40100212/(50$7(0$7.

, DERS NOTLARI

3URI'UgPHU/WIL'HLUPHQFL

2006

1.1. Fonksiyon DizileriQGH<DNQVDNON

7HULPOHULIRQNVL\RQODUGDQROXDQGL]LOHUHIRQNVL\RQGL]L

si denir. Bir fonksiyon (1)

dizisi u1 ( x), u 2 ( x),..., u n ( x ) veya { n (x)} u

HNLOOHULQGHQ ELUL LOH J|VWHULOLU

Burada, u n (x) ( n = 1,2,...  IRQNVL\RQODU D\Q

bir DE|OJHVLQGHWDQPOYHEHOOL|]HOOLNOHUHVDKLSIRQNVL\RQODUGU u (1) Dizisinde x yerine herhangi bir xo D VD\V\D]OGQGD { n ( xo )}

VD\ GL]LVLHOGHHGLOLUYH EXVD\GL]LVLV|]NRQXVX UDNVDN RODELOLU gUQHLQ

DE|OJHVLQGH\DNQVDN\DGD

{x } dizisinde
n

x yerine, - YH  \D]GP]GD,

VUDV\OD

{(1) } ve
n

1 n  VD\ GL]LOHULQL HOGH HGHUL] %XQODUGDQ ELULQFLVL 2 lim

n

UDNVDNLNHQLNLQFLVL\DNQVDNGL]LGLU

1 = 0 ). 2n

7DQP

Tm x X ve u n (x) ler iin

u n ( x) < M (n = 1, 2, ...)
RODFDN HNLOGH EHOOL ELU

!  VD\V YDUVD  GL]LVLQH

X D kmesinde

VQUO GL]L GHQLU +HUKDQJL ELU NPHGH VQUO ROPD\DQ GL]LOHUH VQUV] GL]L GHQLU%LUGL]LQLQVQUOROGXXNPHELUNDSDODUDON\DGDVRQOXYH\DVRQVX] DoN\DUDoNDUDONRODELOLU gUQHLQ

{ + x } dizisi [1
n

 @ DUDOQGD VQUO

(M = 2) iken ( , 1 ]

ya da [ 1, 

DUDONODUQGD VQUV]GU

n sin dizisi ise (, 0) (0, ) x

NPHVLQGHVQUOGU

M = 1).

7DQP

Tm x X D ve nler iin , {u n (x)} dizisine, XNPHVLQGHDUWDQGL]LGHQLU(HU

u n ( x) < u n +1 ( x)
HLWVL]OLLVDODQUVD

u n ( x) > u n+1 ( x )

HLWVL]OLLVDODQUVD

bu durumda da {u n (x)} dizisine, X kmesinde azalan dizi

denir. u n ( x) u n +1 ( x)
HLWVL]OLLQLQVDODQGGL]LOHUHD]DOPD\DQ

u n ( x) u n +1 ( x)
HLWVL]OLLQLQVDODQGGL]LOHUHGH

X kmesinde artmayan dizi denir.

gUQHLQ

{x } dizis
n

LDUDOQGDD]DODQLNHQ

1, DUDOQGDise artan dizidir.

Bir D NPHVLQGHQ DOQDQ xo VD\ODUQGDQ ED]ODU LoLQ { o ( x)} dizisi u

\DNQVDN\DGDUDNVDNRODELOLU(HU

{u n (x)} dizisi, bir xo

VD\VLoLQ\DNQVDN

ise {u n (x)} dizisine, xo

QRNWDVQGD \DNQVDNWU GHQLU

xo VD\VQD LVH GL]LQLQ

 VD\V LoLQ

\DNQVDNON QRNWDV GHQLU %HQ]HU RODUDN HHU

{u n (x)} dizisi, bir xo {u n (x)}

UDNVDN LVH

{u n (x)}

dizisine, xo QRNWDVQGD UDNVDNWU GHQLU %X GXUXPGD xo dizisi, bir X dizisine, X

VD\VQD GD GL]LQLQ UDNVDNON QRNWDV GHQLU (HU

NPHVLQLQ WP QRNWDODUQGD \DNQVDN UDNVDN LVH

{u n (x)}

NPHVLQGH\DNQVDNUDNVDN (HU

dizi denir.
NPHVLQGH\DNQVDNLVHEXGXUXPGD

{u n (x)} dizisi, bir X

, x X u(x)

iin lim u ( x)  n n

OLPLWL YDUGU YH

bu limit, genel olarak xH

EDO ELU

fonksiyonudur. u(x) fonksiyonuna, { n (x)} dizisinin, X kmesindeki limiti u denir ve lim u ( x) = u ( x) n n

HNOLQGH \D]OU gUQHLQ

(2)

{x }
n

 GL]LVL   DUDOQQ WP QRNWDODUQGD

\DNQVDNWUYH

lim x n = 0 GU$\QGL]Lx
n

QRNWDVQGDGD\DNQVDNROPDVQD

NDUQEXQRNWD

daki limiti 1dir. ve keyfi > 0 ve no ( , x) > 0 VD\ODU

7DQP



Her x X D

LoLQ

n > no ( , x) NRXOXQXVDOD\DQWPnler iin u n ( x) u ( x) <

NRXOX VDODQUVD

{u n (x)}

dizisisine, X kmesinGH

\DNQVDN GL]L YH

u(x)

fonksiyonuna da bu dizinin limiti denir. rnek 1. nx dizisinin (, ) DoNDUDOQGDNL\DNQVDNOQLQFHOH\HOLP 1 + n x zm. enel terimi her

3D\GDV KLo ELU ]DPDQ  ROPD\DFDQGDQ GL]LQLQ J

\HUGHWDQPOGU

LoLQGL]LQLQVIUD\DNQVDGDoNWU

(, 0) DUDOQGD

nx dizi HNOLQGH\D]ODELOLU%XGXUXPGD 1 nx nx = 1 n 1 nx lim nx olur. Diziyi, (0, ) DUDOQGDLVH HNOLQGH\D]DELOHFHLPL]GHQ 1 + nx lim

n

nx =1 1 + nx

ROXULPGLEXOLPLWOHULOLPLWWDQPQGDQ\DUDUODQDUDNJ|VWHUHOLP

(, 0)

DUDOQGDPXWODNGHHUWDQPQGDQ\DUDUODQUVDN

u n ( x) u ( x) =

nx nx + 1 nx 1 1 = = < (1) = 1+ n x 1 nx 1 nx 1 + n x 1 = no ( , x) NRXOXQXVDOD\DQ WP x

HLWVL]OLLQL

elde ederiz. Buna gre n >

n GHHUOHUL LoLQ GL]LQLQ KHU WHULPL LOH OLPLW GHHUHL RODQ - VD\V DUDVQGDNL
IDUNQ PXWODN GHHUL

GDQ NoN NDODFDQGDQ GL]LQLQ (, 0)

DUDOQGDNL

limiti -1dir. Benzer bir analiz (0, ) DUDOLoLQ\DSODELOLU%XGXUXPGD u n ( x) u ( x) = nx nx 1 nx 1 1 = = < 1 = 1+ n x 1 + nx 1 + nx 1 + nx n> 1 = no ( , x) NRXOXQXVDOD\DQ WP x

HLWVL]OLLQLHOGHHGHUL]%XQDJ|UH

n GHHUOHUL LoLQ GL]LQLQ KHU WHULPL LOH OLPLW GHHUHL RODQ  VD\V DUDVQGDNL

IDUNQ PXWODN GHHUL

GDQ NoN NDODFDQGDQ GL]LQLQ (0, )

DUDOQGDNL

limiti 1dir. Buna gre 1, HHU x (,0) nx lim HHU x = 0 = 0, = sign (x) n 1 + n x 1, HHU x (0, ) dir. sin( nx) rnek 2. dizisinin (, )  n inceleyelim. sin( nx) = 0  ROXU LPGL EXQX n

DoN DUDOQGDNL \DNQVDNOQ

zm. sin(nx) 1  ROGXXQGDQ lim u n ( x) = lim

n n
OLPLWWDQPQGDQ\DUDUODQDUDNJHUoHNOH\HOLP

u n ( x) u ( x) =
HLWVL]OLL

sin( nx) 1 < n n

VDOD\DQ KHU

n>

1 = n4 ( , x) NRXOXQX

n

GHHUL

LoLQ

geroHNOHQHFHLQGHQOLPLWGU
%X |UQHNWH EXOGXXPX]

no VD\V \DOQ] D EDO LNHQ |QFHNL |UQHNWH

EDO LGL

bulunan no

VD\V KHP

, hem de xH

Bu durumla ilgili olarak

DDGDNLWDQPYHU

ilir.

7DQP 

x X ve keyfi bir !  VD\V

LoLQ \DOQ]FD

D EDO ELU

n4 ( ) VD\VYDUVDYH n > n4 ( ) NRXOXVDODQGQGD u n ( x) u ( x) <

HLWVL]OLL VDODQ\RUVD

{u n (x)}
nir.

dizisine, X kmesinde u(x) fonksiyonuna

G]JQ\DNQVD\DQGL]LGH

(QNoNVWVQUWDQPQDJ|UHWP

x X iin

u n ( x) u ( x) c n = sup u n ( x) u ( x)
x X
ROGXXQGDQ\XNDUGDNLWDQPHGHHURODUDNXHNLOGHGHLIDGHHGHELOLUL]

7DQPD(HU

lim c n = lim sup u n ( x) u ( x) = 0

n n x X

(3)

ise, { n (x)} dizisine, X kmesinde u(x IRQNVL\RQXQD G]JQ \DNQVD\DQ GL]L u denir. Burada, cnLOHWDQPODGP]VD\ u n ( x ) u ( x) fonksiyonun maksimum
GHHULGLU YH EX GHHUL EXOPDN LoLQ

u n ( x ) u ( x) fonksiyonunun birinci

WUHYLQLQVIUROGXX

x deHUOHULQLGLNNDWHDOPDP]JHUHNLU

']JQ\DNQVDNOQJHRPHWULNRODUDN\RUXPXQHGLU"

rnek 3. a) u n ( x) = x n x n +1 , x [0,1] b) u n ( x) = x 2 +

1 , x ( , ) n2

GL]LOHULQLQYHULOHQDUDONODUGDNLG]JQ\DNQVDNONODUQLQFHOH\LQL]

a) x [0,1] iin lim u n ( x) = lim x n x n+1 ) = (1 x) lim x n = 0

n n n
GU%XQHGHQOH

lim cn = lim sup u n ( x) u ( x) = lim sup (1 x) x n

n n x[0,1] n x[0,1]

olur. g ( x) = (1 x) x n

WDQPODPDV\DSDUVDN

g ( x) = x n 1 [n (n + 1) x ] = 0 ifadesinden x1 = 0 ve x 2 = n 1+ n

NULWLNGHHUOHULHOGHHGLOLU7DQPDUDOQGD

n n n 1 g (0) = 0, g (1) = 0 ve g ( )= ( ) >0 1+ n 1+ n 1+ n

GHHUOHULQLGLNNDWHDOUVDN

lim c n = lim sup u n ( x) u ( x) = lim sup (1 x) x n = lim

n n x[0, 1] n x[0, 1]

n n 1 ( ) 1+ n 1+ n

= lim

1 1 n 1 1 1 ( ) = lim = 0 = 0 n 1 + n 1 1 n e 1+ n 1+ lim ( ) n 1 n 1+ n

elde edilir. O halde, sz konusu dizi [0,1] DUDOQGD G]JQ \DNQVDNWU YH
OLPLWLGU

Teorem 1 (Diziler iin Cauchy lt).

{u n (x)}

dizisinin verilen bir X

> 0 ve

NPHVLQGH G]JQ \DNQVDN ROPDV LoLQ JHUHN YH \HWHU NRXO

m N

NH\ILELUVD\ROPDN]HUH

, x X iin (4)

u n + m ( x) u n ( x) <
NRXOX

nu gerekleyen n > n4 ( ) > 0 sa\ODUQQYDUROPDVGU

VSDW

Gereklilik. { n (x)} dizisi, bir X kmesinde u(xIRQNVL\RQXQDG]JQ\DNQVDN u olsun. Bu durumda > 0 ve m N u n ( x) u ( x) <
RODFDNHNLOGH NH\ILELUVD\ROPDN]HUH

x X iin

ve u n + m ( x) u ( x) < 2 2

n > n4 ( ) > 0 VD\ODUYDUGU%XUDGDQ

u n + m ( x) u n ( x ) = u n + m ( x) u ( x) + u ( x) u n ( x) u n + m ( x) u ( x) + u n ( x) u ( x) <

+ = 2 2

elde ederiz \DQLHLWVL]OLLGRUXODQPROXU Yeterlilik. x X

LoLQ  HLWVL]OLLQLQ VDODQGQ NDEXO HGLS

{u n (x)}

dizisinin X kmesinde u(x gsterelim. (4 HLWVL]OLL x X

VD\ GL]LVL \DNQVDNWU

IRQNVL\RQXQD

G]JQ

\DNQVDN

RODFDQ

LoLQ JHUoHNOHQGLLQGHQ

x X iin { n (x)} u

{u n (x)}

 VD\ GL]LVLQLQ OLPLW

nini u(x) olGXXQX NDEXO

edelim. HLWVL]OLLQGHQ u n + m ( x) u n ( x) = u n + m ( x) u ( x) + u ( x) u n ( x) < yazabiliriz.

GRUXVX

{u n (x)}

 GL]LVL \DNQVDN ROGXXQGDQ OLPLW GXUXPXQGD GDKD

n > n4 ( ) > 0 NRXOXQXQVDODQGKHUnGHHULLoLQ

u n + m ( x) u ( x) u n ( x) u ( x)
RODFDQGDQ

u n + m ( x) u n ( x) = 2 u n ( x) ( x) < ve buradan da

u n ( x) u ( x) <

< 2
x X
LoLQ JHUoHNOHQGLLQGHQ

\D]DELOLUL] %X HLWVL]OLN

{u n (x)}

fonksiyon

dizisinin X kmesinde u(xIRQNVL\RQXQDG]JQ\DNQVDGDQODOU Teorem 2 (Diziler iin Weierstrass lt). { n (x)} fonksiyon ve pozitif u terimli bir {an`VD\GL]LVLYHULOPLROVXQ(HU lim a n = 0
n

(5)

ve n N ve x X iin u n ( x) u ( x) a n
NRXOODU VDODQ\RUVD

(6)

{u n (x)}

fonksiyon dizisi X kmesinde dzgn

\DNQVDNWUYHOLPLWLGH

u(x) fonksiyonudur.
> 0  VD\V LoLQ |OH ELU

VSDW /LPLW WDQP YH  EDQWVQD J|UH

n4 ( ) > 0 VD\VEXOXQDELOLUNL n > n4 ( ) NRXOXQXVDOD\DQKHUnVD\VLoLQ a n = a n < ({an`IR]LWLIWHULPOLELUVD\GL]LVLROGXXQGDQ) olur. Bu durumda, n > n4 ( ) 

HLWVL]OLLQGHQ NRXOXQX VDOD\DQ WP

nler iin, (6)

u n ( x) ( x) < u yazabiliriz. Bu da bize, { n (x)} fonksiyon dizisinin X kmesinde dzgn

\DNQVDROGXXQXYHOLPLWLQLQGH

u(xIRQNVL\RQXROGXXQXJ|VWHULU

rnek 4.
$DGDNLGL]LOHULQG]JQ\DNQVDNROGXNODUQJ|VWHULQL]

3x + n 2 x 3 cos nx a) ; b) 2 2 n 1+ n x a) u n ( x) = cos nx  IRQNVL\RQ GL]LVL WP VD\ HNVHQLQGH \DQL ( , ) sonsuz n

DoNDUDOQGDWDQPOGUYH

u n ( x) 0 =

cos nx 1 0 n n
IRQNVL\RQ GL]LVL UHHO VD\ODU NPHVLQGH

ROGXXQGDQ

cos nx  n

u(x) = 0

fonksiyonuna dzgn yDNQVDNWU 3 x + n 2 x 3 x(1 + n 2 x 2 ) + 2 x 2x b) = = x+ 2 2 2 2 1+ n x 1+ n x 1+ n2 x2

ROGXXQGDQ

u n ( x) x = olur.

2x 2x = 2 2 1+ n x 1+ n2 x2

(1 n x ) 2 = 1 + n 2 x 2 2n x
|]GHOLLQGHQ\DUDUODQUVDN

2n x 1 + n 2 x 2
RODFDQGDQ

u n ( x) x =

2x 1+ n x
2 2

1 2n x 1 0 n 1+ n2 x2 n

3x + n 2 x 3 elde ederiz. O halde fonksiyon dizisi 2 2 1+ n x

DUDOQGDWDQPOYH

( , )

 VRQVX] DoN

u(x) = xIRQNVL\RQXQDG]JQ\DNQVDNWU

8\DU

7DQP

E|OJHVLQGH

ELU

{u n (x)}

IRQNVL\RQ

GL]LVLQLQ

\DNQVDNO

DUDWUOUNHQ[HELUSDUDPHWUHJLELEDNODUDN

lim u n ( x) DUDWUOU
n

n + ax n rnek 5. dizisinin limitini bulunuz, ( a R YH x (, ) ). n x = 0 veya a

GXUXPXQGDOLPLWLQRODFDDoNWULPGL

a 0 YH x 0

GXUXPODUQGLNNDWHDODOP

n n ax n + ax lim u n ( x ) = lim = lim (1 + ) ax n n n n n

ax

= e ax

olur.

1.2. D]JQ<DNQVDN'L]LOHULQg]HOOLNOHUL 1.2.1. Fonksiyon Dizilerinin /LPLWOHULQLQ6UHNOLOLL u Bir { n (x)}

IRQNVL\RQ GL]LVLQLQ KHU WHULPL GL]LQLQ WDQPO ROGXX DUDONWD

VUHNOL LNHQ OLPLW IRQNVL\RQX V|] NRQXVX DUDONWD VUHNOL ROPD\DELOLU

rnek

GH LQFHOHGLLPL]

nx dizisinin her bir terimi (, )  DoN DUDOQGD 1 + n x

VUHNOLROPDVQDNDUQOLPLWIRQNVL\RQX

1, HHU x (,0) nx = 0, lim HHU x = 0 n 1 + n x 1, HHU x (0, ) olup, x

  QRNWDVQGD VUHNVL]GLU (HU V|] NRQXVX GL]L\L

(, 0) ya da

(0, )  DUDONODUQGD LQFHOH\HFHN ROXUVDN KHP GL]LQLQ WHULPOHUL KHP GH OLPLW
IRQNVL\RQXEXDUDONODUQKHUELULQGHVUHNOLROXUODU

Teorem 1. Terimleri X kmesinde srekli olan bir {u n (x)} fonksiyon dizisi, bu araONWDbir u(xIRQNVL\RQXQDG]JQ\DNQVDUVDR]DPDQOLPLWIRQNVL\RQXGD X kmesinde srekli olur.
VSDW

{u n (x)} fonksiyon dizisisinin terimleri bir X kmesinde srekli ve dizi

u ( x + x) u ( x) in de yeteri kadar kk

bir u(xIRQNVL\RQXQDG]JQ\DNQVDNROVXQ%XGXUXPGD x, x + x X iin x

 \HWHULQFH NoN ROGXXQGD

RODFDQJ|VWHUHOLP

u ( x + x) u ( x) = u ( x + x) u n ( x + x) + u n ( x + x) u n ( x) + u n ( x) u ( x) u n ( x + x) u ( x + x) + u n ( x + x ) u n ( x) + u n ( x) u ( x) (1)

u n (x) fonkVL\RQODUQQ KHU ELUL X kmesinde srekli ve { n (x)} fonksiyon u dizisi, u(x IRQNVL\RQXQD G]JQ \DNQVDN ROGXXQGDQ > 0  VD\V LoLQ
|OH ELU

n4 ( ) > 0  VD\V EXOXQDELOLU NL n > n4 ( ) NRXOXQX VDOD\DQ KHU n

VD\VLoLQ

u n ( x + x ) u ( x + x ) <

; 3

u n ( x) u ( x) <

(2)

HLWVL]OLNOHUL YDUGU LPGL EX HLWVL]OLNOHULQ VDODQG DODOP %X GXUXPGD

n GHHUOHULQL GLNNDWH

u n (x)  IRQNVL\RQX VUHNOL ROGXXQGDQ  HOH DOQDQ > 0

ELU

sD\V

LoLQ

|OH

( ) > 0 

VD\V

EXOXQDELOLU

NL

EX

GXUXPGD

x < ( ) NRXOXQXVDOD\DQWP x ler ve x, x + x X iin u n ( x + x) u n ( x) < olur. Bylece

u ( x + x ) u ( x ) <
HOGH HGLOPL ROXU NL EX GD EL]H ROGXXQXJ|VWHULU

(3)

u(x)in, X kmesinde srekli bir fonksiyon

nx rnek 1.  2 2 1 + n x

IRQNVL\RQ GL]LVLQLQ G]JQ \DNQVDNOQ YH OLPLW

IRQNVL\RQXQXQVUHNOLOLLQLLQFHOH\LQL]

x = 0 QRNWDVQGD dizinin dzgn

DoNWULPGLGH

\DNQVDN YH OLPLWLQLQ

de u(x

  ROGXX

x 0 GXUXPXQDEDNDOP

x nx n lim = lim =0 n 1 + n 2 x 2 n 1 + x2 n2
ROGXXQGDQGL]LWPUHHOVD\ODUGD\DNQVDNYHOLPLWLVIUGU

. Ancak R-{0}

kmesinde 2nx 1 + n 2 x 2
|]GHOLLQGHQ\DUDUODQUVDN

lim c n = lim sup u n ( x) u ( x) = lim sup

n n xR {0}

n xR {0}

nx 1 = 0 2 2 2 1+ n x

nx elde ederiz ki, bu da bize, fonksiyon dizisinin R-{0} kmesinde 2 2 1 + n x

G]JQ \DNQVDN ROPDGQ J|VWHULU 6|] NRQXVX IRQNVL\RQ GL]LVL UHHO VD\ODUGDG]JQ\DNQVDNROPDPPDVQDNDUQOLPLWIRQNVL\RQXROD IRQNVL\RQXUHHOVD\ODUGDVUHNOLELUIRQNVL\RQGXU

n u(x) = 0

10

8\DU

7HRUHP GHNL G]JQ \DNQVDNON NRXOXO

imit fonksiyonunun srekli ,

ROPDV LoLQ \HWHUOL IDNDW JHUHNOL GHLOGLU <DQL \DNQVDN ROPD\DQ ED] IRQNVL\RQ GL]LOHULQLQ

, bir X kmesinde dzgn

OLPLW IRQNVL\RQODU  WDQP

DUDOQGDVUHNOLRODELOLU

1.2.2)RQNVL\RQ'L]LOHULQLQ7HULPWHULPQWHJUDOOHQHELOLUOLL
7DQP

{u n (x)} dizisi iin

x x x4 x4 n

lim u n (t )Gt = lim u n (t )Gt

n

(4)

ise, {u n (x)} dizisine [xo, x] araOQGDWHULPWHULPLQWHJUDOOHQHELOLUGL]LGHQLU Teorem 2. Terimleri [a, b@ DUDOQGD VUHNOL RODQ IRQNVL\RQODUGDQ ROXDQ ELU

{un (x)}

 GL]LVL EX DUDONWD

u(x IRQNVL\RQXQD G]JQ \DNQVDUVD R ]DPDQ

x4 , x [a, b] olmak zere,

x x u n (t )Gt dizisi de [a, b@DUDOQGD u (t )Gt fonksiyonuna dzgn x4 x4
\DNQVDU

VSDW

[a, b@ DUDOQGD {u n (x)} dizisi u(x IRQNVL\RQXQD G]JQ \DNQVDN

> 0 
VD\V LoLQ |OH ELU

ROGXXQGDQ

n4 ( ) > 0 

VD\V EXOXQDELOLU NL

n > n4 ( ) NRXOXQXVDOD\DQKHUnVD\VYHWP x [a, b] iin u n ( x) ( x) <

ba

(5) u n (x) ler ve u (x) , [a, b@GH VUHNOL ROGXXQGDQ

HLWVL]OLL VDODQU 7P

Teorem 1e gre
DOUVDNWP

x4

un (t )Gt ve
x

x4

u(t )Gt

LQWHJUDOOHULYDUGUHLWOLLQLGLNNDWH

n > n4 ( ) ve tm x [a, b ] iin

x4

un (t )Gt u(t )Gt

x4

IDUNQGHHUO

endirelim.

11

x4

un (t )Gt u(t )Gt =

x4

x4 x

[u (t ) u(t )]Gt
n n

x4

(t ) u (t ) Gt
x

Gt b a ( x x4 ) ba x
4

x elde ederiz. Buna gre, u n (t )Gt dizisinin limiti x4

%XQDJ|UH7HRUHPJHUHLQFH

x4

u(t )Gt

fonksiyonudur.

x4 , x [a, b] olmak zere,

lim u n (t )Gt =
n x4

x4

u (t )Gt =

x4

lim u (t )Gt
n n

(6)

\D]DELOLUL]  HLWOLL EL]H WHULPOHUL EHOOL ELU DUDONWD VUHNOL IRQNVL\RQODUGDQ ROXDQELUGL]LQLQWHULPWHULPLQWHJUDOOHQHELOHFHLQLLIDGHHGHU

8\DU

Bir fonksiyon dizisinin terim terim integrallenebilmesi iin bu dizinin

DUDONWD G]JQ \DNQVDPDV \HWHUOLGLU IDNDW JHUHNOL GHLOGLU

verilen

Yani,

G]JQ \DNQVDN ROPD\S GD \DOQ]FD \DNQVDN RODQ ED] GL]LOHU GH LOJLOL DUDONWDWHULPWHULPLQWHJUDOOHQHELOLU

olabilirler. Buna bir rnek verelim.

rnek 2. x n

{ } diz

LVLQLQ > @ DUDOQGD G]JQ \DNQVDN YH WHULP WHULP

LQWHJUDOOHQHELOLUROXSROPDGQLQFHOH\LQL]

0, 0 x < 1 zm. lim x n = n 1 x = 1

ROGXXQGDQ GL]L > @ DUDOQGD \DNQVDNWU IDNDW G]JQ \DNQVDN GHLOGLU

(neden ?). Bununla birlikte, lim u n (t )Gt = lim t n Gt = lim

n 0 n 0 1 1

1n+1 0 n+1 =0 n Q +

ve

12

1 1 lim u n (t )Gt = lim lim t n Gt + lim t n Gt = 0 n 0 n n 1 0

ROGXXQGDQ

lim un (t )Gt = lim un (t )Gt

0 0 n

elde edilir. Buna gre x n

{ }

GL]LVL>@DUDOQGDG]JQ\DNQVDNROPDPDNOD

birlikte, terim terim integrallenebilir bir dizidir. 1.2.3. Fonksiyon Dizilerinin Terim terim 7UHYOHQHELOLUOLL
7DQP%LUDUDONWD

{u n (x)} dizisi iin

(7)

lim u n ( x) = ( lim u n ( x) )
n n

oluyorsa, {u n (x)} GL]LVLQH V|] NRQXVX DUDONWD WHULP WHULP WUHYOHQHELOLU GL]L denir. Teorem 3. Terimleri [a, b] DUDOQGD trevlenebilen IRQNVL\RQODUGDQ ROXDQ bir { n (x)} GL]LVL EX DUDONWD u(x IRQNVL\RQXQD \DNQV\RU YH { (x)} trev u un diziVL
D\Q DUDONWD ELU

v(x

IRQNVL\RQXQD G]JQ \DNQV\RU

sa, o zaman,

u ( x) = v( x) dir, yani
v ( x ) = lim u n ( x ) = ( lim u n ( x ) ) = u ( x )
n n

(8)

dir.

VSDW

{u n (x)} trev dizisi, [a, b

x x

@DUDOQGD

v(xIRQNVL\RQXQDG]JQ\DNQVDN

ROGXXQGDQ7HRUHP\HJ|UH

, x4 , x [a, b] olmak zere,

x

lim u n (t )Gt =
n x4

x4

lim u (t )Gt = v(t )Gt n

n x4

(9)

yani, lim[u n ( x) u n ( x4 )] = u ( x) u ( x4 ) = v(t )Gt

n x4 x

(10)

13

\D]DELOLUL]HLWOLLQLQWUHYLDOQUVD

u ( x) = v ( x) = lim u n ( x)
n

elde edilir.

1 rnek 3. x 2 + 2 dizisinin a) ( , ); b) (0, ) DUDONODUQGDWHULPWHULP n intHJUDOOHQHELOLUOLLQLYHWUHYOHQHELOLUOLLQLLQFHOH\LQL] zm a) Dizinin terimleri ( , )DUDOQGDVUHNOLYHJHQHOWHULPLQOLPLWL

lim u n ( x ) = lim
n
GLU$\UFD

x2 +

1 = x n2
1 x n2

lim cn = lim sup u n ( x) u ( x ) = lim sup

n n x( , )

n x( , )

x2 +

lim sup

1 n
2

n x( , )

1 x + 2 +x n
2

=0

ROGXXQGDQ

2 1 x + 2 dizisi ( , ) DUDOQGDG]JQ\DNQVDNWUYHOLPLWL n

de u ( x) = x fonksiyonudur. Buna gre dizi terim terim integrallenebilirdir ve x4 , x ( , ) olmak zere,

lim
n

x4

1 t + 2 /t = n
2

x4

1 lim t + 2 /t = t /t n n x4
2

dir. LPGLGHGL]LQLQWUHYOHQHELOLUROXSROPDGQDUDWUDOP lim u n ( x) =

n

1, x > 0 = 0, x = 0 1 x 2 + 2 1 x < 0 n x

14

ROGXXQGDQWUHYGL]LVLG]JQ\DNQVDNGHLOGLU2KDOGH

2 1 x + 2 dizisi, n

( , )

DUDOQGDWHULPWHULPWUHYOHQHELOLUGL]LGHLOGLU

b) Dizinin (0, ) 

DUDOQGD WHULP WHULP LQWHJUDOOHQHELOLU ROGXX DoNWU

'L]LQLQ EX DUDONWD WHULP WHULP WUHYOHQHELOLU ROGXXQX J|VWHUPHN LoLQ WUHY GL]LVLQLQ D\Q DUDONWD G]JQ \DNQVDN ROGXXQX J|VWHUPHPL] JHUHNLU

(0, )

DUDOQGD

lim u ( x) = 1 dir. n
n

<DQLV|]NRQXVXDUDONWDWUHYGL]LVL\DNQVDNWU

LPGL\DNQVDNOQG]JQROXSROPDGQDUDWUDOP

lim cn = lim sup u n ( x) u ( x) = lim sup =

n n x( , ) n x( , )

x 1 x + 2 n
2

1 =

x x2 + = lim sup
n x( , )

x2 +

1 n2

1 n 2 = lim sup

n x( , )

n2

1 1 1 2 2 x + 2 x + x + 2 n n

lim
n

n2

1 =0 1 1 1 + 2 x + 1 + 2 n n

dir. O halde, trev dizisi, (0, )  DUDOQGD G]JQ \DNQVDNWU YH EX QHGHQOH 2 1 x + 2 dizisi, (0, ) DUDOQGDWHULPWHULPtrevlenebilir dizidir. n

)RQNVL\RQ6HULOHULQGH<DNQVDNON 7HULPOHUL KHUKDQJL ELU E|OJHGH WDQPO IRQNVL\RQODUGDQ ROXDQ VHUL\H

fonksiyon serisi denir ve u1 ( x) + u 2 ( x) + ... + u n ( x) + ... veya

n =1

u n ( x)

(1)

15

HNOLQGH J|VWHULOLU 6HULQLQ WHULPOHULQLQ KHUKDQJL ELU EHOOL |]HOOLNOHUH VDKLS ROGXNODUQ YDUVD\DOP

D E|OJHVLQGH WDQPO YH x yerine belli bir xo VD\V

\D]OGQGD  VHULVLQLQ

n =1

u n ( xo )

VD\ VHULVLQH G|QHFHL DoNWU (HU

n =1

u n ( xo )

 VD\ VHULVL \DNQVDN LVH

n =1

u n ( x)

fonksiyon serisine, xo QRNWDVQGD

\DNQVDNVHULYH

xoQRNWDVQDGDVHULQLQELU\DNQVDNONQRNWDVGHQLU(HUELU fonksiyon serisi herhangi bir X D  NPHVLQLQ WP QRNWDODUQGD \DNQVDN oluyorsa, seriye, XNPHVLQGH\DNQVDNVHULGHQLU (HU IRQNVL\RQ VHULVL ELU X NPHVLQGH \DNQVDN YH EX NPHQLQ GQGDNL KHU QRNWDGD UDNVDN LVH X NPHVLQH \D GD DUDOQD VHULQLQ
\DNQVDNON NPHVL \D GD \DNQVDNONDUDO GHQLU gUQHLQ 

n =1

x n fonksiyon

serisi, x < 1 

NRXOXQX VDOD\DQ WP

x

GHHUOHUL LoLQ VRQVX] D]DODQ ELU

JHRPHWULN GL]LQLQ WRSODP ROGXXQGDQ \DNQVDNWU

x 1  NROXQX VDOayan x -1,

GHHUOHULLoLQVHVHULUDNVDNWU2KDOGH

n =1
 DUDOGU

xn

VHULVLQLQ\DNQVDNONNPHVL

Bir fonksiyon serisi xLQ KLo ELU GHHUL LoLQ \DNQVDN ROPD\DELOLU
n =1

%|\OHELUVHULQLQ\DNQVDNONDUDOERNPHGLUgUQHLQ

(1 + x) n serisinin

\DNQVDNONDUDOERNPHGLUdQN

x R iin lim (1 + x) n 0 GU

n

7DQP

1. (1) serisinin ilk n (n

WHULPLQLQ WRSODPQDVHULQLQ

n NVPL

WRSODPGHQLUYH

sn ( x) = u1 ( x) + u 2 ( x) + ... + u n ( x)
HNOLQGH J|VWHULOLU $\UFD

{sn (x)}

 IRQNVL\RQ GL]LVLQH GH VHULQLQ NVPL

toplamlar dizisi denir. 2. Herhangi bir X D kmesinde,

7DQP

{sn (x)}

 NVPL WRSODPODU GL]LVL \DNQVDN LVH

\DNQVDNVHULGHQLU

x X ROPDN]HUHNVPLWRSODPODUGL]LVLQLQ

n =1

u n ( x)

n =1

u n ( x)

fonksiyon serisinin

serisine, X kmesinde

lim sn ( x) = s ( x)

16

OLPLWLQHGHVHULQLQWRSODPGHQLU

7DQP

3.(HUVHULVL\DNQVDNLVHNVPLWRSODPWDQPQGDQ\DUDUODQDUDN s( x) = u1 ( x) + u 2 ( x) + ... + u n ( x) + ... = sn ( x) + Rn ( x)

biiminde yazabiliriz. Burada, Rn ( x) = u n +1 ( x) + u n + 2 ( x) + ... = u k ( x) k = n +1

ROXSVHULVLQLQNDODQWHULPLRODUDNDGODQGUOUVHULVLQLQ\DNQVDNROPDV

durumunda
n

lim Rn ( x) = 0

olur. Bu durumda s(xIRQNVL\RQXVHUL\HDoOPWUGHQLU Not: (HU ELU s(xIRQNVL\RQXQX WHULPOHULDUGDUGD LDUHW GHLWLUHQ ELUVHULQLQ ilk n terimi ile temsil edersek, \DSP RODFDP] KDWD n+1). terimden kk
ROXU%DNDELUGHLOHWHULPOHULDUGDUGDLDUHWGHLWLUHQVHULOHUGH

Rn ( x) < u n +1 ( x) dir.

7DQP

4.

n =1

u n ( x)

serisi, bir

X D

NPHVLQGH \DNQVDN ROGXXQGD

n =1

u n ( x)

serisine, X NPHVLQGH PXWODN \DNQVDN VHUL GHQLU 6D\ VHULOHULQGH

ROGXX JLEL PXWODN \DNQVDN IRQNVL\RQ VHULOHUL GH D\Q ]DPDQGD \DNQVDNWU %XQXQ WHUVL GRUX GHLOGLU <DQL \DNQVDN RODQ ELU VHUL D\Q ]DPDQGD PXWODN \DNQVDNROPD\DELOLU%XQXELU|UQHNOHJ|VWHUHOLP

rnek 1. olup,

xn n n =1

VHULVLQLGLNNDWH DODOP

-1,

DUDOQGD

x < 1 ve

<x

n =1

xn

 JHRPHWULN VHULVL PXWODN \DNQVDN ROGXXQGDQ E|\OHFH

n =1

xn

17

JHRPHWULNVHULVL\DNQVDNWU

xn n n =1

VHULVLGH\DNQVDNWU

x = -QRNWDVQGDLVH

seri,

(1) n n n =1

ELoLPLQGHLDUHWLQLDUGDUGDGHLWLUHQELUVHULGLUYH\DNQVDNWU

O halde,

xn serisi [ 1, 1)DUDOQGD\DNQVDNWU+DOEXNLx = -QRNWDVQGD n n =1

PXWODN \DNQVDN GHLOGLU

nk bu durumda

(1) n 1 = harmonik n n n =1 n =1

VHULVLHOGHHGLOLUYHKDUPRQLNVHULUDNVDNWU

2 KDOGH |]HWOH\HFHN ROXUVDN PXWODN \DNQVDN VHULOHU D\Q ]DPQGD \DNQVDN VHULOHULNHQ\DNQVDNVHULOHUD\Q]DPDQGDPXWODN\DNQVDNROPD\DELOLUOHU

7DQP

4.

n =1

un ( x) serisi, bir X D  NPHVLQGH \DNQVDN LNHQ

n =1

n =1

u n ( x)

VHULVLUDNVDNROX\RULVH

un ( x) serisine,

XNPHVLQGHNRXOOX\DNQVDNVHUL xn n serisi, (-  n =1

GHQLU %XQD J|UH \XNDUGD LQFHOHGLLPL]L

DUDOQGD

PXWODN\DNQVDN

[ 1, 1)
xn
n

DUDOQGDLVHNRXOOX\DNQVDNELUVHULGLU

rnek 2. a)

n =13

; b)

n =1

n 2e nx ;

c)

nn (1 + e x ) n n=1

VHULOHULQLQ \DNQVDNON

DUDOQYH\DNQVDNONWUQEHOLUOH\LQL]

zm a)6HULQLQ\DNQVDNRODELOPHVLLoLQG$OHPEHUW|OoWQHJ|UH u n +1 <1 n un lim

NRXOXVDODQPDOGU%XQDJ|UH

x n +1
n

lim

3n +1 (n + 1) x
n

= lim x

n <1 n 3( n + 1)

3n n

18

 x lim x <3

x n = <1 3 n 3( n + 1)

elde edilir. O halde seri, x < 3  GXUXPXQGD \DNQVDN x > 3 durumunda ise UDNVDNWUx=3 durumunda
n =1

3n n n
=
n =1

xn

ROXUYHVHULUDNVDNWU

x=-3 durumunda ise

n =1

3n n =

xn

(1) n alterne serisi elde edilir ve genel teULPL VIUD JLWWLLQGHQ n n =1

n =13

\DNQVDNWU 6RQXo RODUDN

xn
n

 VHULVLQLQ \DNQVDNON \DUoDS  YH

\DNQVDNONDUDO

[ 3, 3)tr.

b) Serinin genel terimi u n ( x) = n 2 e nx olup, (, )  DUDOQGD WDQPO YH daima pozitiftir. dAlembert ltne gre u n +1 (n + 1) 2 e ( n +1) x (n + 1) 2 = lim = e x lim = ex <1 2 nx n un n n n 2 n e lim ve buradan da x < 0 elde ederiz. Buna gre seri (, 0)  DUDOQGD \DNQVDN
VHUL

[0, )

SR]LWLI

WHULPOL

ROGXXQGDQ

D\Q

]DPDQGD

PXWODN

\DNQVDNWU

DUDOQGDLVHUDNVDNWU6HUL

x = 0 GDQLoLQUDNVDNWU"

c)6HULSR]LWLIWHULPOLGLU&DXFK\|OoWQX\JXOD\DOP lim n u n ( x) = lim n

n n
ROGXXQGDQVHULUDNVDNWU

nn n = lim = x n n 1 + e x (1 + e )

rnek 3. a)

n (1)n1 ; b) ln x x n n=1 n n =1 (1 + e )

 VHULOHULQLQ \DNQVDNON DUDOQ YH

\DNQVDNONWUQEHOLUOH\LQL]

19

zm a) Seri, (0, )  DUDOQGD WDQPO RODQ YH WHULPOHUL DUG DUGQD LDUHW
GHLWLUHQ ELU VHULGLU %X QHGHQOH RQXQ WHULPOHULQLQ PXWODN GHHUOHULQGHQ ROXDQ

n =1

(1) n 1 n
ln x

n =1

nln x
p = ln x WDQPODPDVQ\DSDUVDN

VHULVLQLGLNNDWHDODOP%XUDGD

n =1

(1) n 1 n
ln x

n =1

np
VHULVLQLQ \DNQVDN RODELOPHVL LoLQ

p > 1  ROPDV JHUHNWLLQL ELOL\RUX] %XQD J|UH p serisi, ln x > 1 ya da x > e durumunda \DNQVDN (0, e ]GXUXPXQGD GD UDNVDNWU 2 KDOGH EL]LP RULMLQDl serimiz de (e, )  DUDOQGD PXWODN \DNQVDN ROXU LPGL VHULPL]LQ (0, e] DUDOQGD NRXOOX\DNQVDNROXSROPDGQDUDWUDOP ln x fonksiyonu x<1 iin negatif, x>1 iin pozitiftir. Bu nedenle nce (0, 1]  DUDOQGD LQFHOH\HOLP x (0, 1] ve ln x 0 ROGXXQdan p serisini elde ederiz. p lim (1) n 1 n ln x 0

ROXU%XGXUXPGDVHULQLQJHQHOWHULPLVIUDJLWPHGLLLoLQUDNVDNWU

ln x > 0  ROGXXQGDQ WHULPOHULQLQ LDUHWL DUG DUGQD GHLHQELUVHULLOHNDUNDU\DNDOU]%X serinin genel terimi iin
 DUDOQGD LVH

(1, e]

lim

(1) n 1 n ln x

=0 (1)n1 fonksiyon serisi (1, ) ln x n =1 n (1, e] DUDOQGD NRXOOX \DNQVDN (e, ) aUDOQGD LVH

RODFDQGDQ VHUL \DNQVDNWU %XQD J|UH

DUDOQGD \DNQVDN PXWODN\DNQVDNWU

1.4)RQNVL\RQ6HULOHULQGH']JQ<DNQVDNON Terimleri herhangi bir X D E|OJHVLQGHWDQPORODQ u1 ( x) + u 2 ( x) + ... + u n ( x) + ...

IRQNVL\RQVHULVLQLQNVPLWRSODPODUGL]LVL

(1)

{sn (x)}

20

sn ( x) = u1 ( x) + u 2 ( x) + ... + u n ( x ) olsun. .

(2)

7DQP 

.VPL WRSODPODU GL]LVL KHUKDQJL ELU

X D kmesinde dzgn

\DNQVDNRODQIRQNVL\RQVHULVLQHEXNPHGHG]JQ\DNQVDNVHULGHQLU7DQP JHUHL

sn ( x ) s ( x ) ise

DY

(x X )

(3)

s( x) = u1 ( x) + u 2 ( x) + ... + u n ( x) + ... s( x) = sn ( x) + Rn ( x)

(x X )

(4)

ROXU.DODQWHULPWDQPQGDNXOODQDUDNVRQHLWOLL

(5)

HNOLQGH\D]DELOLUL]%XQDJ|UHLIDGHVL\HULQHRQXQODGHQNRODQ

Rn ( x) 0

DY

( x X ) yani lim sup Rn ( x) = 0

n

(x X )

(6)

LIDGHVLQL \D]DELOLUL] 2 KDOGH G]JQ \DNQVDN ELU IRQNVL\RQ VHULVLQLQ NDODQ WHULPL V|]NRQXVX E|OJHGH VIUD G]JQ \DNQVDU /LPLW WDQP NXOODQODUDN G]JQ\DNQVDNOQWDQPDDGDNLJLELGHYHULOHELOLU

7DQPD

. Keyfi bir > 0 VD\VQDNDUON no ( , x) > 0 olmak zere, x X

iin, s( x) sn ( x) = Rn ( x) <
HLWVL]OLLVDODQDFDNHNLOGH

(7)

n > n4 ( ) VD\ODUEXOXQDELOL\RUVDVHULVLQH X

kmesinde dzgQ\DNQVDNIRQNVL\RQVHULVL ve s(x)e de serinin limiti denir.

rnek 1. a)

n+
n=1

(1) n 1+ x
2

; b) ( x 2 1) + ( x 4 x 2 ) + ... + ( x 2 n x 2 n2 ) + ...

6HULOHULQLQG]JQ\DNQVDNONODUQDUDWUQ]

zm a) Seri (, ) DUDOQGDWDQPOYHVUHNOLROXSDUGDUGQDLDUHW
GHLWLUHQWHULPOHUHVDKLSWLU%XQHGHQOHNDODQWHULPLLoLQ

21

Rn ( x) u n+1 ( x) = olur. Buna gre,

1 n +1+ 1+ x
2

1 , x (, ) n+2

lim sup Rn ( x) = lim

n n

1 = 0, x (, ) n+2

HOGHHGHUL]2KDOGHNDODQWHULPVIUDG]JQ\DNQVDGQGDQV|]NRQXVXVHUL

(, ) DUDOQGDG]JQ\DNQVDNWU b) Seri (, ) DUDOQGDWDQPOYHVUHNOLROXSnNVPLWRSODP

sn ( x) = ( x 2 1) + ( x 4 x 2 ) + ... + ( x 2 n x 2 n2 ) = x 2 n 1

dir. x > 1 LoLQVHULQLQUDNVDNROGXX x 1 durumunda ise 0, HHU x = 1, 1) = 1, HHU x < 1, 0, HHU x = +1

lim sn ( x) = lim( x
n n

2n

olduX DoNWU %XQD J|UH V|] NRQXVX VHUL [ 1, 1]  DUDOQGD \DNQVDN YH
WRSODPGD

0, HHU x = 1, s( x) = 1, HHU x < 1, 0, HHU x = +1 dir. Serinin limiti, [ 1, 1]  DUDOQGD VUHNOL ROPDGQGDQ VHUL V|] NRQXVX
DUDONWDG]JQ\DNQVDNGHLOGLU

DzJQ \DNQVDNOQ WDQP YH \XNDUGDNL |UQHN GLNNDWH DOQDUDN YHULOHQ ELU
DUDONWD \DNQVDN RODQ ELU IRQNVL\RQ VHULVLQLQ EX DUDONWD G]JQ \DNQVDN ROPD\DELOHFHLQL EHOLUWHOLP ']JQ \DNQVDN VHULOHU LVH D\Q ]DPDQGD \DNQVDNWUODU

Teorem 1 (Cauchy lt).

n =1
VHoLOHQVD\ODUROPDN]HUH

u n ( x)

serisinin herhangi bir X kmesinde

G]JQ \DNQVDN ROPDV LoLQ JHUHN YH \HWHU NRXO

x X iin

> 0 ve m N keyfi

22

sn + m ( x ) sn ( x ) =

n+m

k = n +1

( x) <

(8)

HLWVL]OLLVDODQDFDNHNLOGH

n > n0 ( ) > 0 VD\ODUQQYDURODELOPHVLGLU

7DQP 

. Herhangi bir X NPHVLQGH WDQPO

(HU

n N iin

n =1

u n ( x)

serisini GLNNDWH DODOP

u n ( x) < an
NRXOX VDOD DFDN HNLOGH SR]LWLI WHULPOL \DNQVDN

(9) bir

a
n=1

n  VD\ VHULVL

bulunabilirse, o zaman

n =1

un ( x) serisine X
sin x 1 < 2 2 2 n + x +1 n

NPHVLQGHVQUODQDQVHULYH

a
n=1

\DNQVDNVD\VHULVLQHGHRQXQVQUOD\DQGHQLU

gUQHLQ

n N

iin

 ROGXXQGDQ

n
n =1

sin x serisi + x2 + 1

1 VQUODQDQGUYH 2 n =1 n

\DNQVDN

serisi deRQXQVQUOD\DQGU

Teorem 2. (Weierstrass lt)

+HUKDQJL ELU NPHGH VQUO

anan seri, o

NPHGHPXWODNYHG]JQ\DNQVDNWU

VSDW

n =1

u n ( x)

serisinin bir X NPHVLQGH VQUODQDQ ROGXXQX NDEXO HGHOLP

%X GXUXPGD  NRXOX VDODQDFDN HNLOGH ELU 

a
n=1

n  VD\ VHULVL YDUGU %XQD

J|UH NDUODWUPD |OoW JHUHLQFH

u
n=1

( x)  VHULVL \DNQVDNWU %DND ELU

PXWODN \DNQVDNWU LPGL

GHLOH

n =1

u n ( x)

fonksiyon serisi, X kmesinde

V|] NRQXVX VHULQLQ G]JQ \DNQVDN RODFDQ J|VWHUHOLP (HU  NRXOX VDODQ\RUVDNH\ILE

ir m N VD\VYH x X iin
n+ m

sn +m sn =

n +m

k = n+1

u k ( x)

k = n+1

uk ( x) < ak < ak = Rn
k = n+1 k = n+1

n +m

(10)

23

yazabiliriz. Burada Rn,

an  VD\ VHULVLQLQ NDODQ WHULPLGLU YH

n=1

a
n =1

serisi

\DNQVDNROGXXQGDQNH\ILELU

> 0 VD\VLoLQ|\OHELU n0 ( ) > 0 VD\VYDUGU

k = n +1

ki, n > n0 ( )  NRXOXQX VDOD\DQ WP nler iin halde, sn +m sn =

n +m k = n+1

= Rn <  VDODQU O

( x) <

GU

ve Cauchy ltne gre x2 4n + n 2 x 2 n=0

n =1

un ( x) serisi, X

NPHVLQGHG]JQ\DNQVDNWU

rnek 2.

VHULVLQLQ\DNQVDNOQLQFHOH\LQL]

zm.

x2 4n + n 2 x 2 serisi, (, )  DUDOQGD WDQPO VUHNOL YH SR]LWLI n=0 terimli bir seridir. Serinin, x =  QRNWDVQGa 0a \DNQVDG DoNWU LPGL, x 0 durumunu inceleyelim.
x2 x2 1 < 2 2 = 2 4 n + n 2 x 2 n =0 n x n =0 n n =0

dir ve

n
n =0

1
2

 VD\ VHULVL 

p serisi, p

 \DNQVDN ROGXXQGDQ

Weierstrass

ltJHUHLQFH
\DNQVDNWU

x2 4n + n 2 x 2 fonksiyon serisi de (, ) DUDOQGDG]JQ n=0

rnek 3.
DUDWUQ]

(1 x 2 n )1 2 serisinin, [ 1,1] DUDOQGD \DNQVDN ROXS ROPDGQ 3n n =0

zm. x [ 1,1]DUDOQGD 0 x 2 n 1 ve 0 1 x 2 n 1 ROGXXQGDQ

(1 x 2 n )1 2 1 n , x [ 1,1] 3n n =0 n =0 3

24

olur.

3
n =0

1
n

 VD\ VHULVL \DNQVDN ROGXXQGDQ

Weierstrass lt JHUHLQFH

(1 x 2 n )1 2 3n fonksiyon serisi, [ 1,1]DUDOQGDG]JQ\DNQVDNWU n=0 1.5. D]JQ<DNQVDN6HULOHULQg]HOOLNOHUL

%X NVPGD IRQNVL\RQ VHULOHULQLQ VUHNOLOLN GLIHUDQVL\HOOHQHELOLUOLN YH

LQWHJUDOOHQHELOLUOLNNRXOODUQLQFHOH\HFHL]

Teorem 1.

n =1

u n ( x)

serisinin terimleri bir X kmesinde srekli fonksiyonlar

olsun.(HUVHULEXNPHGHG]JQ\DNQVDNLVHD\Q]DPDQGDVUHNOLGLU
VSDW

n =1 n

un ( x) serisi x X
n

LoLQG]JQ\DNQVDN ROGXXQGDQWDQP JHUHL

lim Rn ( x) = 0 olur. Bu durumda,

n =1
ROXU (Q

un = uk ( x) + Rn ( x) uk ( x) = s( x)
k =1 k =1
VDGDNL WHULP VRQOX VD\GDNL VUHNOL IRQNVL\RQODUQ WRSODP

ROGXXQGDQNHQGLVLGHVUHNOLGLU2KDOGH

s(x) toplam fonksiyonu sreklidir.

$OWHUQDWLI RODUDN YH GDKD VQUO ELU X\JXODPD DODQ RODQ DDGDNL WHRUHPL LVSDWV]YHUOLP

Teorem 2 (Dini Teoremi). u n (x) ler bir X kmesinde srekli ve negatif

ROPD\DQ IRQNVL\RQODU ROPDN ]HUH HHU

n =1

u n ( x)

serisi, sz edilen kmede

srekli bir s(xIRQNVL\RQXQD\DNQVDUVDD\Q]DPDQGDG]JQ\DNQVDNWU Teorem 3 7HULPOHUL ELU ; NPHVLQGH VQUO UHHO GHHUOL YH LQWHJUDOOHQHELOLU
IRQNVL\RQODUGDQ ROXDQ

n =1

u n ( x)

 VHULVL EX DUDONWD ELU

s(x) fonksiyonuna

G]JQ \DNQV\RU LVH WHULP WHULPH LQWHJUDOOHQHELOLUGLU <DQL KHUKDQJL ELU

[a, b] X
b

DUDOLoLQ

s( x)dx = u1 ( x)dx + u2 ( x)dx +... + un ( x)dx +...

a a a

(1)

25

\DGDNVDFD

b u n ( x) dx = u n ( x)dx n =1 a a n =1

(2)

dir.
VSDW

. ']JQ \DNQVDN s( x) = u1 ( x) + u 2 ( x ) + ... + u n ( x) + ... serisini, kalan terimi cinsinden ifade ederek
b b k b k b un ( x) dx = un ( x) + Rk ( x) dx = un ( x) dx + Rk ( x)dx a n =1 a n =1 a n =1 a
6RQOX VD\GDNL WHULPOHULQ WRSODPQQ LQWHJUDOL WHULPOHULQ

\D]DELOLUL]

LQWHJUDOOHULQLQWRSODPQDHLWROGXXQGDQLQWHJUDO|]HOOLNOHULVRQHLWOLL

b k b u n ( x) dx = u n ( x)dx + Rk ( x)dx n =1 a a n =1 a

biiminde yazabiliriz. Burada, k LoLQOLPLWDOQUVD

b b u n ( x) dx = u n ( x)dx n =1 a a n =1

ROXU EXUDGD G]JQ \DNQVDN

s(x) serisi iin,

lim Rk ( x) = 0 

ROGXXQX

GLNNDWHDO\RUX]

rnek 1.

n =1

n2 + x

serisinin,

[0, a] [0, )

DUDOQGD

WHULP

WHULPH

LQWHJUDOOHQHELOLUROGXXQXJ|VWHULSLQWHJUDOLQLEXOXQX]

1 1 1 zm. x [0, ) iin u n ( x) = ve kuvvet serisi (p=2>1) n2 + x n2 n2 n =1

\DNQVDN ROGXXQGDQ

n =1

n2 + x

serisi, [0, )  DUDOQGD G]JQ \DNQVDNWU

ve V|]NRQXVXDUDONWDWHULPWHULPLQWHJUallenebilirdir. Bylece,

26

a dx a = ln(n 2 + x) = ln(1 + ), (0 < a < ) dx = 2 n + x 2 n2 n =1 0 n + x n =1 0 n =1 0 n =1

elde edilir. Burada,

n =1

ln(1 + n 2 )

serisinin de

[0, )

 DUDOQGD

dzgn x n2 )

\DNQVDN ROGXXQX EHOLUWHOLP dQN V|] NRQXVX DUDONWD

vn ( x ) = ln(1 + x

IRQNVL\RQODU VUHNOL YH

lim vn ( x) = 0

GU 2 KDOGH

n =1

ln(1 + n 2 )

serisi de

D\QDUDONWDWHULPWHULPHLQWHJUDOOHQHELOLUGLU

Teorem 4.

n =1

u n ( x) ,

bir [a, b ] X

DUDOQGD WUHYOHQHELOHQ IRQNVL\RQODUQ

ELU VHULVL ROVXQ (HU

n =1

un ( x) serisi

c [a, b ]

LoLQ QRNWDVDO \DNQVDN YH

n =1

un ( x )

serisi de bir g(x IRQNVL\RQXQD G]JQ \DNQVDN LVH V|] NRQXVX

DUDONWD

u n ( x) = u n ( x ) n =1 n =1 dir.

n =1

u n ( x)

VHULVLG]JQ\DNQVDNWUYH

(3)

VSDW

. g ( x) =

n =1

u n ( x)

serisi [a, b] DUDOQGD G]JQ \DNQVDN ROGXXQGDQ

7HRUHP  JHUHLQFH EX DUDONWD WHULP WHULPH LQWHJUDOOHQHELOLUGLU %XQD J|UH

[c, x] [a, b] olmak zere,

g (t )dt =
c

n =1 c

un (t )dt =

n =1

[un ( x) un (c)]

(4)

27

elde ederiz. Teorem 3e gre

n =1

[un ( x) un (c)]

serisi de [a, b] DUDOQGD

G]JQ \DNQVDNWU hVWHOLN WHRUHPLQ NRXOX JHUHLQFH

n =1
\DNQVDNWU %XUDGDQ

u n (c )

serisi de

n =1
%|\OHFHHLWOLLQL

un ( x) serisinin de dzg

Q \DNQVDN ROGXX DQODOU

g (t )dt =
c

n =1

u n ( x ) u n (c ) = s ( x ) s ( c )
n =1

(5)

biiminde yazabiliriz. Sol taraftaki ifade xe gre trevlenebilirdir ve trevi x x x x g (t )dt = u n (t )dt = u n (t )dt = u n (t )dt = u n ( x) = g ( x) n =1 n =1 c n =1 c c c n =1
GLU 2 KDOGH  HLWOLLQLQ VD WDUDI GD WUHYOHQHELOLU ROPDOGU %|\OHFH  HLWOLLQLQKHULNL\DQQQWUHYLDOQDUDN

g ( x) = s( x) elde edilir. g (x) fonksiyonu, fonksiyonu da sreklidir ve

(6)

[a, b]

 DUDOQGD VUHNOL ROGXXQGDQ

s(x)

s( x ) = u1 ( x) + u 2 ( x) + ... + u n ( x) + ... olur.

(7)

1.6. .XYYHW6HULOHULYH<DNQVDNON<DUoDSODU
7DQP

1.

a ( x a)
n n=0

= a0 + a1 ( x a) + a2 ( x a ) 2 + ... + an ( x a ) n + ...

(1)

HNOLQGH WDQPODQDQ VHULOHUH NXYYHW VHULOHUL GHQLU %XUDGD

ai (i = 0,1,2...) ler

kuvvet serisiniQNDWVD\ODUGU

28

Teorem 1 (Abel Teoremi).

QRNWDVQGD \DNQVDNVD

a ( x a)
n n =0

kuvvet serisi herhangi bir x4 0

x a < x4 a  NRXOXQX VDOD\DQ WP xler iin de

QRNWDVQGD \DNQVDN ROVXQ

PXWODNYHG]JQ\DNQVDNWU VSDW

. (1) kuvvet serisi, x4 0 

Bu durumda

lim an ( x4 a) n = 0 olur ve bu nedenle, tm nler iin an ( x4 a ) n M

n
HLWVL]OLL VDODQDFDN HNLOGH ELU

M !  VD\V bulunabilir. Her x a < x4 a ( x a) n ( x a) n Mq n M n n ( x4 a ) ( x4 a )

iin, a n ( x a ) n a n ( x4 a ) n

xa < 1 dir. x4 a ROGXXQGDQ, Weierstrass teoremine gre yazabiliriz. Burada, q =

Mq
n=1

JHRPHWULN VHULVL \DNQVDN

a x
n n=0

= a0 + a1 ( x a ) + a2 ( x a ) 2 + ... + an ( x a ) n + ...

(2)

VHULVLG]JQ\DNQVDNWU

O halde, x a < x4 a NRXOXQXVDOD\DQWPxler Buna gre, Abel

iin

a ( x a)
n n =0

 VHULVL PXWODN YH G]JQ \DNQVDNWU

WHRUHPLQGHQXVRQXoODUoNDUDELOLUL]

1.

a ( x a)
n n =0

kuvvet serisi herhangi bir x4 0 

QRNWDVQGD UDNVDNVD

x a > x4 a NRXOXQXVDOD\DQWPxOHULoLQGHUDNVDNWU 2. %LU NXYYHW VHULVLQLQ \DNQVDNON DUDO \D x = xo QRNWDVGU \D GD R > 0 olmak zere (x0-R, x0+R DUDO HNOLQGHGLU R VD\VQD NXYYHW VHULVLQLQ \DNQVDNON\DUoDSGHQLU R = GXUXPXQGD\DNQVDNONDUDO ( , ) olur. 3. %LUNXYYHWVHULVL\DNQVDNONDUDOLoHULVLQGHNLKHUKDQJLELUDUDONWDPXWODN
YHG]JQ\DNQVDNWU

(1) kuvvet serisi x a x

G|QPLOH

a x
n n=0

= a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + an x n + ...

(3)

29

\DUoDSODUD\QGU

biimine getirilebilir. stelik,  YH  VHULOHULQLQ KHU LNLVLQLQ GH \DNQVDNON Bu nedenle,EXQGDQVRQUDNLNVPGDELoLPLQGHNLNXYYHW

VHULOHULQLGLNNDWHDODFD]

Teorem 2.

a x
n n=0

kuvvet serisinin R\DNQVDNON\DUoDS

R = lim dir.

an n a n +1

(4)

VSDW '$OHPEHUW|OoWQHJ|UH\DNQVDNELUVHULLoLQ

lim

an+1 x n+1 a = x lim n+1 < 1 n a x n n a n n

dir.2KDOGHNXYYHWVHULVLQLQ\DNQVDNROGXXWPxGHHUOHULLoLQ x < lim olur ki, gsterir. an n a n +1 4

EX GD \DNQVDNON \DUoDS LoLQ   EDQWVQQ JHoHUOL ROGXXQX

8\DU

DAlembert ltne gre, bir seri lim an+1 x n+1 =1 n a x n n 4

GXUXPXQGDGD\DNQVDNRODELOLU2KDOGH\DNQVDNON\DUoDS EDQWVQGDQ

bulunduktan sonra, kuvvet serisinin x = -R ve x = RQRNWDODUQGD\DNQVDNROXS

ROPDG DUDWUOU 6RQXo RODUDN HHU \DNQVDNON \DUoDS VIUGDQ IDUNO LVH

a x
n n=0

kuvvet serisinin

\DNQVDNON DUDO

( R, R ), ( R, R ], [ R, R )

ya da

[ R, R]

DUDONODUQGDQELUL

olur.

30

rnek. bulunuz.

xn n n =1

 VHULVLQLQ

\DNQVDNON

\DUoDSQ YH \DNQVDNON

DUDOQ

7HRUHPJHUHLQFH

R = lim
n

an an+1

GLU2KDOGH\DNQVDNON\DUoDS

R = lim
n

an an+1

1 n +1 = lim n = lim =1 n n 1 n n +1

GLULPGLGL]LQLQ

x = -1 ve x

QRNWDODUQGDNL\DNQVDNONODUQDUDWUDOP

x = -QRNWDVQGD
xn (1) n = n n=1 n n =1

VD\VHULVLQLHOGHHGHUL]%XVHULQLQNDODQWHULPL

Rn =
GU YH

(1) k k k = n+1

Leibniz ltn VDODGQGDQ NDODQ WHULPLQ PXWODN GHHUL RQXQ LON 1 0 n +1

WHULPLQLQPXWODNGHHULQGHQE\NGHLOGLU<DQL

Rn

Buna gre seri, x = - QRNWDVQGD \DNQVDNWU <DQL x = - QRNWDV \DNQVDNON DUDOQD GDKLOGLU LPGL GH VHULQLQ x   QRNWDVQGDNL \DNQVDNOQ
DUDWUDOP%XGXUXPGDIRQNVL\RQVHULPL]

n =1

xn 1 = n n=1 n

KDUPRQLNVD\VHULVLQHG|QUNLKDUPRQLNVHULQLQUDNVDNROGXXQXELOL\RUX]

(dev)6RQXoRODUDN\DNQVDNONDUDO [ 1, 1) DUDOGU

31

rnek.

n =1

xn ( n + 1) 5 n ln( n + 1)

VHULVLQLQ\DNQVDNONDUDOQEXOXQX]

gQFH\DNQVDNON\DUoDSQEXODOP

R = lim
n

an an+1

1 (n + 2) ln(n + 2) (n + 1)5 ln(n + 1) = lim =5 = 5 lim n n ( n + 1) ln( n + 1) 1 (n + 2)5n+1 ln(n + 2)

n

\DQL VHULQLQ \DNQVDNON \DUoDS

R

 GLU LPGL \DNQVDNON DUDOQQ Xo

QRNWDODUQGD VHULQLQ \DNQVDN ROXS ROPDGQ DUDWUDOP

x = - QRNWDVQGD

seri,
(5) n (1) n = (n + 1)5n ln(n + 1) n=1 (n + 1) ln(n + 1) n =1

alterne

VD\ VHULVLQH G|QU YH /HLEQL] |OoWQH J|UH \DNQVDNWU

(?).x = 5

QRNWDVQGDLVHIRQNVL\RQVHULPL]

5n 1 = (n + 1)5n ln(n + 1) n=1 (n + 1) ln(n + 1) n =1

pozitif terimli VD\ VHULVLQH G|QU LPGL EX VHULQLQ \DNQVDNOQD EDNDOP Bunun iin integral ltn kullanabiliriz.QWHJUDO|OoWQHJ|UH f ( x) = 1 ( x + 1) ln( x + 1)

olmak

zere, 1

f ( x)dx
1

zel

olmayan

integrali

ile

pozitif

terimli

(n + 1) ln(n + 1)
n =1

VD\VHULVLD\Q]DPDQGD\DNQVDN\DGDUDNVDNWUODU

dx A 1 d ln( x + 1) d ln( x + 1) f ( x)dx = dx = x + 1 = = lim A ( x + 1) ln( x + 1) ln( x + 1) 1 ln( x + 1) ln( x + 1) 1 1 1

= lim ln( x + 1) 1 = lim [ln( A + 1) ln 2] =

A A A

DUDO

Buna gre seri de x   QRNWDVQGD UDNVDNWU 2 KDOGH VHULQLQ \DNQVDNON [ 5, 5) DUDOGU

32

Teorem 3.

a x
n n=0

kuvvet serisinin R\DNQVDNON\DUoDS

R= dir.

1 (lim n an )
n

(5)

VSDW 6D\VHULOHULLoLQ

Cauchy ltne gre,

lim n an x n = x lim n an < 1

n n

durumunda, pozitif terimli

a x
n n =0

= a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + an x n + ...

VHULVL \DNQVDNWU

Buna gre,

a x
n n=0

 NXYYHW VHULVLQLQ \DNQVDN ROGXX WP

GHHU

leri iin, x< 1 (lim n an )

n

=R

elde edilir.
3 n2

rnek.

n 3n + 1 n =1 R= lim n
n

x n VHULVLQLQ\DNQVDNONDUDOQEXOXQX]
2 n

1 n 3n + 1
3n 2

1 n lim n 3n + 1
3n 2 n

3n + 1 = lim n n

= 33 = 27

x = -27 ve x

QRNWDODUQGDVHULPL]LQJHQHOWHULPLQLQPXWODNGHHUL

33

 3n an = 9 3n + 1

3n 2

3n + 1 = 9 3n
3 n

23 n

3n + 1 3n + 1 = 9 3n 3n
2 n 1 + 1 3n 3

3 n

1 1 = 91 + 1 + 3n 3n olup, 1 lim an = lim 91 + n n 3n

ROGXXQGDQ

1 = 91 + 3n

n 1 + 1 = 9e 3 0 3n

x = -27 ve x

  QRNWDODU \DNQVDNON DUDOQD GDKLO GHLOGLU

6RQXoRODUDNVHULQLQ\DNQVDNONDUDO

( 27, 27)

DoNDUDOGU

1.7. Kuvvet Serilerinin zellikleri

a x
n n=0

= a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + an x n + ...

(1)

NXYYHW VHULVLQL GLNNDWH DODOP

Kuvvet serileri, ( , )  DUDOQGD WDQPO

VUHNOL YH KHU PHUWHEHGHQ WUHYOHQHELOLUGLUOHU LPGL NXYYHW VHULOHUL LOH LOJLOL

zellikleri teoremler halinde grelim.

Teorem 1.

a x
n n=0

kuYYHW

VHULVL \DNQVDNON E|OJHVLQGHNL KHUKDQJL ELU

[ , ]

DUDOQGDVQUODQDQGU

VSDW  NXYYHW VHULVLQLQ \DNQVDNON \DUoDS

[ , ] ( R, R )

 DUDOQGD VQUODQDQ

R > 0 olmak zere, serinin, ROGXXQX J|VWHUHOLP 0< < R

ROGXXQGDQVHULVL

x = QRNWDVQGDPXWODN\DNQVDNWU2KDOGH

a4 + a + a 2 + ... + a3 n + ...
SR]LWLI WHULPOL VD\ VHULVL \DNQVDNWU

(2)

Bu nedenle, her x <  GHHUL LoLQ 

VD\VHULVLNXYYHWVHULVLQLQVQUOD\DQGU

ROGXXQXYDUVD\DOP

(1) kuvvet serisinin ( R, R )  DUDOQGD \DNQVDN YH WRSODPQQ GD s(x) Bu durumda, s( x ) = an x n ,
n =0

x ( R, R )

(3)

34

\D]OQD

s(x) fonksiyonunun ( R, R )  DUDOQGD NXYYHW VHULVLQH DoOP denir. Teorem 1 ve nceki teoremlere dayanarak, kuvvet serileri ile ilgili DDdaki zellikleri syleyebiliriz: i) .XYYHW VHULOHUL \DNQVDNON DUDO LoLQGHNL KHU DUDONWD G]JQ
\DNQVDNWU

ii) iii)

.XYYHWVHULVLQLQWRSODP

s(x\DNQVDNONE|OJHVLQGHVUHNOLELU
E|OJHVLQGH WHULP WHULPH

fonksiyondur.
.XYYHW VHULVL \DNQVDNON

integrallenebilirdir. Yani,

s(t )dt = an
0 n =0

x n+1 , n +1

x ( R, R )

(4)

GLU$\UFDYHVHULOHULQLQ\DNQVDNONDUDONODUD\QGU

Teorem 2. (1) kuvvet serisi \DNQVDNON DUDO LoHULVLQGH KHU QRNWDGD WHULP terime trevlenebilirdir ve s( x) = nan x n1 ,
n =0

x ( R, R )

(5)

dir.$\UFDYHVHULOHULQLQ\DNQVDNONDUDONODUD\QGU . LPGLHLWOLLQLQGRUX ROGXXQX J|VWHUHOLP s(x) , bir kuvvet serisi ROGXXQGDQ,  \XNDUGD YHUGLLPL] nc zellik nedeniyle, \DNQVDNON DUDOQGDWHULPWHULPHLQWHJUDOOHQHELOLUGLU Buna gre,
VSDW

s(t )dt = nan t n1 dt = nant n1dt = an t n a4 n =0 0 n =0 0 0 n =0 x x n

elde ederiz.%XUDGDQVROWDUDIWDNLLQWHJUDODOQUVD s ( x ) s ( 0) = a n t n a 4
n=0

elde ederiz. Halbu ki, s ( 0) = a 4

GUYHGROD\V\OH

35

s ( x ) = an x n
n =0

elde edilir. O halde, (5) ifadesi s( x) = an x n serisinin trevidir.LPGLGH (3)

n =0
YHVHULOHULQLQ\DNQVDNON\DUoDSODUQQD\QROGXXQXJ|VWHUHOLP

s(x) ve s(x) VHULOHULQLQ\DNQVDNON\DUoDSODUVUDV\ODR ve R olsun. Bu durumda,

*

R * = lim
n

nan a a n = lim lim n = lim n = R n n + 1 n a n a (n + 1)an+1 n+1 n +1 da

olur.

<DQL  YH  VHULOHULQLQ \DNQVDNON \DUoDSODU GROD\V\OD

\DNQVDNONDUDONODUD\QGU 6RQXo RODUDN ELU NXYYHW VHULVL \DNQVDNON DUDO LoHULVLQGH NH\IL

mertebeden treve sahiptir ve s ( k ) ( x) = n(n 1)(n 2)...(n k + 1) x nk ,

n =0

kN

(6)

GUhVWHOLNGHYHVHULOHULQLQ\DNQVDNONDUDONODUGDD\QGU

1 , x < 1 HLWOLLQGHQ\DUDUODQDUDN 1 x n =0 1 1 a) (1) n x n = , x < 1 ; b) (1) n x 2 n = , x <1 1+ x 1 + x2 n =0 n=0 rnek 1.

HLWOLNOHULQLGRUXOD\Q]

zm a)

x
n=0

1 , x < 1 HLWOLLQGHx yerine x\D]OUVD 1 x 1 , x <1 1 ( x)

( x)
n=0

elde edilir. x < 1 iken x < 1 RODFDQGDGLNNDWHDODUDN

(1)
n =0

xn =

1 , x <1 1+ x

elde ederiz.

36

b) Bu sefer x yerine x2 alarak,

( x
n =0

2 n

) =

1 , x2 < 1 1 ( x 2 )

yazabiliriz. x 2 < 1 iken x < 1 RODFDQGDGLNNDWHDODUDk,

(1)
n=0

x 2n =

1 , x <1 1 + x2

elde edilir. x 2 n+1 = arctan x, x < 1 2n + 1

rnek 2. gsteriniz. zm.

x

(1)
n=0

HLWOLLQLQ

GRUX

ROGXXQX

%LU NXYYHWVHULVL\DNQVDNONDUDOQGDWHULP WHULPH LQWHJUDOOHQHELOH

FHLQGHQ

rnek 1bdeYHULOHQHLWOLLnKHULNL\DQQQLQtegralini alarak x x dt , x <1 (1) n t 2 n dt = (1) n t 2 n dt = 2 n =0 n =0 0 0 0 1+ t

ve bylece, t 2 n+1 x (1) ( 2n + 1) =arctan t 0 n=0 0

n x

x 2 n+1 1 (1) ( ) = arctan x arctan 0 2 n + 1 2n + 1 n =0

n

elde edilir. (1) n 2n + 1 = arctan 0 n=0

RODFDGLNNDWHDOQUVD

(1) n
n =0

x 2 n+1 = arctan x 2n + 1

HLWOLLHOGHHGLOLU

37

rnek 3. a) ln 2 =

(1) n ; n n =0

b) = 4

(1) n n =0 2 n + 1

eLWOLNOHULQLQGRUXROGXXQXJ|VWHULQL] zm a)

(1) t
n=0 n

n n

=
x

1 , x < 1 HLWOLLQLQLQWHJUDOLDOQUVD 1+ t

x n+1 t n+1 1 x (1) n + 1 = ln(1 + t ) 0 (1) n n + 1 n + 1 = ln(1 + x) ln 1 n=0 n =0 0

elde edilir. Burada,

(1)
n=0

1 = ln 1 = 0 n +1

RODFDGLNNDWHDOQUVD

ln(1 + x) = (1) n
n =0

x n+1 n +1 x
DOUVDN

HLWOLLQLHOGHHGHUL]6RQXoRODUDN\XNDUGDNLHLWOLNWH 

ln 2 = olur. b)

(1) n n =0 n + 1

(1)
n=0

x 2 n+1 = arctan x HLWOLLQGHx 2n + 1

(1) n = 4 n =0 2 n + 1

DOUVDN

arctan 1 = buradan da

= 4
elde edilir.

(1) n n =0 2 n + 1

38

rnek 4. VD\VQQGHHULQLGX\DUONODKHVDSOD\Q] zm. = 4

(1) n HLWOLLQGHQ\DUDUODQUVDN n =0 2 n + 1

Rn = 4

(1) k < 0.0001 k =n +1 2k + 1 in byk olamaz. O

HLWVL]OLL VDODQPDOGU +DOEXNL \XNDUGDNL WRSODP ELU DOWHUQH VD\ VHULVL ROGXXQGDQ RQXQ GHHUL LON WHULPLQ PXWODN GHHULQGHQ

halde, Rn < 4 (1) n+1 < 0.0001 2n + 3 n GHHUL n = 20000dir. O halde

GX\DUONOD

\D]DELOLUL] %X HLWVL]OLL JHUoHNOH\HQ LON \XNDUGDNL IRUPO NXOODQDUDN

VD\VQQ GHHULQL 

hesaplayabilmemiz iiQ VHULQLQ LON  WHULPLQL DOPDO\] %X LVH ROGXNoD g bir durumdur. Bu nedenle, VD\VQQGHHULQL KHVDSODPDN LoLQEDNDELU
VHULNXOODQPDP]JHUHNLULPGL

(1)
n =0

x 2 n+1 = arctan x 2n + 1 Bylece,

2 n+1

serisinde x =

3 3

DODOP

3 3 3 3 (1) n = = (1) n = arctan 3 6 n =0 2n + 1 3 n=0 (2n + 1)3n ve buradan da

= 2 3

(1) n n n = 0 ( 2n + 1)3

HOGHHGHUL]%|\OHFH\XNDUGDNLVHULQLQNDODQWHULPLLoLQ

Rn = 2 3

(1) k k k = n +1 ( 2k + 1)3

olur ve Leibniz ltne gre kalan terim (n+1). terimLQ PXWODN GHHULQGHQ GDKDE\NRODPD\DFDQdan

39

Rn < 2 3

(1) n+1 < 0.0001 (2n + 3)3n+1 n

\D]DELOLUL]%XHLWVL]OLLVDOD\DQLON GHHULGLU2KDOGHLVWHQHQGX\DUONOD

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 2 3 1 + + + = 3.1416 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 9 3 11 3 13 3 15 37 33 53 elde edilir. rnek 5.$DGDNLIRQNVL\RQODU\DNQVDNONDUDOQGDVHULOHULQHDoQ] a) f ( x) = 1 ,; (1 x)3 b) f ( x) = x +1 ( x + 2 x + 2 x) 2

2

zm a) rnek 1den
WDUDIQWUHYLDOQUVD

x
n =0

1 , x < 1 1 x

ROGXXQX ELOL\RUX] +HU LNL

nx
n =0

n1

1 , x <1 (1 x) 2

WHNUDUWUHYDOQDUDNGD

n(n 1) x
n =0

n2

2 , x <1 (1 x) 3

elde edilir.(LWOLLQKHULNL\DQLLOHE|lnrse 1 1 = n(n 1) x n2 , x < 1 (1 x) 3 2 n=0 serisi elde edilir. b) rnek 1bden

(1)
n=0

x 2n =

1 , x <1 1 + x2 x yerine (xDOUVDN

ROGXXQXELOL\RUX]%XUDGD

40

 1 1 = 2 = (1) n ( x + 1) 2 n = x + 1 < 1 1 + ( x + 1) 2 x + 2 x + 2 n=0

HOGHHGHUL]7UHYDOQUVD

2( x + 1) = (1) n 2n( x + 1) 2 n1 , x + 1 < 1 ( x 2 + 2 x + 2) 2 n=0

ve buradan da
x +1 = (1) n1 n( x + 1) 2 n1 , x + 1 < 1 ( x 2 + 2 x + 2) 2 n=0

elde edilir. Yani x +1 = ( x + 1) 2( x + 1) 3 + 3( x + 1) 5 ... + (1) n1 n( x + 1) 2 n1 + ..., x + 1 < 1 ( x + 2 x + 2) 2

2

dir. rnek 6. 1 + 2 x + 3x 2 + ... + (n + 1) x n + ... VHULWRSODPQEXOXQX]

zm. s ( x) = 1 + 2 x + 3x 2 + ... + (n + 1) x n + ... = (n + 1) x n

n =0
HLWOLLQLQWHULPWHULPLQWHJUDOLDOQUVD

s (t ) dt = g ( x) = (n + 1)t n dt = (n + 1)t n dt = t n +1 = x n+1 1 n =0 0 n =0 n =0 0 0 0 n =0 x x x

s(t )dt = g ( x) = x n +1 1 = x n 1 = x n 2 =
0 n =0 n =1 n =0
ROXU<XNDUGDNLHLWOLLQ HJ|UHWUHYLDOQUVD

1 2, x < 1 1 x

s ( x) =

1 , x <1 (1 x) 2

elde edilir.

41

rnek 7.
0.2

2
n =1

n 1

nx n1 VHULVLQLQ\DNQVDNONDUDOLOHWRSODPQEXOXQX]YH

s( x)dx
0

LQWHJUDOLQLKHVDSOD\Q]

zm. olup,

2
n =1

n 1

nx n 1 = 2 n ( n + 1) x n
n =0

R = lim

an an +1

= lim

2 n (n + 1) 2 n + 1 (n + 2)

2 n n+2 x=

lim

n +1

1 2

1  QRNWDVQGD ise 2 1 1 seri ( 1) n (1 + n) olup yine UDNVDNWU O halde,\DNQVDNONDUDO , 2 2 n=0 olur. x =

UDNVDNWU DoNDUDOGU

1  QRNWDVQGD VHUL 0 (1 + n) olup 2 n=

s ( x) = 2 n (n + 1) x n = (n + 1)(2 x) n , 2 x < 1
n =0 n =0

serisinde y = 2xG|QP\DSDUVDN
y s ( ) = g ( y ) = (n + 1) y n , y < 1 2 n=0

HGHHUVHULVLQLHOGHHGHUL]7HULPWHULPHLQWHJUDODOQUVD

y y n+1 1 n g (t )dt = u ( y ) = ( n + 1)t dt = (n + 1) t n dt = (n + 1) n +1 n =0 0 0 n =0 0 n =0 buradan da y y

n +1 n +1 g (t )dt = u( y) u(0) = ( y 1) = y 1, y < 1 0 n =0 n =0 n =0

elde ederiz.
u (0) = 1
n =0
ROGXXQXGLNNDWHDOUVDN

42

u ( y ) = y n+1 = y y n =
n =0 n =0
ROXULPGLWUHYDOQUVD

y , y <1 1 y

u ( y ) = g ( y ) =

1 , y <1 (1 y ) 2

ve y = 2x konularak da
g (2 x) = s( x) = 1 , 2x < 1 (1 2 x) 2

elde edilir.
0.2

s( x)dx =
0

0.2

(1 2 x)
0

dx

1 integralinde 1-2x = u dx = du G|QP\DSOUVD 2

0.2

s( x)dx =
0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.4 1 u 2 du = 2 ( u ) 1 = 2 ( 0.6 1) = 2 0.6 = 3 2 1

0.6

0.6

elde edilir. 1.8. Taylor Serisi Analizde, EHOOLELUDUDONWDVUHNOLYHn-ci dereceden trevlenebilir fonksiyonlar yerine VNONOD RQODU WHPVLO HGHQ SROLQRPODU NXOODQOPDNWDGU Bunun nedeni
SROLQRP |]HOOLNOHULQLQ oRN L\L ELOLQPHVL YH NXOODQP NROD\OGU (HU

f fonksiyonu ile onu temsil eden p f fonksiyonu yerine pSROLQRPXNXOODQODELOLU Bylesi bir polinoma f ile uyumlu polinom denir.(HU
oDOODQ ELU DUDON \D GD QRNWD FLYDUQGD SROLQRPXQXQ GHHUOHUL DUDVQGDNL IDUN LVWHQLOGLL NDGDU NoNVH EX QRNWDGD

a ( x a)
n n =0

= a0 + a1 ( x a ) + a2 ( x a) 2 + ... + an ( x a ) n + ...

(1) f(x) f(x)

NXYYHW VHULVL \DNQVDNON DUDOQGD ELU WRSODPD VDKLS YH EX WRSODP IRQNVL\RQXLVHEXGXUXPGD\DNQVDNONDUDOLoHULVLQGHNLKHU GHHULLoLQ

IRQNVL\RQXQXQ EX QRNWDGDNL GHHULQL YHULU 2 KDOGH \XNDUGDNL VHUL \DNQVDN ROPDVKDOLQGH

43

f : (a R, a + R ) R,

f ( x) = an ( x a ) n
n =0
 \D]OPQD

(2)

HNOLQGH ELU IRQNVL\RQ WDQPODU FLYDUQGD VHUL\H DoOP GHQLU

f(x) fonksiyonunun x = a Acaba serinin ai L   NDWVD\ODU LOH f(x)

fonksiyonu aUDVQGDQDVOELULOLNLYDUGU"
DoOPQGDQNROD\FDDQODODFD]HUH

f ( a ) = a0
GU%XQGDQEDNDDoOPQQWUHYLDOQUVD

f ( x) = a1 + 2a2 ( x a) + ... + nan ( x a ) n1 + ...

buradan f (a ) = a1
ROGXXDQODOU7HNUDUWUHYDOQUVD

f ( x) = 2a2 + 6a3 ( x a ) + ... + n(n 1)an ( x a ) n2 + ... ve buradan da f (a ) = 2a2 a2 = f (a) f (a ) = 2 2! f(x)

EXOXQXU 7UHY DOPD LOHPL GHYDP HWWLULOLUVH VHULQLQ NDWVD\ODU LOH IRQNVL\RQXDUDVQGD

a0 = f (a ), a1 = f (a ), a3 =

f (a ) f (a) f ( n ) (a) , a3 = ,..., an = n! 3! 3!

(3)

LOLNLOHULQLQYDUROGXXDQODOU%XQDJ|UHVHULDoOPQ

f ( x) =
n =0

f ( n) (a) ( x a) n n!

(4)

HNOLQGH\D]DELOLUL]

7DQP 

f(x) fonksiyonu x = a QRNWDV FLYDUQGD VUHNOL YH srekli olarak trevlenebilir bir fonksiyon ise, f ( x) =
n =0

f ( n) (a) ( x a) n n!

44

VHUL DoOPQD

f(x) fonksiyonunun x = a QRNWDV FLYDUQGDNL 7D\ORU DoOP

denir. zel olarak, a = 0 ise, bu durumda elde edilen f ( x) =

n =0

f ( n ) ( 0) n x n!

(5)

ifadesine de f(xIRQNVL\RQXQXQ0DFODXULQDoOPGHQLU

7DQP .  (HU ELU f(x) fonksiyonunu  DoOPQGD ROGXX JLEL VRQVX] ELU seri yerine n-ci dereceden bir polinom ile temsil edersek, Rn(x), kalan terim ROPDN]HUHDoOPQ

f ( x) =
k =0
\D]OPQD

f ( k ) (a ) ( x a ) k + Rn ( x) k!
WHULPOL 7D\ORU

(6)

NDODQ

forml denir. Burada Rn(x)e, f(x)

fonksiyonunu f ( x)
k =0
HNOLQGH

f ( k ) (a ) ( x a ) k x) k!

(7)

n-FL GHUHFHGHQ ELU SROLQRP LOH WHPVLO HWPHNOH \DSODQ KDWD J|]\OH

EDNOPDOGU LPGL EX KDWDQQ KHVDSODQPDVQGD \DUD\O RODQ ELU WHRUHP

verelim. Teorem 1. (HU f(x), x = a QRNWDVQ LoLQH DODQ ELU DUDONWD n + 1)-ci dereceden trevlenebilir bir fonksiyon ise, Taylor formlndeki Rn(x) kalan terimi 1 Rn ( x) = ( x t ) n f ( n+1) (t )dt n! a
EDQWV\OD

(8)

verilir. (6) ile verilen Taylor formlne gre,

VSDW 7PHYDUP\|QWHPLQLNXOODQDOP

n = 1 iin f ( x) = f (a ) + f (a )( x a ) + R1 ( x)
ROXULPGL

45

R1 ( x) = ( x t ) f (t )dt
a
ROGXXQXJ|VWHUPHPL]JHUHNLU

R1 ( x) = f ( x) f (a ) f (a )( x a ) = [ f (t ) f (a )]dt
a

olur.%XUDGDNVPLLQWHJUDV\RQLoLQ u = f (t ) f (a ) ve v = t - xDOQUVa, R1 ( x) = udv = uv a (t x) f (t )dt = ( x t ) f (t )dt

x a a a x x x

elde edilir. O halde, (8) forml n = 1 iin GRUXGXU (8) formlnn n = k iin
GRUXROGXXQXNDEXOHGHOLP%XGXUXPGDNDODQWHULPWDQPQGDQ

Rk +1 ( x) = Rk ( x) yazabiliriz. Bylece, Rk +1 ( x) = = = =

f ( k +1) (a ) ( x a ) k +1 (k + 1)!

f ( k +1) (a) 1 ( x t ) k f ( k +1) (t )dt ( x a) k +1 k! a (k + 1)!

x

f ( k +1) (a ) 1 1 ( x t ) k f ( k +1) (t )dt ( x a ) k +1 k! k! k +1 a

x

f ( k +1) (a ) 1 ( x t ) k f ( k +1) (t )dt ( x t ) k dt k! k! a a

x x

1 ( x t ) k f ( k +1) (t ) f ( k +1) (a ) dt k! a

olur. .VPL LQWHJUDV\RQ LoLQ iin u = f ( k +1) (t ) f ( k +1) (a ) ve dv = ( x t ) k dt

DOQUVD

Rk +1 ( x) = =

1 1 x k +1 ( k + 2 ) udv = uv a + k + 1 ( x t ) f (t )dt k! a a 1 ( x t ) k +1 f ( k +2 ) (t )dt k +1 a

x

HOGHHGLOLUYHE|\OHFHIRUPOQQGRUXROGXXDQODOU

46

QWHJUDO KHVDEQ RUWDODPD GHHU WHRUHPLQGHQ \DUDUODQDUDN

a<c<x

olmak zere, Rn ( x) = 1 f ( n+1) (c) n ( x t ) n f ( n+1) (t )dt = ( x t ) dt n! a n! a

x x

yazabiliriz. Buradan da Rn ( x) = f ( n +1) (c) ( x a ) n +1 (n + 1)!

/DJUDQJH ELoLPL DGQ DOU

(9) . Burada,

elde edilir YH NDODQ WHULPLQ c = a + ( x a) , (0 < < 1) dir.

7DQP  YH  LOH YHULOHQ NDODQ WHULPOL 7D\ORU IRUPO JHUHLQFH ELU

f(x) fonksiyonunun x = aFLYDUQGDWD\ORUVHULVLQHDoOabilmesi iin lim Rn ( x) = 0

n
ROPDV

(10) f(x)

gerekir.

 NRXOXQXQ VDODQPDV GXUXPXQGD WD\ORU VHULVL

IRQNVL\RQXQD \DNQVDNWU GHQLU LPGL ELU 7D\ORU VHULVLQLQ \DNQVDNO LOH

ilgili bir teroem verelim. Teorem 2. f(x), X = (a R, a + R ) DUDOQGD KHU PHUWHEHGHQ WUHYH VDKLS ELU IRQNVL\RQROVXQ(HU x X ve n N iin f ( n ) ( x) An (11)

olaFDNHNLOGHSR]LWLIELU AVD\VYDUVD f(x)in x = a FLYDUQGDNL taylor DoOP, x X iin f(x)e \DNQVDU . Kalan terimin (9)LOHYHULOHQ/DJUDQJHELoLPLQLGLNNDWHDODOP c X ve x a < R olduXGLNNDWHDOQUVD 0 Rn ( x) An+1 R n+1 (n + 1)!

VSDW

olur. Burada R, X DUDOQQ \DU-JHQLOLLGLU <eterince byk n GHHUOHUL ve xk < 1 HLWVL]OLLJHoHUOLROGXXQGDQ x R iin k!

47

lim Rn ( x) = lim
n

( AR) n+1 =0 n ( n + 1)!

elde edilir. Buna gre, (6) formlnde n LoLQOLPLWDOQUVD f ( x) =

n =0

f ( n ) (a ) ( x a) n n!
x X

elde edilir. Bu ise

iin

n=0

f ( n) (a) ( x a) n n!

serisinin

f (x)

IRQNVL\RQXQD\DNQVDGDQODPQDJHOLU

x rnek 1. f ( x) = ise, f (5) (0) ve f(0.5)GHHUlerini bulunuz. n =0 2 1 zm. 7D\ORUVHULVLQGHJHQHONDWVD\ an = n dir. (3) formllerine gre 2

a5 =

f (5) (0) 1 15 f (5) (0) = a5 5!= 120 5 = 5! 2 4 x x < 2 olmak zere, n =0 2

n n
JHRPHWULNVHULVL\DNQVDNWUYH

ROXU$\UFD

x 1 n 2 2 x f ( x) = = lim = n x 2 2x n =0 1 2 olur. Buna gre 2 x f ( x) = = 2 x n =0 2 2 4 f (0.5) = = 2 0.5 3 elde edilir. rnek 2. f ( x) = e x IRQNVL\RQXQXQ7D\ORUDoOPQEXOXQX]
n

48

zm. f ( x) = e x fonksiyonu, (, )  DUDOQGD VUHNOL YH KHU PHUWHEHGHQ treve sahiptir. stelik, R!KHUKDQJLELUVD\ROPDN]HUH-R, R)DUDOQGD f ( n ) ( x) = e x < e R = M
ROGXXQGDQ 7D\ORU VHULVLQH DoODELOLU QRNWDV

f ( x) = e x fonksiyonunun x = 0

ndaki DoOP, ex = 1 +
x x 2 x3 xn xn + + + ... + + ... = n! 1! 2! 3! n =0 n!

(12)

olur.6HULQLQ\DNQVDNONDUDO (, ) dir.

rnek 3. e 0.1 GHHULQLEHEDVDPDNGX\DUONODKHVDSOD\Q] zm. HLWOLLQGHx e 0.1 = 1 +

DOQUVD

0.1 (0.1) 2 (0.1) 3 (0.1) n (0.1) n + + + ... + + ... = n! n! 1! 2! 3! n =0

a = 0 iin kDODQWHULPLQ/DJUDQJHELoLPLQLGLNNDWHDODOP f ( n+1) (c) n+1 ec 1.1x n+1 n+1 Rn ( x) = x = x < < 10 5 , 0 < c < 0.1 (n + 1)! (n + 1)! (n + 1)! elde edilir (Burada c = 0.05 ve e 0.05 1.1  NDEXO HGLOPLWLU %X VRQ HLWOLL -5 JHUoHNOH\HQHQNoNGRDOVD\n = 3tr. O halde, 10 GX\DUONOD

e0.1 = 1 +

0.1 (0.1) 2 (0.1)3 + + = 1 + 0.1 + 0.005 + 0.00017 = 1.10517 1! 2! 3!

elde edilir.+HVDSPDNLQDVLOH e0.1 = 1.1051709 elde edilir.)

rnek 4. f ( x) = e 2 fonksiyonunu x zm. f ( x ) = 1 2 1 e ; f ( x) = 2 e 2 ; 2 2

x x

FLYDUQGDVHUL\HDoQ]

f ( x) =

1 2 1 e ; ...; f ( n ) ( x) = n e 2 3 2 2

ROGXXGLNNDWHDOQUVD

49

f (2) = e; f (2) =

1 1 e; f ( x) = 2 e; 2 2

f ( x) =

1 1 e; ...; f ( n ) ( x) = n e 3 2 2

YH7D\ORUDoOPGD

e =
n=1

x 2

e ( x 2) n n n!2

elde edilir.

<XNDUGDNL DoOPQ GRUX RODELOPHVL LoLQ NDODQ WHULPLQ VIU

IRQNVL\RQXQDG]JQ\DNQVDPDVJHUHNLU ELoLPLQLGLNNDWHDODOP

Bunun iin Kalan terimin Lagrange c < x olmak zere,

c

f ( n+1) (c ) e 2 ( x 2) n+1 Rn ( x) = ( x 2) n+1 = n+1 (n + 1)! 2 (n + 1)! ve x = 2 FLYDUQGD

c n

lim Rn ( x) = e 2 lim
GU

( x 2) n+1 =0 n 2 n+1 ( n + 1)!

rnek 5. f ( x) = sin x ve f ( x) = cos x fonksiyonODUQ x

DoQ]

  FLYDUQGD VHUL\H

zm. f ( n ) ( x) = sin( x + n ) ve f ( n ) ( x) = sin( x + n ) 1 = M  ROGXun2 2 dan, f ( x) = sin x IRQNVL\RQX7D\ORUVULVLQHDoODELOLU x QRNWDVQGDNLWUHY

GHHUOHULLoLQ

f ( x) = sin x; f ( x) = cos x; f ( x) = sin x; f ( x ) = cos x; f ( ; ) ( x) = sin x;

f (0) = 0; f (0) = 1; f (0) = 0; f (0) = 1; f ( ;) ( x) = 0

ifadelerini elde ederiz. Buna greJHQHOOHPH\DSODUDN 0, HHU n 0 ( Mod 4), 1, HHU n 1 ( Mod 4), (n) , (n = 0, 1, 2,...) f (0) = 0, HHU n 2 ( Mod 4), 1, HHU n 3 ( Mod 4)

50

yazabiliriz. (5) ile verilen 0DFODXULQIRUPOQNXOODQUVDN f ( x) = sin x = x

x3 x5 x7 x 2 n+1 x 2 n+1 + + ... + (1) n + ... = (1) n 3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)! (2n + 1)! n =0

elde edilir. 6HULQLQ\DNQVDNONDUDOQQ (, ) ROGXXDoNWU

%HQ]HUHNLOGH

f ( x) = cos x IRQNVL\RQXVHUL\HDoOUVD

f ( x) = cos x = 1 elde edilir.

x 2 x4 x6 x 2n x 2n + + ... + (1) n + ... = (1) n 2! 4! 6! (2n)! (2n)! n =0

rnek 6. e x LQ VHUL DoOPQGDQ ID\GDODQDUDN f ( x) = sinh x fonksiyonunun

VHULDoOPQEXOXQX]

zm.

7DQP RODUDN

WDQPOGU

e x ex dir ve (, )  DUDOQGD 2 x $\Q DUDONWD WDQPO YH VUHNOL RODQ e in (12) ile verilen seri f ( x) = sinh x =

DoOPQGLNNDWHDOUVDN

ex = 1 +

x x 2 x3 xn xn + + + ... + + ... = n! 1! 2! 3! n =0 n!

burada x yerine x yazarak ex = 1

x x2 x3 xn xn + + ... + (1) n + ... = (1) n n! n! 1! 2! 3! n =0

elde ederiz. O halde, f ( x) = sinh x =

x3 x5 x 2 n+1 x 2 n+1 1 x + + ... + + ... = (e e x ) = x + 2 3! 5! (2n + 1)! n =0 ( 2n + 1)!

olur.6HULQLQ\DNQVDNONDUDO (, ) dir. rnek 7. f ( x ) = ln(1 x ) IRQNVL\RQXLoLQVHULDoOPEXOXQX] zm.

x
n=0

 JHRPHWULN VHULVLQL HOH DODOP

x < 1 iin serinin dzgn

\DNQVDNYH

51

x
n=0
ROGXXQX

1 1 x

ELOL\RUX] O halde, seri, integrallenebilirdir. Bunu yaparsak,

( 1,1)

DUDOQGD

WHULP

WHULP

1 dt = t n dt 1 t n=0 0 0 x x

t n+1 ln(1 t ) 0 = n =0 n + 1 0
x

ln(1 x) = ln(1 x) =
n=1

x n+1 n =0 n + 1

xn , x <1 n

elde edilir. Seri, x = -1 QRNWDVQGD \DNQVDN DOWHUQH VHri) iken x = +1 noktaVQGDUDNVDNWU(harmonik seri).2KDOGH\DNQVDNONDUDO [ 1,1) dir. ln(1 x) LQVHULDoOPQGD x x G|QPyaparsak ln(1 + x) =

( x) n , n n =1

ln(1 + x) = (1) n+1

n=1

xn , x <1 n

 QRNWDVQGD  \DNQVDNWU DOWHUQH VHUL 6HULQLQ \DNQVDNON DUDO

alterne serisini elde ederiz. Bu seri, x = -QRNWDVQGDUDNVDNQHGHQ"LNHQx = ve bu noktada ( 1,1]dir. x DOQDUDN ln 2 = 1 1 1 1 1 + + ... + (1) n + ... 2 3 4 n +1

elde edilir. rnek 8OQQLQGHHULQLGX\DUONODKHVDSOD\Q] zm. nceki problemde ln 2 = 1 1 1 1 1 + + ... + (1) n + ... 2 3 4 n +1

52

HOGHHWPLWLN<XNDUGDNLVHULDOWHUQHVHULROGXXQGDQRQXQNDODQWHULPLLoLQ

Rn < an+1 =

1 < = 0.0001 n+2

ROXU2KDOGHLVWHQHQGX\DUOQHOGHHGLOHELOPHVLLoLQ

n+2>

1 n > 9998 0.0001

ROPDOGU <DQLOQQLQGHHULQLGX\DUONODHOGHHGHELOPHNLoLQVHULQLQ LON  WHULPLQL DOPDO\] *|UOG JLEL \XNDUGDNL VHUL ROGXNoD \DYD \DNQVD\DQ ELU VHULGLU %X QHGHQOH GDKD K]O \DNQVD\DQ ELU VHUL NXOODQPDN

gerekir. ln(1 + x) = (1) n+1

n=1

xn , x <1 n

ve ln(1 x) =
n=1

xn , n

x <1

DoOPODUQGDQ\DUDUODQDUDN

ln

1+ x = ln(1 + x ) ln(1 x) = 1 x x 2 x3 x2 x3 = x + ... x ... 2 3 2 3 3 5 2 n 1 x x x = 2 x + 2 + 2 + ... + 2 + ... 3 5 2n 1 x3 x5 x 2 n 1 = 2 x + 2 + 2 + ... + 2 + ... 3 5 2n 1 x 2 n1 = 2 , x <1 n =1 2 n 1

elde ederiz. Burada x =

1 DOQUVD 3 1 ln 2 = 2 2 n 1 n =1 ( 2 n 1)3 elde edilir. Burada kalan terim iin

\DNQVDNVD\VHULVL

53

Rn =

k = n+1

(2k 1)3

2 k 1

< = 0.0001

NRXOXQXQVDODQPDVQLVWL\RUX]QWHJUDO|OoWQX\JXODUVDN

Rn < buradan

dx dx 1 (2 x 1)32 x1 <k1 (2k + 1)32 x1 < 0.0001 k+ +

dx 1 1 32 x1 < 0.0001 2k + 1 k + ve buradan da 1 < 0.0001 2(2k + 1) 32 k +1 ln 3

HOGH HGHUL] %X HLWVL]OLL JHUoHNOH\HQ HQ NoN GRDO VD\ LVH

k = 3dr. O

halde,LVWHQHQGX\DUONOD 1 1 1 ln 2 2 + = 2[0.33333 + 0.01235 + 0.00082] = 0.6930 + 3 5 3 3 3 5 3 dir.+HVDSPDNLQDVLVHG|UWEDVDPDNGX\DUONODVRQXFXQYHUPHNWHGLU 1.9. Binom Serisi m

!  ELU JHUoHO VD\ ROPDN ]HUH

f ( x) = (1 + x) m fonksiyonu

( 1, )
n-ci

DUDOQGD WDQPO YH VUHNOL ROXS 7D\ORU VHULVLQH DoODELOLU )RQNVL\RQXQ

dereceden trevinin f ( n ) ( x) = m(m 1)(m 2)...(m n + 1) x mn ve trevin x QRNWDVQGDNLGHHULQLQGH f ( n ) (0) = m(m 1)(m 2)...(m n + 1)
ROGXXDoNWU%XQDJ|UH

(1)

(2)

54

(1 + x) m =

m(m 1)...(m n + 1) n x n! n =0 m(m 1) 2 m(m 1)(m 2) 3 m(m 1)...(m n + 1) n x + x + ... + x + ... = 1 + mx + n! 2! 3! (3)

serisi elde edilir ve binom serisi denir. (HU m ELU SR]LWLI WDPVD\ LVH (3) DoOPQGD m-FL WHULPLQGHQ VRQUDNL EWQ WHULPOHULQLQ NDWVD\ODU VIU ROXU YH bu durumda (3) serisi
(1 + x) m = m( m 1)...(m n + 1) n x n! n =0 m(m 1) 2 m(m 1)(m 2) 3 = 1 + mx + x + x + ... + mx m1 + x m 2! 3!
m

(4)

HNOLQHG|QU

ve Newton binom forml denir. mQLQ KHUKDQJL ELU JHUoHO VD\ ROGXXQX J|]|QQH DODUDN  VHULVLQLQ \DNQVDNONDUDOQEXODOP.HVLP1.6GDNL7HRUHPJHUHLQFH R = lim = lim = lim
n

an n a n +1

m(m 1)...(m n + 1) (n + 1)! . n n! m(m 1)...(m n) n +1 =1 mn

elde edilir. O halde, (3) ile verilen binom serisi ( 1,1)  DUDOQGD \DNQVDNWU Binom formlnde m\H oHLWOL GHHUOHU YHULOHUHN YH x g (x)  HNOLQGH G|QPOHU\DSODUDNoHLWOL IRQNVL\RQODUQ x QRNWDVQGDNL7D\ORU DoOPODU elde edilebilir. %X G|QPOHU Vonucunda seri x = 1  QRNWDODUQGD \DNQVDN
\DGDUDNVDNRODELOLU

rnek 1

%LQRP VHULVL \DUGP\OD

f ( x) =

x fonksiyonunun Taylor 1 x

DoOPQEXOXQX]

1 zm. ncelikle g ( x) = = (1 x) 2  IRQNVL\RQXQXQ DoOPQ HOGH 1 x 1 edelim. Bunun iin, (3) serisinde, m =  DOS x x  G|QPQ 2
X\JXOD\DOP

55

(1 x )

1 2

(1 x )

1 2

1 1 ( 1) 1 2 ( x ) 2 + ... = 1 + ( )( x ) + 2 2 2! 1 1 1 ( 1)...( n + 1) 2 2 ( x ) n + ... + 2 n! 1 1 3 1 3 5 1 3 5 ...( 2 n 1) n x + ... = 1 + x + 2 x 2 + 3 x 3 + ... + 2 2 2! 2 3! 2 n n!

elde ederiz. O halde, 1 1 3 1 3 5 1 3 5...(2n 1) n+1 x = x + x 2 + 2 x 3 + 3 x 4 + ... + x + ..., x < 1 2 2 2! 2 3! 2 n n! 1 x olur. rnek 2. Binom formlnden yararlanarak f ( x) = arctan x fonksiyonunun x =
QRNWDVQGDNL7D\ORUDoOPQHOGHHGLQL]

zm.

f ( x) = (arctan x) = larsak

1 1 + x2

dir. O halde, nce

m = 1 

g ( x) =
DOS

IRQNVL\RQXQXQ DoOPQ EXODOP  IRUPOQGH G|QPQX\JX

1 1 + x2 x x2

1(2) 4 1(2)(3)...( n) 2 n 1 = 1 + (1) x 2 + x + ... + x + ... 2 1+ x 2! n! = 1 x 2 + x 4 + ... + (1) n x 2 n + ..., x < 1 serisini ve integral alarak da arctan x = x serisini elde ederiz. x3 x5 x 2 n+1 + + ...(1) n + ... , x < 1 3 5 2n + 1

rnek 3. Binom formlnden yararlanarak

GHHULQLKHVDSOD\Q]

7  LUUDV\RQHO VD\VQQ \DNODN

56

yapabilmek iin ncelikle 7 = a (1 + x) , x < 1 RODFDN HNLOGH \D]PDO\] Burada x VD\V VIUD QH NDGDU \DNQ LVH EXOXQDFDN zm
%X KHVDSODPD\ VHULQLQ\DNQVDPDK]GDRRUDQGD\NVHNROXU%XQDJ|UH

1 2

4 25 5 28 5 3 5 3 7 = 7 = = 1+ = (1 + ) 2 4 25 2 25 2 25 2 25 alabiliriz. Bu durumda (3) ile verilen binom formlnde m = alQUVD

1 1 1 1 1 1 ( 1) ( 1)...( n + 1) 3 2 1 3 3 2 3 2 (1 + ) = 1 + ( ) + 2 2 ( ) + ... + 2 2 ( ) n + ... 25 2 25 2! 25 n! 25 1 3 1 3 2 1 3 3 3 = 1 + ( ) 2 ( ) + 3 ( ) + ... 2 25 2 2! 25 2 3! 25 1 3 1 9 1 3 27 )+ ( ) + ... =1+ ( ) 2 ( 2 25 2 2! 625 2 33! 15625

1 3 ve x = 25 2

elde edilir. O halde, 7= 5 3 5 1 3 1 9 1 3 27 (1 + ) 2 = 1 + ( ) 2 ( )+ ( ) ... 2 25 2 2 25 2 2! 625 233! 15625

1

olur. Serinin WHULPLQLQGHHUL 5 1 3 27 ( ) = 0.0003 2 2 33! 15625

YHVHULDOWHUQHVHULROGXXQGDQ

R4 < 0.0003 dr. O halde, 0.0003GX\DUONOD

7=

5 3 5 1 3 1 9 (1 + ) 2 = 1 + ( ) 2 ( ) 2 25 2 2 25 2 2! 625 5 = [ .00000 + 0.06000 0.00180] = 2.6455 1 2 7 = 2.64575 vermektedir).

GLUKHVDSPDNLQDODU

rnek 4. cos12,10 VD\VQGX\DUONODKHVDSOD\Q] zm. nceki konulardan

57

cos x = 1

x2 x4 x6 x 2n x 2n + + ... + (1) n + ... = (1) n 2! 4! 6! (2n)! (2n)! n =0

ROGXXQXELOL\RUX]6HULDOWHUQHVHULROGXXQGDQNDODQWHULPLLoLQ

Rn <

x 2 n+1 < 0.0001 (2n + 2)! x = 12 , 10 = 12 , .16667 = 12.16667

VDODQPDOGU

180

= 0.21235 UDG

kabul edersek Rn < (0.21235) 2 n +1 < 0.0001 (2n + 2)! n = 2dir. O halde, istenen duyarlNOD (0.21235) 2 = 0.9775 2!

HLWVL]OLLQLVDOD\DQHQNoNWDPVD\

cos12 ,10 = cos 0.21235(rad ) 1

ROXUKHVDSPDNLQDV

ise

cos12 ,10 = cos 0.21235(rad ) 0.97754

GHHULQLYHUPHNWHGLU

rnek 5.

sin 2 x dx LQWHJUDOLQLQGHHULQLGX\DUONODKHVDSOD\Q] x

zm. nceki konulardan sin x = x

ROGXX

x3 x5 x7 x 2 n+1 x 2 n+1 + + ... + (1) n + ... = (1) n 3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)! (2n + 1)! n =0

nu biliyoruz. Buradan

2 n+1 2 n sin 2 x 23 x 2 25 x 4 2 7 x 6 x n 2 = 2 + + ... + (1) + ... x 3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)!

elde ederiz. Bylece szkonusu integral iin

58

sin 2 x dx = x

2 3 x 2 25 x 4 2 2 n+1 x 2 n + ... + (1) n + ... dx 2 3! 5! (2n + 1)! 23 x 3 25 x 5 2 2 n+1 x 2 n+1 + ... + (1) n + ... 3 3! 5 5! (2n + 1)(2n + 1)! 0
3

= 2x

(2 x ) 3 ( 2 x ) 5 (2 x) 2 n+1 = 2x + ... + (1) n + ... 3 3! 5 5! (2n + 1)(2n + 1)! 0

2 2 2 ( )3 ( ) 5 ( ) 2 n+1 2 3 = 3 + 3 ... + (1) n + ... 3 3 3! 5 5! (2n + 1)(2n + 1)!

DOWHUQDWLIVHULDoOPQHOGHHGHUL]%XUDGD

2 2 n+3 ) 3 Rn < < 0.0001 (2n + 3)(2n + 3)! (

NRXOXVDODQPDOGU

59

3. BLM *h1($<YH*(=(*(1/(51 +$5(.(7/(5

3*LUL
*QHVLVWHPLQLQ\HOHUL QLVSHWHQ\DNQROGXNODUQGDQYHKHSVL

deJQHHWUDIQGD\|UQJH z bu blmde, konik

KDUHNHWL \DSWNODUQGDQ GROD\ X]DN J|N FLVLPOHULQH QD]DUDQ GDKD NDUPDN ELU J|UQP

sergilerler.

*QH VLVWHPLQGHNL WP \HOHU JQH HWUDIQGD NRQLN \|UQJHOHUGH GRODQUODU

%X \|UQJHOHULQ DUDWUOPDV J|N PHNDQLLQLQ NRQXVXGXU %L

\|UQJHOHULQ|]HOOLNOHGHHOLSV\|UQJHOHULQ|]HOOLNOHULQHNVDFDGHLQGLNWHQVRQUDJQHLQ

ve gezegenlerin

J|N NUHVLQGHNL J|]OHQHQ KDUDNHWOHULQL LQFHOH\HFHL] *|UQU KDUHNHW

GHLQFH DNOD LON JHOHQ JQON KDUHNHWWLU %X ROGXNoD JHQHO ELU GXUXPGXU YH ND\QD \HULQ NHQGL HNVHQL HWUDIQGD G|QPHVLGLU NLQFL E|OPGH GH DQODWOG ]HUH WP J|N FLVLPOHUL

gQONKDUHNHWHNDWOUODUYHELUJQLoHULVLQGH,HOHHSDUDOHO olan ember yrngelerde tam ELU GRODQP \DSP ROXUODU Bu blmde, sUDV\OD JQH D\ YH JH]HJHQOHUL HOH DODFDN YH
JH]HJHQOHULGHLoYHGJH]HJHQOHUROPDN]HUHLNLNVPGDLQFHOH\HFHL]

.HSOHU\DVDODUJQHLQJ|UQU

yrngesi Kepler

*H]HJHQOHULQ KDUHNHWOHULQH LOLNLQ GRUX YH \HWHUOL LON WDQPODPD  \]\OGD EX NRQXGD o |QHPOL \DVD\ RUWD\D NR\DQ -RKDQQHV .HSOHU WDUDIQGDQ RUWD\D NRQPXWXU \DVDODURODUDNDGODQGUODQEXo\DVDVUDV\OD|\OHGLU

(i) (ii) (iii)

*H]HJHQOHULQ JQH HWUDIQGDNL \|UQJHOHUL ELUHU HOLSVWLU YH JQH EX HOLSVOHULQ RGDNODUQGDQELULQGHEXOXQXU

*H]HJHQOHU

\|UQJHOHULQGH DODQ \DVDVQD

X\DFDN

HNLOGH

GRODQUODU \DQL

JH]HJHQLJQHHELUOHWLUHQ\DUoDSYHNW|UHLW]DPDODUGDHLWDODQODUWDUDU

*H]HJHQ \|UQJHVLQLQ \DU E\N HNVHQ X]XQOXXQXQ NE \|UQJH GRODQPD G|QHPLQLQ NDUHVL LOH RUDQWOGU %XQD J|UH \DU E\N HNVHQ X]XQOXX YH GRODQPDG|QHPLVUDV\OD oQF\DVDVQ

a1, P1 ve a2, P2 olan iki gezegen durumunda, Keplerin

a1 a 2

P = 1 P 2

(3.1) , nc

biiminde yazabiliriz.

'DKDVRQUD 1HZWRQXQDQDOLWLNRODUDNRUWD\DNR\GXX ]HUH

\DVD DQFDN JH]HJHQOHULQ NWOHOHUL JQHLQ NWOHVL \DQQGD LKPDO HGLOGLL ]DPDQ JHoHUOLGLU

Buna gre J|N PHNDQLLQGHQGH ELOGLLPL] G]HOWLOPL oQF .HSOHU \DVDVQ GLNNDWH
DOUVDNRUDQWV\HULQH

a1 a 2

P2 P 1

M + m1 = M + m2

(3.2)

LIDGHVLQLQNXOODQOPDVJHUHNLU

, burada MJQHLQm1 ve m1 de gezegenlerin ktleleridir. 50

<DU E\N HNVHQ X]XQOXX

a,

GPHUNH]OLL

e olan elips yrngenin denklemi, gk

PHNDQLLQGHQGHELOLQGLL]HUH

r=

a (1 e2 ) 1 + e cos v

(3.3)

HNOLQGHGLU %XUDGD v JHUoHN D\UNON DGQ DOS \DUoDS YHNW|UQQ HQEHUL GRUXOWXVX\OD pozitif \|QGH\DSWDoRODUDNWDQPODQU

deJ|VWHULOGLLgibi, JQHLQ\HUHWUDIQGDNLgrnr yrngesini dikkate Bu yrnge HNLO GH \HQLGHQ J|VWHULOPLWLU HNLOGH \HUGHQ EDNOGQGD NRo QRNWDV GRUXOWXVX LDUHWOHQPLWLU %XQD J|UH HQEHUL QRNWDVQQ WXWXOXP ER\ODP o ile JQHLQWXWXOXPER\ODPHNLOGHJ|VWHULOGLLJLELGLU HNLOGHQJQHLQJHUoHND\UNO ile
LPGLHNLOE DODOP WXWXOXPER\ODPDUDVQGD

HNLO*QHLQ\HUHWUDIQGDNLJ|UQU\|UQJHVL

v = 360 + o ya da v = o
\D]ODELOHFHLNROD\FDJ|UOPHNWHGLU (QEHULER\ODP

o, astronomik almanakta,
(3.4)

4 = 2814 13 15.0 + 6189.03T + 1' '.63 T 2

bDQWV\OD YHULOLU, burada T GDQ EHUL JHoHQ \]\O VD\VGU %XQD J|UH |UQHLQ T=1DOQDUDNLoLQHQEHULER\ODPo 00 33.4 olarak elde edilir.

3.2. Pergel ao|OoHUYHFHWYHOkullanarak elips izimi

<DU E\N YH \DU NoN HNVHQ X]XQOXODUVUDV\OD

a ve b RODQ HOLSVL SHUJHO Do |OoHU YH cetvel kullanarak izme\HoHODOPgQFHHNLOGHJ|VWHULOGLLJLEL O merkezli, a ve b \DUoDSOoHPEHUOHULoL]HOLP Daha sonra, a\DUoDSOoHPEHULQKHUKDQJLELU ABoDSQYH b 51

\DUoDSOoHPEHULQ ABye dik CDoDSQoL]HOLP x-ekseni OAGRUXOWXVXQGDYH y-ekseni de OC doUXOWXVXQGDRODFDNHNLOGHxyNRRUGLQDWVLVWHPLQLNXUDOPLPGLOA ile EDoV\DSDQ ELU GRUX oL]HOLP %X GRUXQXQ oHPEHUOHUL NHVLP QRNWDV VUDV\OD M ve N olsun. M QRNWDVQGDQ ABye ve N QRNWDVQGDQ GD CDye izilen paraleller P QRNWDVQGD NHVLVLQOHU HNLOGHQNROD\FDJ|UOHELOHFHL]HUHPQRNWDVQQkRRUGLQDWODU

x = acosE, y = bsinE dir ve x2 y2 + =1 a2 b2

HOLSV GHQNOHPLQL VDODGNODUQGDQ VUDV\OD

(3.5a) (3.5b)

(3.6)

P QRNWDV \DU-E\N YH \DU-NoN HNVHQ X]XQOXODU a ve b RODQ HOLSV ]HULQGHNL ELU QRNWDGU $\Q LOHPOHU GHLLN E DoODU LOH yinelenerek eOLSV oL]LOPL ROXU O QRNWDV D\Q ]DPDQGD HOLSVLQ GH PHUNH]LGLU a \DUoDSO embere, elipsin asal emberi ve b\DUoDSOoHPEHUH de elipsin yedek emberi denir. ABye elipsin byk ekseni ve CDye de kk ekseni denir. HNLOGHQ GH J|UOHFHL ]HUH E\N YHNoNHNVHQX]XQOXNODUVUDV\ODa ve 2bdir. (OGHHGLOHQ(OLSVLQLNLWDQHRGDYDUGU %XQODUQ\HUOHUL, VUDV\OD F1(c,0) ve F2(-c,0)GLUHNLOGHRGDNODUGDQ\DOQ]FDELUWDQHVL J|VWHULOPLFQRNWDVYHDOWLQGLVNXOODQOPDPWUcGHHULLOHa ve bDUDVQGD

HNLO3HUJHODo|OoHUYHFHWYHOLOHHOLSVoL]LPL

52

a2= b2 + c2
LOLNLVL YDUGU

(3.7)

c\H RGDN X]DNO GHQLU $\UFD ELU HOLSVLQ RGDN X]DNO LOH \DU-byk

HNVHQX]XQOXXDUDVQGDNL

e=

c a , b ile aDUDVQGD

(3.8)

RUDQQDGDHOLSVLQG PHUNH]OLLGHQLU'PHUNH]OLNFLQVLQGHQ

b2= a2(1 - e2)

EDQWVQQ ROGXX NROD\FD J|VWHULOHELOLU QRNWDGU %X QRNWD\D

(3.9) A
QRNWDV HOLSV ]HULQGH RGDD HQ \DNQ

V|]NRQXVXROGXXQGDLVHJQEHULQRNWDVGHQLU

, genel olarak, HQEHUL QRNWDV JQH VLVWHPLQGH JH]HJHQ \|UQJHOHUL Benzer olarak, BQRNWDVGD HOLSVLQRGDD HQ X]DN QRNWDVGU YH JHQHO LVPL HQ|WH QRNWDV ROPDVQD NDUQ, gezegen yrngeleri GXUXPXQGD JQ|WH QRNWDV DGQ DOU (OLSV ]HULQGHNL GHLNHQ P QRNWDVQQ RGDD X]DNOQr ile gsterecek olursak, rA=a(1 - e) rB=a(1 + e)
ROGXXNROD\FDJ|VWHULOHELOLU

(3.10a) (3.10b)

HNLOGHHOLSV]HULQGHNL

LOH SR]LWLI \|QGH \DSW Do\D

PQRNWDVQF1RGDQDELUOHWLUHQ\DUoDSYHNW|UQQx-ekseni , P QRNWDVQQ JHUoHN D\UNO GHQLU Elipsin RGDD J|UH GHQNOHPLJHUoHND\UNONFLQVLQGHQ (3.3) ifadesi ile verilir. NQRNWDVHOLSV]HULQGHNLELU P
QRNWDVQGDQ E\N HNVHQH LQGLULOHQ GLNPHQLQ X]DQWVQQ DVDO oHPEHUL NHVWLL QRNWDGU YH

EDoVGD, ON\DUoDSQQ, x-ekseni ile pozitif ynde yapWDoGU PQRNWDVHOLSV]HULQGH o o GHLWLNoH NQRNWDVGDDVDOoHPEHULoL]HU%DNDELUGHLOH, vJHUoHND\UNO 0 ile 360 o o DUDVQGD GHLWLLQGH E DoVGD D\Q HNLOGH GHLLU *HUoHN D\UNOQ 0 , 180 ve 360o ROGXX QRNWDODUGD, E DoVQQ GD D\Q GHHUOHUL DODFD NROD\FD J|UOHELOLU E DoVQD P
QRNWDVQQ G D\UNO GHQLU *|N PHNDQLLQGHQ GH ELOLQGLL ]HUH JHUoHN YH G D\UNONODUDUDVQGD

tan

v 1+ e E tan = 2 1 e 2

(3.11)

LOLNLVLYDUGU

(OLSV GHQNOHPLQL G D\UNON cinsinden yazmak da mmkndr. HNLO GH PFK dik geninde PLVDJRU EDQWV \D]OU PF = r, FK = x - c ve PK = y ROGXX GLNNDWH DOQUVD (3.5a-b) ve (3.8)EDQWODUQQGD\DUGP\OD

r = a (1 e cos E ) elde edilir.

(3.12)

53

3.3. Kepler denklemi

HNLO GH

HNVHQLQHLQGLULOHQGLNPHQLQDVDOoHPEHULNHVWLLQRNWD

P elips zerindeki her hangi bir nokta ve Nde, P QRNWDVQGDQ HOLSVLQ E\N olmak zere (3.13)

NK a sin E a = = PK b sin E b
ROGXX

kolayca grlebilir. Elips zerinde hareket eden bir cismin, T DQQGD HQEHUL QRNWDVQGDQ JHoHUHN t DQQGD,  Hkildeki P NRQXPXQD JHOGLLQL YDUVD\DOP Yani cisim, (t T VUHGH HQEHUL QRNWDVQGDQ P QRNWDVQD YDUP ROVXQ Burada T\H HQEHULGHQ JHoL ]DPDQGHQLULPGL, Alan (PFA) = Alan (PFK) + Alan (PKA) (3.14)

aODQ HLWOLLQL GLNNDWH DODOP. Burada Alan(PFA \DUoDS YHNW|UQQ t - T VUHGH WDUDG
DODQDHLWWLUYH.HSOHULQ\DVDVX\DUQFD

Alan( PFA) = ab

t T P

(3.15)

yazabiliriz. Burada, ab HOLSVLQ DODQGU YH \DUoDS YHNW|U EX DODQ P srede tarar. Pye dolanma dnemi denir. LPGL PFKoJHQDODQQKHVDSOD\DOPHNOHJ|UH, FK = OK OF olup, OK = asinE ve OF = c = aedir. O halde FK = a(sinE - e) olur. <LQH HNLOGHQ GH grOHFHL]HUHPK = MH = bsinEdir. Sonu olarak Alan( PFK ) = 1 ab sin E (sin E e) 2 (3.16)

olur. Son olarak PKA HOLSV SDUoDVQQ DODQQ KHVDSOD\DOP. (3.13 LOLNLVL YH WHPHO DQDOL]
ELOJLOHULPL]\DUGP\OD

Alan( PKA) =

b Alan( NKA) a

(3.17)

yazabiliriz. Halbuki, NKA alan NOA daire diliminin DODQ LOH NOK geninin alanODU IDUNQDHLWWLU EPHUNH]DoOYHa\DUoDSONOAGDLUHGLOLPLQLQDODQ Alan( NOA) =
GU

E a2 2

(3.18)

Gelelim NOKoJHQLQLQDODQQDHNOHJ|UHOK = acosE ve NK = asinE ve buradan da Alan( NOK ) = 1 2 a sin E cos E 2 (3.19)

GU

O halde,

54

Alan( NKA) = ve (3.17)den Alan( PKA) =

E 1 a 2 a 2 sin E cos E 2 2

(3.20)

E 1 ab ab sin E cos E 2 2

(3.21)

elde edilir. (3.15) ve (3.16) ve (3.21) ifadeleri (3.14)dH \HULQH NRQXU YH JHUHNOL VDGHOHWLUPHOHU\DSOUVD

E e sin E =

2 (t T ) P

(3.22)

Kepler denklemi elde edilir. Burada 2/P \DUoDSYHNW|UQQRUWDODPDDoVDOK]ROXS n ile gsterilir. Bu durumda, n(t T oDUSPna da, F RGD HWUDIQGD VDELW DoVDO K]OD GRODQDQ ELU\DUoDSYHNW|UQQ, (t T) srede WDUDGDoJ|]\OHEDNDELOLUL] M = n(t T)
QLFHOLLQH

(3.23)

P QRNWDVQD LOLNLQ RUWDODPD D\UNON DG YHULOLU *HUoHN D\UNOQ o ve 180o ROGXX GXUXPODUGD,yani cisim eQEHUL YH HQ|WH QRNWDODUQGD\NHQ JHUoHN D\UNON G D\UNON YH RUWDODPD D\UNON GHHUOHULQLQ KHSVQLQ ELU ELULQH HLW ROGXX J|UOPHOLGLU O halde, MRUWDODPDD\UNOFLQVLQGHQ.HSOHUGHQNOHPL
E e sin E = M

(3.24)

E G D\UNOQQ KHP GRUXVDO KHP GH , Kepler denkleminin analitik olarak zm yoktur. Bununla birlikte, esinE < ROPDV ise,\DNODNo|]POHULQHOGe edilmesine
HNOLQGH \D]ODELOLU 'HQNOHPLQ VRO WDUDIQQ WULJRQRPHWULNIRQNVL\RQODUQLoHUL\RUROPDVQHGHQL\OH RODQDNVDOD\DQELUDYDQWDMRODUDNNDUP]GDGXUPDNWDGU

3.4. Kepler denkleminin zm

.HSOHU GHQNOHPLQLQ \DNODN o|]P ELU oRN \ROGDQ \DSODELOLU J|NPHNDQLLGHUVLQGHHOHDOQPDNWDGU%XUDGDLWHUDV\RQ\|Q \|QWHPLQLYHUHFHL]

. Bu yntemlerin nemlileri temi ile diferansiyel dzeltme

3.4.1. Kepler denkleminin itterasyon yntemi ile zm (3.22) Kepler denklemini, Ei +1 = M + e sin Ei (3.25)

55

HNOLQGHLWHUDV\RQIRUPORODUDN\HQLGHQ \D]DOP

e sin E < 1 ROGXXQGDQELU LON\DNODP

olarak E o = M

 DOQDUDNLWHUDV\RQD GHYDP HGLOLU VWHQHQGX\DUON HOGH HGLOLQFH G D\UNON

DoV EXOXQPX ROXU

(3.24) ya da (3.25 EDQWODUQQ UDG\DQ FLQVLQGHQ \D]OGQD GLNNDW edilmelidir. Bununla bLUOLNWH EX EDQWODU NoN ELU G]HOWPH LOH GHUHFH FLQVLQGHQ GH yazabiliriz: Ei +1 = M + 180 e sin Ei . (3.26)

rnek: Yerin,JQHHWUDIQGDNL \|UQJHVLQLQ\DU-E\NHNVHQ X]XQOXX a = 149.6 106 km, GPHUNH]OLLe = 0.01675 ve dolanma dnemi P JQROGXXQDJ|UHenberi QRNWDVQGDQJHoWLNWHQJQVRQUD, yrngesindeki NRQXPXQXKHVDSOD\Q] zm: n = 360 = 0 o .98561 gn 1 , M = n(t T ) = 98 o.561 olur. Eo = M kabul eder ve P

LWHUDV\RQIRUPOQNXOODQUVDN

Eo = 98o.56100, E1 = 99o.51001, E2 = 99o.50752, E3 = 99o.50752, elde edilir. %XQD J|UH G D\UNON EH EDVDPDNGX\DUONOD bulunPX ROXU EQLQ EX GHHUL
LOHGPHUNH]OLNGHHULGHNXOODQODUDNJHUoHND\UNON

v = 100o 27 olarak elde edilir.%XDQGD\HULQJQHHRODQX]DNOGDEDQWVNXOODQODUDN r = 150.01 106 km

RODUDNKHVDSODQU

Bu rnekte,
\DNQVDPWU

GPHUNH]OLN ROGXNoD NoN ROGXXQGDQ   LWHUDV\RQ IRUPO K]OD ' PHUNH]OLLQ E\N ROPDV GXUXPXQGD \DNQVDPD oRN GDKD \DYD RODUDN \DNQVDPDV GDKD K]O RODQ

olPDNWDGU. WHUDV\RQ \|QWHPLQH ELU DOWHUQDWLI diferansiyel dzeltme yntemiNXOODQODELOLU

3.4.2. Kepler denkleminin diferansiyel dzeltme yntemi ile zm (3.24) ile verilen Kepler denklemini kullanarak, f ( E ) = E e sin E M = 0
HNOLQGH G D\UNOD EDO \DNODN o|]P YH

(3.27)

f(E IRQNVL\RQXQX WDQPOD\DOP Eo, f(E) fonksiyonunun Eo+EGH JHUoHH GDKD \DNQ ELU o|]P ROPDN ]HUH f(E) fonksiyonunu Eo+E cLYDUQGDVHUL\HDoar, birinci trevden sonraki terimleri ihmal edersek 56

f ( E o + E ) f ( E o ) + Ef ( E o ) = 0 yazabiliriz. %XQDJ|UHGD\UNOQG]HOWLOPLGHHULQL E = Eo
HNOLQGH\DGD

(3.28)

f ( Eo ) f ( E o )

(3.29)

3.27EDQWVQGDNXOODQDUDN, iterasyon forml olarak M Ei + e sin Ei 1 e cos Ei (3.30)

Ei +1 = Ei +

HNOLQGH \D]DELOLUL]

%XUDGD GD  EDQWVQQ UDG\DQ FLQVLQGHQ \D]OP ROGXXQD

dikkat edilmelidir. (HU GHUHFH FLQVLQGHQ oDOOPDN LVWHQL\RUVD  EDQWVQGD NoN bir dzeltme\DSODUDNHOGHHGLOHQ M Ei + 180 e sin Ei 1 e cos Ei

Ei +1 = Ei +

(3.31) , Eo = M ya da daha da iyisi

EDQWVNXOODQOPDOGUEDQWVQGDLON\DNODPRODUDN

Eo = M +esinMGHHULDOQDELOLU rnek:%LU|QFHNL|UQHLGLIHUDQVL\HOG]HOWPH\|QWHPLLOH znz zm: 'HUHFH ELULPLQGH oDOPDN ]HUH  EDQWVQ NXOODQDOP. nceki zmde o ROGXXJLELEo = M = 98 .56100 kabul edelim Eo = E1 = E2 = E3 = elde edilir. 98o.56100 99o.50765 99o.50752 99o.50752

3.5. GQHLQJ|UQUKDUHNHWL BiliQGLL ]HUH \HU JQH HWUDIQGD G PHUNH]OLL e = 0.01675 olan elips yrngede GRODQPDNWDGU *QH, EX HOLSVLQ RGDNODUQGDQ ELULQGH EXOXQPDNWDGU .HSOHU \DVDODU EX
WUGHQ \|UQJHOHULQ |]HOOLNOHULQL RUWD\D NR\PDNWDGU *QH HWUDIQGDNL KDUHNHWLPL] VUDVQGD JQHLQ X]DN J|N FLVLPOHULQH J|UH RODQ NRQXPX VUHNOL GHLLU YH ELU \O VRQUD JQH WHNUDU D\Q NRQXPD JHOLU %XQD J|UH JQHLQ X]DN ELU \OG]OD WHNUDU D\Q NRQXPD JHOPHVL LoLQ JHoHQ VUH\H \HULQ JQH HWUDIQGDNL \|UQJH KDUHNHWLQLQ

dnemi (\OG]O (tutulum dzlemi)

sideral- dnem) denir.<OG]OG|QHP\DNODNJQGU

*QHLQ J|UQU KDUHNHWLQGH JQON KDUHNHW GQGD URO R\QD\DQ QHGHQOHU |QFHOLNOH \HULQ JQH HWUDIQGD GRODQPDV YH J|N HOHL LOH \|UQJH G]OHPLQLQ

57

oDNN ROPDPDVGU 'DKD |QFHGHQ GH EHOLUWLOGLL ]HUH HOHN

=23o27 HLPOLGLU
o

dzlemi, tutulum dzlemine

*QHLQ JQON KDUHNHW GQGD J|]H oDUSDQ LNL KDUHNHWL XQODUGU   *QH X]DN J|N FLVLPOHULQH J|UH KHU JQ \DNODN   GRX\D GRUX ND\PDNWDGU 

i ii) *QHLQ JQON

emberi, evren emberine\D]D\ODUQGDGDKDGLNLNHQNQGDKDHLNWLULPGLEXJ|UQU

KDUHNHWOHULDoNODPD\DoDODOP

(i*QHLQWXWXOXPoHPEHULER\XQFDGRX\DGRUX\OONKDUHNHWL
HNLO  GH J|VWHULOGLL JLEL \HU \|UQJHVLQGH SR]LWLI \|QGH KHU JQ \DNODN 

yol

kateder. %DODQJoWD JQH LOH X]DN ELU J|N FLVPLQLQ D\Q DQGD J|]OHPFLQLQ PHULG\HQLQGH EXOXQGXNODUQYDUVD\DOP (I konumu)<HUNHQGLHNVHQLHWUDIQGD G|QPH\HGHYDPHGHUNHQ D\Q]DPDQGDGDJQHHWUDIQGDNL dolanma hareketini srdrecektir. Bu nedenle uzak gk

ekil 3.3*QHLQ\OONGRX\|QOJ|UQUKDUHNHWL,NRQXPXQGDJQHYHX]DNELUJ|N
o

FLVPL LNLVL EHUDEHU J|]OHPFLQLQ PHULG\HQLQGHGLU <HU |UQHLQ ELU D\ VRQUD NHQGL HNVHQL HWUDIQGD  GHID G|QP YH \|UQJHVLQGH GH \DNODN 

ilerleyerek II konumuna

JHOPLWLU 8]DN J|N FLVPL J|]OHPFLQLQ PHULG\HQLQGH LNHQ JQH \DNODN RODUDN  GRXGDGU

rak 1oGRXGDNDOPRODFDNWU%DNDELU GHLOHJQHLQGHJ|]OHPFLQLQ o PHULG\HQLQH JHOHELOPHVL LoLQ \HULQ NHQGL HNVHQL HWUDIQGD  daha dnmesi gerekecektir. o 6RQXo RODUDN JQH X]DN J|N FLVLPOHULQH J|UH KHU JQ \DNODN 1  GRX\D ND\DFDN YH \DNODN 60 gn sonra, uzak gk cismiyle D\Q ]DPDQGD J|]OHPFLQLQ PHULG\HQLQGH
J|UH \DNODN ROD EXOXQDFDNWULPGLKHVDSODPDODUP]GDKDGX\DUORODUDN\DSDELOLUL]

FLVPL WHNUDU J|]OHPFLQLQ PHULG\HQLQH JHOGLLQGH ,, NRQXPX JQH X]DN J|N FLVPLQH

Yerin yrngesinde dolanma dnemi \D GD J|UQU \|UQJHGH JQHLQ GRODQPD G|QHPL P JQROGXXQDJ|UHJQHLQGRX\|QO\OONJ|UQUDoVDOK] n= 360 = 0 o.98561 gn 1 = 3dk 56 s gn 1 P 58

RODFDNWU *QHLQ \O ER\XQFD L]OHGLL \|UQJH WXWXOXP oHPEHUL ROGXXQD J|UH JQHLQ \OON KDUHNHWL RODUDN XQX V|\OH\HELOLUL] JQH WXWXOXP oHPEHUL ER\XQFD X]DN J|N

cisimlerine J|UH KHU JQ \DNODN dk56s GRX\D GRUX ND\DU *QH EX \OON KDUHNHWL

VUDVQGDKHUD\ELUEXUoWDQ WXWXOXPG]OHPL\DNQQGDNLWDNP\OG]ODUJHoHU *QH 0DUW WDULKLQGH .Ro QRNWDVQGDGU YH EX DQGDQ LWLEDUHQ ELUHU D\ DUD\OD VUDV\OD %RD NL]OHU <HQJHo $VODQ %DDN 7HUD]L $NUHS <D\ 2ODN .RYD YH %DONODU WDNP \OG]ODUQGDQJHoHU

(ii *QHLQ PDNVLPXP \NVHNOLLQLQ GHLPHVL 0HYVLPOHULQ ROXXPX gn ve gece VUHOHULQLQGHLPHVL)

<HULQ G|QPH HNVHQL WXWXOXP oHPEHULQH GLN ROVD\G  JQH QODU |UQHLQ JQHLQ VW JHoLOHUL VUDVQGD

, yer yzndeki her hangi bir gzlem yerine, \O ER\XQFD GDLPD D\Q Do DOWQGD JHOLUGL %DND ELU GHLOH, JQHLQ VW JHoL \NVHNOLL \O LoLQGH KLo GHLPHz ve bylece PHYVLPOHU ROXPD]G. $\UFD WXWXOXPOD HOHLQ oDNPDV GXUXPXQGD JQH
GDLPDHOHN]HULQGHRODFDQGDQJQYHJHFHVUHOHULGHGDLPDHLWROXUGX

 DoV NDGDU HLNWLU YH EXQXQ VRQXFXQGD JQH \O ER\XQFD WXWXOXP oHPEHULQGH KDUHNHW HWWLNoH GLN DoNO GD - ile +  DUDVQGD o GHLPHNWHGLU HNLO WH >0  HQOHPOL ELU J|]OHP \HULQLQ J|N NUHVLQGH J|VWHULOGLL o ]HUH  0DUW WDULKLQGH JQH NRo QRNWDVQGDGU YH EX DQGD GLN DoNO  dir. Bu tarihte
*HUoHNWH LVH WXWXOXP oHPEHUL HOHN G]OHPLQH JQHLQ JQON oHPEHUL HOHLQ NHQGLVLGLU YH EX QHGHQOH JHFH YH JQG] VUHOHUL HLWWLU $\UFD EX WDULKWH JQHLQ JQON oHPEHUL LOH J|]OHP \HULQLQ oHYUHQ oHPEHUL DUDVQGDNL Do

da 90- dir.

4. 0HYVLPOHULQ ROXPDV YH \O LoHULVLQGH JQ VUHVLQLQ GHLPHVL .X]H\ HQOHPli bir gzlem yerinde ( >0o+D]LUDQGDJQHQODUGDKDGLNJHOLUYHJQG]VUHVLJHFH
HNLO  VUHVLQGHQX]XQGXU$UDONWDGXUXPWHUVLQHG|QHU

59

*QHGRX\DGRUXKDUHNHWLQHGHYDPHGHUHN +D]LUDQWDULKLQGH\HQJHoQRNWDVQDJHOLU %XDQGDJQHLQ

, dikDoNO  = GU. 7DPEXWDULKWHJQHLQVWJHoL\NVHNOLL HNLO 3.4tH J|VWHULOGLL ]HUH - + GU. 'ROD\V\OH, JQH QODU, 22 Haziran tarihinde, 21
*QHLQ  +D]LUDQGDNL JQON oHPEHUL LQFHOHQGLLQGH EX WDULKOHUGH JQ VUHVLQLQ VUHVLQGHQGDKDX]XQROGXXGDDQODOPDNWDGU

0DUW WDULKLQH J|UH GDKD GLN JHOPHNWH YH VRQXo RODUDN GD KDYDODU GDKD VFDN ROPDNWDGU

gece

*QH \DNODN o D\ VRQUD WHUD]L QRNWDVQD JHOHFHN YH GXUXP  0DUWWDNLQLQ EHQ]HUL RODFDNWU 6RQUDNL o D\Q VRQXQGD LVH RODN QRNWDVQD JHOHFHN RODQ JQHLQ GLN DoNO PLQLPXP GHHULQH XODDUDN

JQON oHPEHUL LOH oHYUHQ oHPEHUL DUDVQGDNL DoQQ 

 = -  RODFDNWU HNLO LQFHOHQGLLQGH EX WDULKWH JQHLQ - - ROGXX DQODOU Bu nedenle

JQH QODU J|]OHP \HULQH ROGXNoD HLN RODUDN JHOHFHN YH VRQXo RODUDN GD KDYDODU oRN GDKD VRXN RODFDNWU <LQH HNLOGHQ J|UOHFHL ]HUH  $UDON WDULKLQGH JQ VUHVL JHFH VUHVLQGHQGDKDNVDGU

Uygulama: Enlemi = 80o olan bir gzlem yerinde HQ X]XQ JQ VUHVLQL \DNODN RODUDN hesaplayDOP. Kuzey enlemli bir gzlem yerinde, J|N FLVLPOHULQLQ EDWPDPD NRXOX  HLWVLzOLL LOH
YHULOPLWL%XQDJ|UH

 90- =10o
ROGXX VUHFH EX J|]OHP \HULQGH JQH KLo EDWPD] $WPRVIHULQ NUPD HWNLVL  JQHLQ J|UQU \DUoDSQ   GD GLNNDWH DOGP]GD \XNDUGDNL NRXOX GDKD GRUX

) ile

olarak

 9o10
olarak yazabiliriz. DYHEEDQWODUQDJ|UH tan = cos tan  tan  = sin  tan
GU%XUDGDQJQHLQEDWPDPDNRXOXQDX\JXQRODUDN

ve

1sa 27dk 21s  10sa 32dk 39s 23o 35 45  156o 24 15

 \O LoLQ

, yrngenin gnEHUL ER\ODP LoLQ o = 283o 00 33  GHHULQL NXOODQDELOHFHLPL]LGDKD|QFHV|\OHPLWLN Buna gre, elde edilir. 100o 35 v 233o 23
ROPDOGUEDQWVQGDQ

60

99o 38 E 234o 09,

EDQWVQGDQGD

99o 07 M 234o 10
HOGHHGLOLU6RQRODUDNGDEDQWV\DUGP\OD

101 t T 238 elde edilir. Buna gre sz konusu gzlem yerindeJQH,\|UQJHVLQLQJQEHULQRNWDVQGDQ

JHoLLQGHQ  JQ VRQUD EDWPDPD\D EDODU YH EX GXUXP JQEHULGHQ JHoLWHQ VRQUDNL 

gn sonraya kadar bylece devam eder. O halde, bu gzlem yerinde gnH \DNODN RODUDN 137 gn hi batmaz. Yani en uzun gn sreVL\DNODNRODUDNJQGU

3.6. $\QJ|UQUKDUHNHWL
<HULQ WHN GRDO X\GXVX RODQ $\ \HU HWUDIQGD GPHUNH]OLL  YH \DU X]XQOXX  NP RODQ HOLSV ELU \|UQJHGH

-byk eksen
$\Q \OG]O

ve pozitif ynde GRODQU

yrnge dolanma dnemi ($\Q X]DN ELU \OG]Q GRUXOWXVXQGDQ DUG DUGD LNL JHoLL DUDVQGDNLVUH P = 27.321661 gndr. 2KDOGH$\Q\|UQJHDoVDOK]n = 13.176358 e e gn-1 52dk 42s gn-1  GLU %DND ELU GHLOH $\ KHU JQ X]DN \OG]ODUD J|UH dk 42s dk GRX\DGRUXND\DU*QHWHEXND\PDQQKHUJQ\DNODN 56sROGXXQXKDWUOD\Q] Ayn dnme ve dolanma dnemlerLQLQ HLW ROPDV QHGHQL\OH \HUGHQ EDNOGQGD daima D\Q \]Q J|UU] $\Q ekvatoru, yrnge dzlemine 6 41 ve tutulum dzlemine de \DNODNRODUDN i = 1 32HLNWLU Yani, Ay yrngesinin tutulumaLQLNOLL\DNODNRODUDN 09 GU $\ \|UQJHVL WXWXOXP oHPEHUL LOH LNL QRNWDGD NHVLLU $\Q D\ON J|UQU KDUHNHWL
VUDVQGD WXWXOXPXQ JQH\LQGHQ NX]H\LQH JHoHUNHQ UDVWODQDQ NHVLP QRNWDVQD D\

yrnJHVLQLQ oN GP (

), GLHULQH GH LQL GP (

) denir.

dN YH LQL

GPOHULQL ELUOHWLUHQ oL]JL\H \DQL WXWXOXP LOH D\ \|UQJH G]OHPLQLQ DUDNHVLW oL]JLVLQH

, ay yrngesinin GPOHU oL]JLVL EDW\D GRUX HNVL \|QGH KHU JQ \DNODN RODUDN .177ON ELU ND\PD KDUHNHWL yapar.'ROD\V\OHEXND\PDKDUHNHWLQLQG|QHPLJQ\DGD\OGU
GPOHUoL]JLVLGHQLU*QHLQGRXUGXXWHGLUJLQOLNQHGHQL\OH

Ay yrngesinin oN GPQQ LONEDKDUQRNWDVGRUXOWXVXQGDROGXXDQ iin, tutulum YH HOHN G]OHPOHULQH J|UH durumu ekil 3.5WH J|VWHULOPLWLU Bu tarihlerde ay, \|UQJHVLQGHELUWDPGRODQPD\DSWQGDGLNDoNO ( + i) ile +( + i)DUDVQGDGHLLU
$\ \|UQJHVLQLQ GPOHU oL]JLVL EDW \|QQGH KDUHNHWLQH GHYDPHWWLLQGH \DNODN RODUDN  \OVRQUD oN GP RODN GRUXOWXVXQD JHOLU $UWN EX WDULKOHUGH D\Q GLNDoNO

- ile + DUDVQGD GHLLU .D\PDQQ GHYDP HWPHVL\OH oN GP WHUD]L GRUXOWXVXQD gelir. $UWND\QGLNDoNO bir ay ierisinde ( - i) ile +( - iDUDVQGDGHLmektedir. Bu son GXUXP HNLO GD J|VWHULOPLWLU dN GP \HQJHo GRUXOWXVXQGD LNHQ D\Q GLN ile + DUDVQGD GHLPH\H EDODU Sonu olarak, D\Q GLN DoNO DoNO \HQLGHQ - minimum ( + i) = -28 36 ile maksimum + i = 28 36 DUDVQGD GHLLU YH GHLLPLQ G|QHPL  \OGU Buna Saros dnemi denir. $\Q GLN DoNOQQ GHLLPL,  HPDWLN olarak,HNLO7WHYHULOPLWLU 61

HNLO 5 dN GPQQ LONEDKDU GRUXOWXVXQGD ROGXX DQ LoLQ D\ \|UQJHVLQLQ Hlek ve tutulum dzlemlerine gre durumu. %X WDULKOHUGH D\Q GLN DoNOQQ ELU D\ON VUH ierisinde ( + i) ile +( + iDUDVQGDGHLWLLQHGLNNDWHGLOPHOLdir.'POHUoL]JLVLQLQ JQHLQ WHGLUJLQOLL QHGHQL\OH EDW \|QO KDUHNHWLQLQ ELU VRQXFX RODrak ay yrnge G]OHPLQLQ NX]H\ XoOD GD WXWXOXPXQ NX]H\ XoOD HWUDIQGD QHJDWLI \|QGH ELU GRODQP

hareketi yapar.

HNLO  dN GPQQ WHUD]L GRUXOWXVXQGD ROGXX DQ LoLQ D\ \|UQJHVLQLQ HOHN YH

tutulum dzlemlerine gre durumu. Bu taULKOHUGH D\Q GLN DoNO ELU D\ON VUH LoHULVLQGH ( - i) ile +( - iDUDVQGDGHLLU

62

HNLO$\QGLNDoNOQQGHLLPLQLQHPDWLNJ|VWHULPL

3.6.2. =DPDQELULPLRODUDND\WDQPODU
$\WHNHUFLLQLQoHLWOLQRNWDODUGDQDUGDUGQDJHoLOHUGLNNDWHDOQDUDNGHLLND\WDQPODU

yapmak mmkndr. 1)
<OG]O

DUG DUGQD LNL JHoLL DUDVQGDNL VUH ROXS X]XQOXXQXQ

daha|QFHV|\OHPLWLN

(sideral) ay: Ay teNHUFLLQLQX]DN\OG]ODUGDQKHUKDQJLELULQLQGRUXOWXVXQGDQ Pe = 27.321661 gn ROGXXQX

$\ WHNHUFLLQLQ NRo QRNWDVQGDQ DUG DUGQD LNL JHoLL

2) Dnencel (Tropical) ay:

DUDVQGDNL VUH .Ro QRNWDV WXWXOXP ER\XQFD KHU \O \DNODN  <DQL NRo QRNWDVQQ GRODQPD G|QHPL

Pd

.28 EDW\D ND\PDNWDGU P- = 25776 \OGU Buna gre G|QHQFHO D\ X]XQOXX

(3.32) Pd = 27.321582 gn olarak elde edilir.

EDQWVQGDQ

. 3) Ejderel (Draconitic) ay: $\ WHNHUFLLQLQ oN \D GD LQL GPOHULQGHQ ELULQGHQ DUG DUGQDLNLJHoLLDUDVQGDNL sre. 'POHUoL]JLVLEDW\DGRUXND\PDNWDYHND\PDQQ dnemi \OGU%XQDJ|UHHMGHUHOD\X]XQOXX (3.33) Pej = 27.21222 gn olarak elde edilir.

EDQWVQGDQ

63

4)

$\UNVO

(Anomalistic) ay:

$\ WHNHUFLLQLQ \|UQJHVLQLQ HQEHUL QRNWDVQGDQ DUG

DUGQD LNL JHoLL DUDVQGDNL VUH

Ay yrngesinin eksen dnme hareketi nedeniyle bu Pa = 27.554551 gn olarak

VUH \OG]O D\GDQ IDUNOGU $\ \|UQJHVLQLQ SR]LWLI \|QO HNVHQ G|QPH KDUHNHWLQLQ

dnemi Peb bulunur. 5)

  \O ROGXXQGDQ D\UNVO D\ X]XQOXX

.DYXXO 6\QRGLF D\

$\Q KHU KDQJL ELU HYUHVLQGHQ |UQHLQ \HQL D\ HYUHVLQGHQ DUG

DUGQDLNLJHoLLDUDVQGDNLVUH$\YHJQHKHULNLVLGHSR]LWLI\|QOKDUHNHW\DSDUODU EXQHGHQOHNDYXXOD\X]XQOXX

PK (3.34)

EDQWVQGDQ

PK = 29.530589 gn olarak bulunur.

$\QHYUHOHUL

$\Q NHQGL  \RNWXU 2QX DQFDN JQHWHQ \DQVWW N VD\HVLQGH J|UHELOPHNWH\L] <DQVWDQ\]H\LQHNOLYHE\NO\HUD\YHJQHLQELUELUOHULQHJ|UHRODQNRQXPODUQD EDOGU

Ay ve gne \HUGHQ EDNOGQGD D\Q E\NONWH J|UQUOHU (her ikisinin de grnr \DUoDS \DNODN RODUDN GU %XQD J|UH HHU D\ WDP RODUDN JQH GRUXOWXsunda olursaNDYXPDNRQXPXD\GDQ\DQV\DQQODUQKLoELUL\HUHJHOPH\HFHLQGHQD\ grnmez. Bu evreye yeniay evresi diyoruz. $\Q HYUHOHULQLQ ROXXPX HNLO GH
HPDWLN RODUDN YHULOPLWLU %XUDGD \HU YH JQH GXUDDQ NDEXO HGLOPL YH D\Q \HU NRQXPODU YH EX NRQXPODUGD RUWD\D oNDQ HWUDIQGDNL \|UQJHVL ]HULQGHNL IDUNO

grnmleri (evreleri)

J|VWHULOPLWLU

Yeniay evresinden sonra pozitif ynl hareketine

GHYDP HGHQ D\ \DYD \DYD JQH QODUQ \HUH GRUX J|QGHUPH\H EDODU $\Q \HQLD\

evresinden sonraki ilk bir ka gn iindeki grnts hilal RODUDN DGODQGUOU Gnler ilerledike hilDO NDOQODPD\D GHYDP HGHU YH \HQLD\GDQ \DNODN RODUDN \HGL JQ VRQUD D\ WHNHULQLQ\DUVD\GQON\DUVNDUDQONROXU Bu evreye ilk drdn evresi denir.OHUOH\HQ
JQOHUGH D\Q D\GQON NVP DUWPD\D GHYDP HGHU YH \HQLD\ HYUHVLQGHQ \DNODN  JQ

sRQUD WDPDP D\GQON RODUDN J|UQU %X DQGD D\ \HULQ ELU WDUDIQGD YH JQH GLHU WDUDIQGDGUNDUNRQXP.$\QWDPDPHQD\GQONRODUDNJ|UQG EX HYUH\Hdolunay evresi denir. %X DQGDQ LWLEDUHQ D\Q D\GQON NVP JLGHUHN D]DOPD\D EDODU YH \DNODk
RODUDN  JQ VRQUD \DQL \HQLD\ HYUHVLQGHQ \DNODN RODUDN  JQ VRQUD \HQLGHQ \DUV D\GQON \DUV NDUDQON KDOH JHOLU %X HYUH\H GH

son drdn evresi denir. ON YH VRQ

G|UGQ HYUHOHULQLQ LNLVLQGH GH D\Q \DUV J|UQPHNWHGLU IDNDW DUDODUQGDNL IDUN XGXU LON G|UGQ HYUHVLQGH D\GQON NVP EDW\D \|QHOLNNHQ VRQ G|UGQ HYUHVLQGH LVH GRX\D

yneliktir.
$\Q HYUHOHUL WDQP JHUHL NDYXXO D\ VUHVLQGH 

PK

  JQ WHNUDUODQU

Ay

HYUHOHUL\HQLD\GDQLWLEDUHQVD\OU%DNDELUGHLOH\HQLD\HYUHVLQGHD\VIUJQONWULON

drdn evresinde 7 ve dolunay evresinde 15 gnlktr. *HoPLWH,D\QEXHNLOGHHYUHOHULQH J|UH WDQPODQan a\ WDNYLPOHUL NXOODQOPWU *QP]GH ELOH ED] LVODP ONHOHULQGH RamD]DQ D\QQ EDODQJF, yeniay evresinden sonraki ilk hilalin gzlenmesiyle belirlenmektedir.

64

I konumunda NDYXXP NRQXPX ay ve ve ay grlmez (yeniay evresi). 9 NRQXPXQGD NDU NRQXP D\ WHNHUFLLQLQWDPDPD\GQONJ|rlr (dolunay evresi).
HNLO  $\Q HYUHOHULQLQ HPDWLN DoNODPDV JQH D\Q KL]DGDGUODU

<OG]O\KOX]XQOXXQXQNDYXXOD\X]XQOXXQXQWDPNDWROPDPDVQHGHQL\OHYHULOHQELU WDULKWH J|]OHQHQ HYUH WDP ELU \O VRQUD J|]OHQPH] 9H\D 5DPD]DQ D\ WHNUDU WDP ELU \O VRQUD EDODPD] , NDYXXO D\ VUHVL 3N   JQ ROXS ELU \OGDQ \DNODN RODUDN

JQGDKDNVDGU2KDOGHD\QHYUHOHULKHU\OJQ|QFH\HND\DU5DPD]DQD\GDEX QHGHQOHKHU\OJQ|QHND\DU

3.6.4. A\QJ|UOPHVUHsi
$\Q GLN DoNOQQ VUHNOL GHLWLLQL GDKD |QFH J|UPWN

. Bu ise grlme sresinin

\O HOH DODOP %X

GHLHFHL DQODPQD JHOLU 2OD\ EDVLWoH J|]GHQ JHoLUHELOPHN LoLQ D\Q \|UQJHVLQLQ oN GPQQ \DNODN RODUDN NRo QRNWDV GRUXOWXVXQGD ROGXX ELU GXUXPGDD\QGLNDoNOHNLOWHQGHDQODODFD]HUH GHL

( + i) ile +( + iDUDVQGD

ir. ,

ONEDKDUGD  *QH NRo QRNWDV GRUXOWXVXQGDGU %X DQGD \HQLD\ HYUHVLQLQ ROXPDV LoLQ D\QGDNRoKL]DVQGDROPDVJHUHNL2KDOGHEXWDULKOHUGH\HQLD\HYUHVLQGHD\QGLNDoNO

e = 0 ve grlme sresi de 12 saattir.

$\GRX\|QOD\ONKDUHNHWLQHGHYDPHGHUHNELUKDIWDVRQUD\HQJHoGRUXOWXVXQDJHOLUYH LONG|UGQHYUHVLROXXU

Bu anda e = 28 36 ve grlme sresi GHVDDWWHQID]ODGU

$\ WHUD]L GRUXOWXVXQD JHOGLLQGH LVH DUWN JQHOH NDU NRQXPGDGU YH GROXQD\ HYUHVL ROXXU%XDQGD

<HQLD\ HYUHVLQGHQ o KDIWD VRQUD D\ RODN KL]DVQD JHOLU YH VRQ G|UGQ HYUHVL ROXXU %X

e = 0 ve grlme sresi de 12 saattir.

*|UOG JLELoNGPQQNRoGRUXOWXVXQGDROGXX WDULKOHUGHD\QGLNDoNOQQ DODELOHFHL PDNVLPXP GHHU JQHLQ GLN DoNOQQ DODELOHFHL PDNVLPXP GHHUGHQ GDKD

anda e = -28 36YHJ|UOPHVUHVLGHVDDWWHQNVDGU

65

byktr. %X QHGHQOH GH E|\OHVL ELU \OGD D\Q J|]OHQHELOGLL PDNVLPXP VUH GH JQHLQ maksimum gzlenebilme sresinden byktr.
dN GPQQ NRo GRUXOWXVXQGD ROGXX \OQ GLHU PHYVLPOHUL LoLQ GH EHQ]HU ELU LQFHOHPH\DSODELOLU

zet sonular izelge 3.1de verilPLWLU

dL]HOJH$\QPHYVLPOHUHJ|UHNRQXPXYHJ|U

lme sreleri (ay yrngesiQLQoNGPNRoQRNWDVGRUXOWXVXQGDLNHQ)

*QHLQ

Mevsim

konumu

Evre Yeniay
ONG|UGQ

$\Q

$\Q GLNDoNO

ONEDKDU

Ko

Dolunay Son drdn Yeniay

ONG|UGQ

konumu Ko Yenge Terazi

2ODN

0 28 36 0 2836 28 36 0 28 36 0 0 28 36 0 28 36 28 36 0 28 36 0

Grlme sresi (saat) 12 >12 12 <12 >12 12 <12 12 12 <12 12 >12 <12 12 >12 12

Yenge Terazi
2ODN

Yaz

Yenge

Dolunay Son drdn Yeniay

ONG|UGQ

Ko Terazi
2ODN

Sonbahar

Terazi

Dolunay Son drdn Yeniay

Ko Yenge
2ODN

2ODN

ONG|UGQ

Dolunay Son drdn

Ko Yenge Terazi

'POHUoL]JLVLQLQGXUDDQROPDPDVQHGHQL\OHD\\|UQJHVLLOHHOHNG]OHPLDUDVQGDNL Do GROD\V\OD GD D\Q GLN DoNOQQ GHLLP DUDO VUHNOL GHLPHNWHGLU gUQHLQ oN GPQQ \HQJHo GRUXOWXVXQGD ROGXX WDULKOHUGH D\Q GLN DoNO GHLLU YH EX QHGHQOH D\QGU

- ile +  DUDVQGD

sz konusu tarihlerde

PDNVLPXP J|UOHELOPH VUHVL JQHLQNL LOH

6RQXo RODUDN D\Q J|UOPH VUHVL oN GPQQ NRQXPX LOH \DNQGDQ LOJLOL ROXS KHP PHYVLPGHQPHYVLPHKHPGH\OGDQ\ODGHLPHNWHGLU

3.7. Gezegenlerin grnr hareketleri

*QHVLVWHPLQLQGLHU|QHPOL\HOHULJH]HJHQOHUGLU *QHHWUDIQGDEDPV]\|UQJHOHUH

saKLS RODQELQOHUFHJH]HJHQROPDVQDNDUQEXQODUQGRNX]WDQHVLGQGDNLOHUER\XWoDoRN
NoNWUOHU %X QHGHQOH JH]HJHQ GH\LQFH DNOP]D GRNX] E\N JH]HJHQ JHOLU %XQODU JQHH X]DNONODUQD J|UH 0HUNU 9HQV <HU 0DUV -SLWHU 6DWUQ 8UDQV 1HSWQ

ve Pltodur. Byk gezegenler,JQHHRODQX]DNONODUGLNNDWHDOQGQGDLNLJUXEDD\UOUYH 66

(yer merkezli) grnr hareketleri ED] |QHPOL IDUNOONODU J|VWHULU %LULQFL JUXS JQHH RUWDODPD X]DNONODU, yerin, JQHH u]DNOQGDQ daha kk olan Merkr ve Vens gezegenlerinden ibaret olup bunlara i gezegenler denir. NLQFL JUXS LVH JQHH X]DNONODU yer-JQH X]DNOQGDQ GDKD E\N RODQ 0DUV -SLWHU 6DWUQ 8UDQV 1HSWQ YH 3OWR JH]HJHQOHULQGHQROXPDNWDGUYHEXJUXEDGDGJH]HJHQOHU denilmektedir. DHQNOHP  ELU JH]HJHQ JQHH QH NDGDU X]DNVD dolanma dnemi de o kadar uzundur. 'RODQPD G|QHPLQLQ NDUHVL JH]HJHQLQ JQHH X]DNOQQ NE LOH RUDQWOGU %XQXQ ELU VRQXFX RODUDN JQHH \DNQ RODQ JH]HJHQOerin
.HSOHULQ oQF \DVDVQD J|UH  DoVDOK]ODUE\NX]DNRODQODUQLVHNoNWU

Gezegenlerin grnr hareketleri, yer ve gezegenin kendi yrnge hareketlerinin bir sonucu
RODUDNRUWD\DoNDUYHLoYHGJH]HJHQOHULoLQIDUNOONODUJ|VWHULU

+HP \HU KHP GH JH]HJHQOHU JQH HWUDIQGD GRODQGNODUQGDQ \HUGHQ EDNOGQGD JH]HJHQLQJ|UQHQKDUHNHWLROGXNoDNDUPDNWU*H]HJHQOHULQJ|UQHQKDUHNHWOHULQLJQHH YHX]DN\OG]ODUDJ|UHLNLWUOLQFHOH\HELOLUL]

3.7.1. Gezegenlerin gQHHJ|UHJ|UQUKDUHNHWleri

DoJH]HJHQO

erLQJQHHJ|UHKDUHNHWOHUL
JQHH J|UH RODQ J|UQU KDUHNHWLQL DQODPDN LoLQ HNLO GD YHULOHQ

Bir i gezegenin

HPDWLN oL]LPGHQ \DUDUODQDELOLUL]

Basitlik iin, yer ve gezegenin yrnge dzlemleri

HNLOGH \HU

oDNN NDEXO HGLOPL YH \|UQJH GPHUNH]OLNOHUL GLNNDWH DOQPDPWU GXUDDQ DOQPWU %|\OHFH Lo JH]HJHQLQ ELU NDYXXO G|QHP ER\XQFD

yere gre olan

J|UQU KDUHNHWL GLNNDWH DOQP ROX\RU 7P JH]HJHQOHU JQH HWUDIQGD SR]LWLI \|QO GRODQUODUYH.HSOHULQoQF\DVDVQDJ|UHJQHHRODQX]DNONODUDUWWNoD\|UQJHDoVDO K]ODU NoOU

\|QOGU YH EX J|UHOL KDUHNHWLQ G|QHPLQH NDYXXO G|QHP GHQLU

Bunun sonucu olarak, bir i gezegenin, yere gre hareketi de pozitif Gezegen, I konumunda

LNHQ \HU JH]HJHQ YH JQH D\Q KL]DGDGU YH LQFHOHPHPL]H EX HYUHGHQ EDOD\DOP %X o J|N FLVPL ELU ]DPDQ VRQUD WHNUDU D\Q KL]D\D JHOGLNOHULQGH DUDGDQ  JH]HJHQLQ NDYXXO

, dnemi (PK) NDGDU ELU VUH JHoPL ROXU nG =2/PG ve nY =2/PY, VUDV\OD, gezegenin ve yerin dolanma DoVDOK]ODUYHnK =2/PK da gezegenin\HUHJ|UHDoVDOK]olmak zere, nK = nG nY veya 1 1 1 1 1 = = PK PG PY PG PY (3.36) (3.35)

PG ve PYVUDV\ODJH]HJHQin ve yerin dolanma dnemleridir. DOW NDYXXP denir ve bu anda yer-JH]HJHQ X]DNO minimumdur. Gezegen,DOWNDYXXPHYUHVLQGHLNHQJ|UlePH]WSN\HQLD\JLEL Bu andan itibaren, \HUGHQ EDNOGQGD Lo JH]HJHQ JQHH J|UH EDW \|QO ELU KDUHNHWH VDKLSWLU YH JQHLQ EDWVQGD giderek aoOPD\D (X]DQPD) EDODU ve gn getike byyen bir hilal olarak grlr.<HUGHQEDNOGQGD\HU-JQHLOH\HU-JH]HJHQGRUXOWXODUDUDVQGDNLDo\D
EDQWODU\D]ODELOLUEXUDGD HNLO GDNL , NRQXPXQD

67

X]DQP DoV GHQLU $OW NDYXXP HYUHVLQGH X]DQP VIUGU YH EX DQGDQ LWLEDUHQ DUWPD\D EDODU *QHWHQEDW\|QQGHX]DNODPD\DGHYDPHGHQJH]HJHQ X]DQPD

II konumunda maksimum sahip olur. ,, NRQXPX \HUGHQ JH]HJHQ \|UQJHVLQH oL]LOHQ WHHWLQ GHPH QRNWDVGU II konumuna HQ E\N EDW X]DQP denir. %LU Lo JH]HJHQ EDW X]DQPQGD\NHQJQHWHQ|QFHGRDUYH JQHWHQ|QFHEDWDU %XVUDODUGD gezegen, sabaha NDU,  GRX XINXQGD belli bir sre gzlenebilir (VDEDK \OG]).  (Q E\N EDW X]DQPQGDQ
VRQUD JH]HJHQ \HQLGHQ JQHH GRUX \DNODU \DQL GRX \|QO ELU KDUHNHW \DSDU YH ,,, NRQXPXQGD JQH LOH D\Q KL]D\D NDYXXU *H]HJHQLQ \HUGHQ PDNVLPXP X]DNONWD ROGXX

III konumuna VWNDYXXP denir.hVWNDYXXPHYUHVLQGHJH]HJHQGROXQHYUHGHROPDVQD UDPHQ, KHP X]DNOQQ oRN DUWP ROPDV KHP GH JQH LOH KHPHQ KHPHQ D\Q KL]DGD ROPDVQHGHQL\OHJ|]OHnmesi olduka zordur.%XQGDQVRQUDJH]HJHQJQHHJ|UHRODQGRX \|QOKDUHNHWLQLVUGUHUHNJQHLQGRXVXQGDX]DQPQJLGHUHNDUWUUYH IV konumunda en byk GRX X]DQPna XODU *H]HJHQ GRX X]DQPQGD LNHQ JQHWHQ VRQUD GRDU ve sonra batar. %X VUDODUGD JH]HJHQ JQH EDWWNWDQ VRQUD EDW XINXQGD EHOOL ELU VUH gzlenebilir (DNDP\OG]).
6RQXo RODUDN JH]HJHQLQ JQHH J|UH RODQ KDUHNHWL ,, NRQXPXQGDQ ,9 NRQXPXQD NDGDU

DRX\|QO iken, ,9LOH,,NRQXPODUDUDVQGDbDW\|QOGU. O halde,

HNLO%LULoJH]HJHQLQDOW,YHVW,,,NDYXXPNRQXPODULOHHQE\NEDW,,YHHQ E\NGRX,9X]DQPODU

LPGL \HU JQH YH JH]HJHQLQ J|UHOL NRQXPODUQ GDKD D\UQWO RODUDN LQFHOH\HOLP

KDQJLELUDQGDEXoFLVPLQNRQXPXHNLOGDJ|VWHULOGLLJLELROVXQ%XUDGDJQH

harfi ile; gezegen, P ile ve yer de Y LOH J|VWHULOPLWLU JQH X]DNO r ile ve yer-JH]HJHQ X]DNO GD d LOH J|VWHULOPLWLU <HUGHQ EDNOQFD JH]HJHQLQ JQHH J|UH NRQXPunu veren u DoV gezegenin u]DQP DoVGU Gezegenden EDNOQFD\HULQJQHHJ|UHNRQXPXQXYHUHQ DoVLVHJH]HJHQLQHYUHDoVGU En byk X]DQPGD =90RODFDDoNWU HNLOGDNLJ|UHOL NRQXPXQ DOWNDYXXPHYUHVLQGHQ t sre sonra meydana JHOGLLQL YDUVD\DOP %XQD J|UH JQHWHQ EDNOGQGD JH]HJHQLQ yere gre konumunu veren DoV

. Her G Yer-JQH X]DNO R ile, gezegen-

= nK t
68

(3.37)

EDQWV\ODYHULOLU

. (HU\|UQJHOHULoHPEHU NDEXOHGHUVHN , zamanla dzgn olarak artan bir DoROXU$\QH\OHUu ve LoLQJHoHUOLGHLOGLU

HNLO  *QH \HU YH JH]HJHQLQ DOW NDYXXP NRQXPXQGDQ NRQXPODU

t gn sonraki greli

g]HO GXUXP RODUDN HQ E\N X]DQP 

umax) durumunda HYUH DoV  RODFDQGDQ PGY

dik geninden sin u max = r R (3.38)

yazabiliriz.(HU\HU-JQHX]DNO$%FLQVLQGHQDOQUVD (R = 1 AB) sin u max = r ( AB) olur.

$\QHYUHGHNL

(3.39)

DoVLVH
(3.40)

cos = r ( AB)

RODFDQGDQ DOW NDYXXPGDQ VRQUD JH]HJHQLQ HQ E\N X]DQPD JHOPHVL LoLQ JHoHQ VUH EDQWVQQGD\DUGP\OD

t=

PK cos 1 r 2

(3.41)

olarak elde edilir. rnek:9HQVQJQHHRUWDODPDX]DNOr = 0.723 AB, yrngesinin tutuluma iniklLLi = 3 23 ve dolanma dnemi P = 224.7 gndr. (Q E\N EDW X]DQPQGD LNHQ X]DQP NDo GHUHFHGLUYHDOWNDYXXPHYUHVLQGHQNDoJQVRQUDHQE\NEDWX]DQPQDXODU?

69

zm: i

oRN NoN ROGXXQGDQ \|UQJH G]OHPL WXWXOXPD oDNN DOQDELOLU YH GPHU

NH]OLLQ oRN NoN ROPDV QHGHQL\OH GH \|UQJH oHPEHU YDUVD\ODELOLU <HULQ \OG]O GRODQPDG|QHPLJQROGXXQDJ|UHYHEDQWODUQGDQ

nK = 0.0107604 rad gn-1, PK = 583.92 gn

EXOXQXUEDQWVQGDQ

umax = 46 18 10
YHEDQWVQGDQGD

t = 70.88 gn elde edilir. HNLO D J|UH 9HQV ,9 NRQXPXQGDQ ,, NRQXPXQD NDGDU \DNODN RODUDN
JQVUH\OHJQHHJ|UHEDW\|QOYH,,NRQXPXQGDQ,9NRQXPXQDNDGDUGD JQVUH\OHGRX\|QOKDUHNHWH

der. PGY geninde sLQVIRUPOX\JXODQUVDX]DNONODU$% (3.42)

LPGLHNLODJHULG|QHOLP FLQVLQGHQLIDGHHGLOGLLQGH

sin u = r sin yazabiliriz.$\UFD sin( + ) = sin(180 u ) = r sin

\D]ODELOLU

(3.43)

SolWDUDIDoOUYHG]HQOHPH\DSOUVDHYUHDoVLoLQ sin r cos (3.44)

tan =
EDQWV

elde edilir. Burada QQLOHYHULOGLLQLWHNUDUEHOLUWHOLP

(HU

PGY oJHQLQGHEDQWVQQGD\DUGP\OD 1 sin( + u ) = sin(180 ) = sin u r (3.45)

\D]OUYHVROWDUDIDoODUDNJHUHNOLG]HQOHPH\DSOUVDX]DQPDoVLoLQ

tan u =

r sin 1 r cos

(3.46)

EDQWV HOGH HGLOLU %XUDGD HOGH HWWLLPL] EDQWODUQ ELUHU \DNODN LIDGH ROGXXQX WHNUDU

belirtmekte fayda var. *HUoHN GXUXP LoLQ JH]HJHQLQ \|UQJHVLQLQ WXWXOXPD LQLNOLL LOH \HU
YHJH]HJHQ\|UQJHOHULQLQGPHUNH]OLNOHULGHKHVDEDNDWOPDOGU

70

b) 'gezegenlerin JQHHJ|UHhareketleri
%LU G JH]HJHQLQ JQHH J|UH RODQ J|UQU KDUHNHWL HNLO GH HPDWLN RODUDN YHULOPLWLU %XUDGD GD \LQH HNLO GD ROGXX JLEL \HU  \|UQJHVLQGH GXUDDQ NDEXO HGLOPL YH JH]HJHQLQ JQH HWUDIQGD

nK = nG nY DoVDO K]\OD GRODQG YDUVD\OPWU Burada nG < nY ROGXXQGDQ nK   ROXS G JH]HJHQLQ \HUH J|UH olan greli hareketi negatif yndedir.%XQDJ|UHGJH]HJHQOHULQNDYXXOG|QHPOHUL 1 1 1 1 1 = = PK PG PY PY PG (3.47)

EDQWV LOH YHULOLU HNLO GH G JH]HJHQ , NRQXPXQGD LNHQ JH]HJHQ YH JQH \HULQ D\Q WDUDIODUQGDGUODU %DND ELU GHLOH JH]HJHQ

0 u]DQPGDGU Gezegenin yere en uzak ROGXX bu konuma kaYXPD konumu denilmektedir.  %X VUDODUGD JH]HJHQ YH JQH ELUOLNWH GRDU ELUOLNWH EDWDUODU Bu nedenle gezegeni gzleyebilmek mmkn olmaz. Bu
DQGDQ LWLEDUHQ JH]HJHQ EDW \|QO QHJDWLI \|Q J|UHOL KDUHNHWLQH GHYDP HGHUHN JQHLQ EDWVQD JHoHU X]DQP JLGHUHN E\U *H]HJHQ EDW X]DQPQGD LNHQ JQHWHQ |QFH GRDU YH|QFHEDWDU8]DQPDUWPD\DGHYDPHGHUHN,,NRQXPXQGD \HXODU

Bu konuma 90

EDW X]DQP GHQLU %X VUDODUGD JQH GRDUNHQ JH]HJHQ J|]OHP \HULQLQ PHULG\HQL FLYDUQGDGU *H]HJHQ ,,, NRQXPXQD JHOGLLQGH JQH YH JH]HJHQ \HULQ ]W WDUDIQGDGU <HUH HQ \DNQ ROGXX EX NRQXPD NDU NRQXP GHQLU .DU NRQXPGD LNHQ JH]HJHQ GRDUNHQ JQH EDWPDNWDGU %X QHGHQOH JH]HJHQLQ HQ X]XQ VUH LOH J|]OHQHELOGLL G|QHP X]DQPQ   ROGXX NDU NRQXP HYUHVLGLU

Bu andan itibaren gezegenin negatif ynl

KDUHNHWL GHYDP HGHU YH JH]HJHQ JQHLQ GRXVXQGD NDOP ROXU $UWN JH]HJHQ GRX WDUDIQGDQEDWVQGDNLJQHH\DNODPDNWDGU8]DQP

, azalarak IV konumunda 90 olur. Bu konuma 90 GRX X]DQP denir. %X WDULKOHUGH JQH EDWDUNHQ JH]HJHQ KHPHQ KHPHQ meridyendedir. *H]HJHQLQ X]DQP D]DOPD\D GHYDP HGHU YH LQFHOHPH\H EDODGP] , konumundan PK NDYXXO G|QHPL NDGDU ELU VUH JHoWLNWHQ VRQUD WHNUDU , NRQXPXQD JHOPL olur.

HNLO  %LU G JH]HJHQLQ J|UQU KDUHNHWL *H]HJHQ \|UQJHVLQLQ WXWXOXP LOH oDNN ROGXXYDUVD\OPWU

71

HNLO  *QH \HU YH ELU G JH]HJHQLQ DOW NDYXXP NRQXPXQGDQ NRQXPODU

t gn sonraki greli

LPGL KHU KDQJL ELU DQGD HNLO GH ROGXX JLEL \HU JQH YH ELU G JH]HJHQL GLNNDWH DODOP %XUDGD GXUXP HNLO GD YHULOHQOH D\QGU IDNDW JH]HJHQ LOH \HULQ UROOHUL

u yerine burada YHHNLOGDNL DoV\HULQHGHEXUDGDu DoV JHOPLWLU $\UFD R ve r \DUoDSODUQQ GD \HUOHUL GHLPLWLU nceki kesimdekine
GHLPLWLUHNLOGDNL EHQ]HU ELU DQDOL]OH  YH  EDQWODUQQ G JH]HJHQOHU LoLQ GH JHoHUOL ROGXX DQODOU

'JH]HJHQ

, 90GRX\DGD baWX]DQPda ise, yani GYP geninde u = 90 ise (R = 1 AB olmak zere), gQHHRODQr X]DNOiin r= 1 sin (3.48)

EDQWVQ\D]DELOLUL]

3.7.2. Gezegenlerin X]DN\OG]ODUDgre grnr hareketleri

DoJ

ezegenlerin X]DN\OG]ODUDgre grnr hareketleri Yer yrngesinde 0-11

HNLO GH \HU LOH KD\DOL ELU Lo JH]HJHQ GLNNDWH DOQPWU

NRQXPODUQ NDW HGHUNHQ Lo JH]HJHQ NHQGL \|UQJHVLQGH ELU WDP GRODQP \DSPDNWDGU QFHOHPHPL]H   NRQXPXQGDQ DOW NDYXXP NRQXPX EDOD\DOP *H]HJHQ YH \HULQ HLW ]DPDQ DUDONODUQGD \|UQJHOHULQGHNL NRQXPODU D\Q UDNDPODU LOH EHOLUWLOPLWLU NRQXPXQGD \HUGHQ EDNOQFD JH]HJHQ YH \OG] D\Q GRUXOWXGDGU

0-0 Hem yer hem de gezegen yrngelerinde pozitif ynde hareket ederek, kendi yrngelerindeki 1 ile J|VWHULOHQ NRQXPODUD JHOGLNOHULQGH JH]HJHQ \OG]Q GRXVXQGD X]DQPWU. Gezegenin GRX \|QO KDUHNHWL 2- NRQXPXQD GHLQ GHYDP HGHU 2-2 konumunda gezegen en byk EDW X]DQPQGDGU O halde, 0-0 konumundan 2-2 konumuna kadar gezegen,  \OG]D J|UH GRX \|QO KDUHNHW HWPLWLU. Buna gezegenin geri hareketi denir. Bu andan itibaren JH]HJHQEDW\|QOKDUHNHWHEDODUYHyeniden \OG]D\DNODPD\DEDODU*H]HJHQLQ\OG]D J|UH GRX\D GRUX RODQ KDUHNHWLQH GH ileri hareket denir. 3- NRQXPXQGD \OG], ileri KDUHNHW VRQXFXQGD \OG]D \DNODP, 4- NRQXPXQGD \DNODPD GHYDP HWPL YH -5
NRQXPXQGD LVH JH]HJHQ \OG]Q GRXVXQD JHoPLWLU 8]XQFD ELU VUH JH]HJHQ \OG]Q

72

GRXVXQGD ROPDN ]HUH RQGDQ X]DNODPD\D GHYDP HGHU

11-11 konumunda neredeyse en

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duraklamalar olur. Sonu olarak, ELU Lo JH]HJHQLQ \OG]ODUD J|UH RODQ J|UHOL KDUHNHWL JHQHO RODUDN LOHUL \|QO GRX \|QO olmakla beraber,  NVD Vreli duraklamalar ve geri ynl hareketler de gsterir.

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\RO DOPDNWDGU <HUGHQ EDNOGQGD JH]HJHQLQ J|]OHQGLL GRUXOWXQXQ X]DN \OG]ODUD J|UH UHIHUDQV GRUXOWXVXQD J|UH NRQXPODU YH KHU ELU NRQXP LoLQ KDUHNHWLQ \|Q EHOLUWLOPLWLU

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rtlme denir. Gezegen JH]HJHQ JHoLL denir. HNLO  LQFHOHQGLLQGH G JH]HJHQOHU LoLQ JHoL ROPDG Jrlr.  2 KDOGH\DOQ]FD0HUNU YH 9HQV JHoLOHUL YDUGU
JHoHUOHU (HU ELU JH]HJHQ JQHLQ DUNDVQGDQ JHoL\RUVD EXQD JQHLQ |QQGHQ JHoL\RUVD EXQD GD *H]HJHQ JHoLOHULQLQ DOW NDYXXP NRQXPODUQGD ROPDV DoN RODUDN EHOOLGLU %XQXQOD

birlikte, Merkr yrngesi tutuluma 7 00 16, Vens yrngesi de 3 23 40 HLNWLU Bu QHGHQOH KHU DOW NDYXXPGD Lo JH]HJHQOHU JQH GLVNLQLn nnden gemezler.  *HoLOHULQ olabilmesi iin DOW NDYXXP NRQXPXQXQ JH]HJHQ \|UQJHVLQH LOLNLQ GPOHU oL]JLVLQLQ
oRN \DNQQGD PH\GDQD JHOPHVL JHUHNLU EN] HNLO  LPGL HNLO GH J|VWHULOGLL

gibi I konumundaELUJH]HJHQJHoLLJ|]OHGLLPL]LYDUVD\DOP7HNUDUEXGPGHELUJHoL olabilmesi iin aradan hem yerin dolanma dnemi PY hem de gezegenin dolanma dnemi PG QLQ WDP NDW NDGDU ELU VUH JHoPHVL JHUHNLU (HU GLHU GPGH PH\GDQD JHOHFHN NDYXPD NRQXPXQX GD GLNNDWH DOUVDN HQ JHQHO GXUXPGD LNL JHoL DUDVQGDNL VUH PY ve PGQLQ WDP \D GD EXoXNOX ELU RUWDN NDWGU (HU LNL JHoL DUDVQGD \HU YH JH]HJHQLQ \|UQJHOHULQGH\DSWNODUWDPGRODQPODUQVD\ODUQVUDV\ODm ve n ile gsterirsek, mP: = nPG veya (3.48a)

74

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1 1 (m + ) P: = (n + ) PG 2 2

(3.48a)
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yazabiliriz. Vens iin yDSODQ, gzlemler ve incelemeler JHoLOHULQ 8, 121.5, 8, 105.5

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tarihinde Haziran 2012 YH$UDONWDULKOHULQGHWHNUDUODQPDV

beklenmektedir.

Kaynaklar Green, R. M.: Spherical Astronomy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988.
.]OUPDN$*|NELOLP'HUVOHUL&LOW,.UHVHO*|NELOLP(JHhQLYHUVLWHVL)HQ )DNOWHVL.LWDSODU6HULVL1R(JHhQLYHUVLWHVL0DWEDDV

Bornova, 1977. bul niversitesi

6PDUW:0.UHVHO$VWURQRPLdHYLUHQ1VKHW7*|NGRDQ VWDQ <D\QODU6D\LUNHWL0UHEEL\H%DVPHYLVWDQEXO

75

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