the U.S as part of the U.S. rehabilitation program. The Filipinos in the panel asked that one billion dollars should be given to cover the rehabilitation program. However, they met the agreement and resulted the Philippine Rehabilitation Act of 1946 which provided for $400 million as compensation for private losses, $100 million for surplus U.S. military equipment and $120 million to reconstruct war damaged public works. It totaled over $620 million. Since Filipino had been called into service of U.S. Army during the war, Filipinos expected the Americans to pay their unpaid wages and benefits. Filipino veterans were classified into three categories; o 1st group- Philippine Scout member o 2nd group- Filipino enlisted to Philippine Scout and a regular service to U.S Army before the independence. o 3rd group- Philippine Army and Guerilla groups recognized by the United States. The United States recognized only 285,000 out of 1,070,000 claims. The Question of Japan

 The Philippines first began to recognize that U.S interests and Philippine interests were not the same in the Philippine reparations claims to Japan. The Philippines suffered grievously from the Japanese occupation. The United States at first supported the Philippine claim, hoping to remove Japan`s ability to make war and to decentralized industries in Asia. When the Korean war broke out, the United Stated decided to end the occupation in Japan and a formal peace treaty should be signed. The conference was held in San Francisco, U.SA and to sign the peace treaty. The treaty propose that U.S dropped all claims to Japan for reparations. The United States persuaded the Filipinos to sign and sent Sec. of State John Dulles to accept the treaty by the Philippine government. The treaty was signed reluctantly by the Philippines but still the Filipinos push through its claims to Japan. Participation in International Agencies: Supporting the U.S Programs The Philippines played an active role in the United Nations and other international organizations, but it was closely tied to United States that it almost followed the U.S. vote in the U.N. Non-aligned powers looked at the Philippines as an anomaly in Asia, an American puppet. Cultural and Scientific Benefits In 1945, the United States Information Services established s library at Plaza Cervantes in Manila. In 1948, the U.S. and the Philippines agreed to exchange official publications and they establish the Philippine-American Educational Foundation to send Filipino scholars to the U.S. and Americans here in the country. In 1955, an agreement was reached wherein the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission would lease uranium to the Philippines for scientific research. An experimental reactor was built near U.P Diliman where it still continues scientific research. US Involvement in Philippine Politics The U.S. assisted the Philippines to defeat the Hukbalahap in 1950`s by providing military equipment to the Philippine Armed Forces. Quirino want to run for presidency and his Secretary of National Defense , Ramon Magsaysay became his rival. The Central Intelligence Agency assisted Magsaysay to challenge Quirino and to ensure that there would be a free elections, that`s why NAMFREL was born because of CIA assistance. Criticism of the Pro-U.S policy and Irritants in the relationship

 Senator Claro M. Recto, a known anti-American, questioned the Philippines` mendicant foreign policy and being unfair, one sided the U.S. economic and security policies toward the Philippines. Other critics also labeled the Philippine Administration as U.S. puppet, following its master loyally without pride or dignity. Filipinos were said brainwashed for adopting American ways and being infected with colonial mentality, losing its Asian identity in trying to copy things American. It leads to re-examine the Philippine-United States relations for the next administrations.