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BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer NV6542

Learning Material Ver 1.2

141-B, Electronic Complex, Pardeshipura, Indore- 452 010 India Tel.: 91-731- 4211500 Email: info@nvistech.com Website: www.nvistech.com Toll free: 1800-103-5050

NV6542

BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer NV6542 Table of Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Introduction Features Technical Specification Theory Experiment 1 To study the operation of single-stage and multi-stage RCCoupled Amplifier Theory Experiment 2 To calculate Av, AI, Ro and Ri of CE RC-Coupled amplifier with potential divider biasing Theory Experiment 3 To plot the frequency response of RC-Coupled Amplifier 3 4 5 6 11

6. 7.

16 20

8. 9.

27 30 34 36

10. Theory 11. Experiment 4 To study the effect of load resistance and source resistance on operation of an amplifier 12. Theory 13. Experiment 5 To calculate the current gain and input impedance of Darlington pair and of a transistor 14. Experiment 6 To calculate the voltage gain of Darlington pair using voltage divider biasing 14. Sample Results 15. Datasheets 16. Warranty 17. List of Accessories

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49 52 54 55

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NV6542

Introduction BJT Amplifiers and Emitter follower Trainer NV6542 is a unique product designed to explain the role of BJTs as common collector and common emitter amplifiers. This product is useful for students in plotting the frequency vs. gain response of BJTs and in the measurement of parameters such as bandwidth, input impedance etc. If the output of one amplifier is connected (coupled) to the input of another amplifier, the stages are said to be connected in "cascade" such that it develops an output voltage larger than either stage alone can develop. One of the coupling methods to couple the two stages of an amplifier is RC-coupling which has the advantage of wide frequency response and relatively small cost and size. Darlington transistors are circuits that combine two bipolar transistors in a single device such that high current gain ( ) is obtained and lesser space is required compared to that used by two discrete transistors.

Figure 1

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NV6542

Features Easy illustration of Common Emitter Amplifier and Emitter Follower Sine wave generator with variable frequency and amplitude Provided with DC power supply Learning Material CD 2 Year Warranty

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NV6542

Technical Specifications DC Power Supply Sine Wave Generator Frequency Amplitude Mains Supply Fuse Dimensions (mm) : : : : : 10 Hz to100 KHz 10% 0 to 5 Vpp 230 V AC 10%, 50 Hz 500 mA W 345 x D 240 x H 110 : +12 V, +5 V

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NV6542

Theory Fundamentally, an amplifier is a device that takes in a low power signal and outputs a magnified (power boosted) version of the input signal. If the output of one amplifier is connected (coupled) to the input of another amplifier, the stages are said to be connected in "cascade" such that it develops an output voltage larger than either stage alone can develop. Generally, at least two or more than two stages are connected in cascade combination. Single amplifier circuits, such as a common emitter, common base and common collector amplifiers are seldom found alone, as a single stage amplifier. The benefit of cascaded amplifiers is to develop an output voltage larger than either stage alone can develop. In fact, the overall gain of the cascaded amplifiers (called system gain) is the product of eaCH1ndividual stage gain, or AV Gain = AVl x AV2 x x AVn gain of x first stage gain of x x gain of any number of stages second stage . (1) Total Voltage =

Figure 2 Because of this, the gain of a single stage is not as important as the system gain. Designers usually set individual stage gains relatively low to reduce signal distortion. One of the very important requirements to cascade one stage of amplifier to another is the impedance matching. When the output impedance of a stage matches with the input impedance of its succeeding stage, maximum power is transferred. Common-Emitter Amplifier The common-emitter (CE) amplifier provides an output voltage that is 180 out of phase with the input voltage, as shown in Figure 3. This voltage phase shift can be explained as follows: Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 6

NV6542

The input voltage and current are in phase. The input and output currents are in phase. Therefore, output current is in phase with the input voltage. An increase in output current results in a decrease in output voltage, and vice versa (as given by ). Therefore, output voltage is 180 out of phase with output current. Since the output current is in phase with the input voltage, the input and output voltages are 180 out of phase.

Common-emitter input and output voltages

Figure 3 Coupling and Bypass Capacitors Amplifiers are often cascaded (connected in series) to increase gain. Each amplifier within the cascade is referred to as a stage, and the overall circuit is referred to as a multistage amplifier. Coupling capacitors are used to provide ac coupling and dc isolation between the stages of an amplifier. They are also used to couple an amplifier to its signal source and load, as shown in Figure 4. The coupling capacitors prevent the source and load from affecting the dc biasing of the transistor. Note that coupling capacitors are normally high-value components that provide little reactance at the lowest operating frequency of the circuit.

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NV6542

Coupling and bypass capacitors

Figure 4 The bypass capacitor (shown in Figure 4) is connected in parallel with the emitter resistor. The result of this connection is to provide an ac ground at the emitter terminal of the transistor. This has the effect of increasing the circuit voltage gain. Note that the bypass capacitor is normally a high-value component that provides little reactance at the lowest circuit operating frequency. Note that there is no change in , due to the presence of the bypass capacitor (which effectively shorts the ac component of the emitter voltage to ground). RC- Coupled Amplifier One of the coupling methods to couple two stages of an amplifier is RC-coupling. An RCCoupled network is shown in figure 5.

RC Coupled Amplifier Stages

Figure 5 The network of R2 and Cl enclosed in the dashed lines is the coupling network. C1 is the coupling capacitor which connects the output of Ql to the input of Q2. R2 will develop the signal to be applied to the base of Q2. Cl acts as a limiting factor at low frequencies because its reactance increases with a decrease in frequency and some point will be reached when a voltage drop will appear across it. This will reduce the size of the signal being applied to Q2. At medium frequencies the reactance of Cl is so small that it can be

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NV6542

considered a short to the signal. C1 will also isolate any DC voltage developed at the collector of Q1 from the DC bias developed at the base of Q2.

Figure 6 Consider figure 6; assume that Ql and Q2 are in a static state, (no signal applied). Let current flow through Ql develops 6VDC at the collector (Vc) and current flow through the base biasing network of Q2 (R21 and R22) develops 2VDC at the base of Q2 (Vb). Cc charges through R22 to the difference in the potentials on either side of it and will assume a charge of 4VDC (6V-2V = 4V). When a signal is applied to the base of Ql, the current changes through the collector resistor (Rcl) will cause the Ql collector voltage to vary. In this instance assume the collector rises to 7 V.

Figure 7 See figure 7. As collector voltage rises, the tendency of Cc is to charge to the higher potential. However, a capacitor cannot change its charge instantly. As Cc starts to change its charge, charge current will be felt through R22. Cc will now start to change to l V.As Cc increases its charge, additional current will be drawn through R22 causing R22 to increase its voltage drop. The voltage at Q2's base, whiCH1s the voltage drop across R22, will now rise from 2V to 3V. As the collector voltage at Ql starts to decrease. Cc will attempt to discharge. Electrons being forced off the right plate of Cc, as it attempts to discharge, will now flow through R21 increasing its voltage drop which results in a decrease in the voltage drop across R22. As Ql's collector voltage decrease further it will result in Cc decreasing its charge further. As Ql collector voltage drops to 5V, Cc will continue to attempt to discharge. As Cc continues to discharge, the voltage drop of R22 decreases to 1V. As Q1 collector voltage starts to go positive, Cc will start to increase its charge. This causes the current through Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 9

NV6542

R22 to increase which results in the voltage drop across R22 increasing. When the collector voltage of Q1 returns to its original 6V the voltage at Q2's base will have returned to 2V. Notice that the signal developed at the collector of Ql has caused Cc to vary its charge resulting in varying current level through R22 and R21. The signal developed by these currents resulted in a signal being developed at the base of Q2 whiCH1s identical to Ql's collector signal. Although the signals on both sides of the capacitor are identical, the base signal of Q2 did not pass through Cc, it just appears to. Normally we would say "the signal developed by Ql will be coupled by Cc to Q2's base". Advantages of RC-coupling This is the least expensive multistage amplifier. It has wide frequency response. It provides less frequency distortion. Excellent frequency response and uniform bandwidth over a wide range of frequencies. Inexpensive, it employs only resistor and capacitor which are cheap. Disadvantages of RC-coupling The overall gain of the amplifier is comparatively small because of the loading effect of successive stages. It provides poor impedance matching between the stages. Applications RC-coupled amplifiers have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency, used as a audio amplifier to amplify speech or music. Used as voltage amplifiers in initial stages of public address system.

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Experiment 1 Object: To study the operation of single-stage and multi-stage RC-Coupled Amplifier Apparatus required: 1. NV6542 trainer 2. CRO 3. CRO Probes 4. 2mm Patch chords 5. Mains cord Procedure: 1. Switch on the power supply. Connect 1 and 2 of Sine Wave Generator to CH1 of CRO through CRO probes (refer to figure 8).
BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer
RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 To CH1 of CRO G4 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1 +12V Stage II Power

NV6542
DC Power Supply

Sine Wave Generator

G1

G2

G3

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 8 2. Using the Frequency control and Amplitude control knobs of the Sine wave generator section, set the input signal at 2Vp-p, 1 KHz sine wave signal and observe the same on CRO channel CH1. Note it down as the value of Vin1.

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Note: Be careful that you will not disturb the settings of the knobs any where in this experiment later. 3. Switch off the power supply. Remove CRO probes. 4. Now refer to figure 9. 5. Connect a patch cord between points Vin1 and 1 and another patch cord between sockets G1 and 2 in RC-Coupled Amplifier Section.
BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer
RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B ToCH1 of CRO +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E Range Selector C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1K Hz - 10KHz 10 KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1 +12V To CH2 of CRO Stage II Power

NV6542
DC Power Supply

Sine Wave Generator

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 9 6. Connect a patch cord across sockets +12V of DC power supply and +12V of RC coupled amplifier section. 7. Connect sockets B and C using a patch cord. 8. Connect sockets D and E using a patch cord (this will connect a load RL at the output of Stage1). 9. Connect CRO channel 1 to sockets Vin1 and G1 through CRO probes. 10. Connect CRO channel 2 to sockets Vout1 and G2 through CRO probes. 11. Again switch on the power supply.

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12. Now you will observe the output waveform of Stage 1 through points Vout1 and G2. Note it down as the value of Vout1. 13. Switch off the power supply. Remove all the patch cords and CRO probes. 14. Calculate the Voltage Gain (AV1) using the formula Av1 = Vout1/ Vin1 15. Connect a patch cord across sockets +12V of DC power supply and +12V of RC coupled amplifier section. 16. Now apply the same signal (i.e. 2Vp-p, 1KHz Sine wave signal) to the inputs Vin2 and G3 of Stage II from 1 and 2 of Sine Wave Generator section through patch cords (refer to figure 10). Note it down as the value of Vin2.
BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer
RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B C R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10 KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1 +12V ToCH1 of CRO Stage II To CH2 of CRO Range Selector +12V Power

NV6542
DC Power Supply

Sine Wave Generator

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 10 17. Connect CRO channel 1 to sockets Vin2 and G3 through CRO probes. 18. Connect CRO channel 2 to sockets Vout2 and G4 through CRO probes. 19. Switch on the power supply. 20. Observe the output waveform of Stage 2 between points Vout2 and G4 on CRO CH1I. Note it down as the value of Vout2. 21. Switch off the power supply. Remove all the patch cords and CRO probes.

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22. Calculate the Voltage Gain (AV2) using the formula Av2 = Vout2/ Vin2 23. Calculate Total Voltage Gain (Av) using equation Av = Av1 x Av2 24. Note this value obtained as the value of Av.
NV6542
DC Power Supply

BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer


RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B ToCH1 of CRO C R1 Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 T1 E Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 +12V Stage II To CH2 of CRO

Power

Sine Wave Generator

Range Selector 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1K Hz - 10KHz 10 KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1

+12V

Vin

Rs1

A Vin1 Cin

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 11 25. Repeat steps 5 to 9. 26. Refer to figure 11. Now connect the sockets Vout1 and Vin2 through a patch cord. 27. Connect points G2 and G3 (This will cascade the two stages through RC coupling. Where Cc is the coupling capacitor and the combination of R1 and R2 will act as coupling resistance). 28. Connect CRO channel 2 to sockets Vout2 and G4 through CRO probes. 29. Switch on the power supply. 30. Observe the input on CRO channel CH1 (between points Vin1 and G1). Note it down as the value of Vin1. 31. Observe the output waveform at Stage 2 between points Vout2 and G4 on CRO channel CH2. Note it down as the value of Vout2.

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32. Calculate the Voltage Gain (AV) by formula Av = Vout2 / Vin1 33. Note this value obtained as the value of Av. 34. Compare the two results obtained from steps 24 and 33. Result: Voltage Gain of Stage 1 [Av1 = Vout1 / Vin1] = .. Voltage Gain of Stage 2 [Av2 = Vout2 / Vin2] = Av = Av1 x Av2 = Av = Vout2 / Vin1 = .

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Theory The amplifier circuit shown below uses what is commonly called "Voltage Divider Biasing". This type of biasing arrangement is commonly used in the design of bipolar transistor amplifier circuits and which greatly reduces the effects of varying Beta, () by holding the Base bias at a constant steady voltage allowing for best stability.

Figure 12 Voltage-Divider Bias Voltage-divider bias (whiCH1s sometimes referred to as universal bias) is the most commonly used transistor-biasing scheme. The circuit can be identified by the voltage divider in the transistor base circuit. A voltage-divider bias circuit is shown (along with its primary mathematical relationships) in Figure 13.

Voltage-divider bias

Figure 13 Transistor spec sheets typically provide minimum, maximum, and/or typical values of If only one value is listed, that value must be used for any circuit analysis problem. If more than one is listed, and one is a typical value, use that value. If only the minimum and maximum values are listed, you must use the geometric average of the two. As shown in Figure 12, can affect the approach taken to solve for . If , you must use the base voltage equation. When (where is equal to ) in place of in

, the voltage-divider bias circuit is relatively stable against changes in 16

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(resulting from a change in operating temperature). To determine the value of

when

the value of isnt certain, it is generally safe to assume that . This relationship is based on the fact that linear amplifiers are generally biased as closely as possible to midpoint. Various parameters associated with BJT CE amplifier are: 1. Voltage Gain, Av Voltage gain is the factor by which ac signal voltage increases from the amplifier input to the amplifier output. Stated mathematically,

Since IE IC, the voltage gain of a CE amplifier also equals the ratio of ac collector resistance to ac emitter resistance. The ac equivalent of the amplifier in Figure 4 is shown in Figure 13. As shown in the figure, the total ac resistance in the collector circuit equals .But when there is no load resistance RL, ac collector resistance is equal to Rc Since the emitter resistor is shorted in the ac equivalent circuit, the total ac emitter resistance equals + Re. The ac emitter resistance ( ) of a transistor is a dynamic value (like zener impedance) that is used only in ac calculations. For a small-signal amplifier, the value of . can be approximated using .(1) Since the value of Av = -rc/ Re Av = -Rc/ Re When no RL is there .(2) << Re , value of ac emitter resistance is Re.

Therefore, the voltage gain of the amplifier can be found as

.
The ac equivalent of Figure 13

Figure 14 Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 17

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To conclude for our circuit, Theoretical Practical Av = -Rc/ Re Av = Vout / Vin


0

.(3)

Note: Negative sign reveals a 180 phase shift between Vout and Vin (as already explained). 2. Input impedance, Zin The input impedance of a CE amplifier equals the parallel combination of the base biasing resistor(s) and the input impedance to the transistor base. The input impedance of our amplifier will be found as Zin = R1 R2 (Re + Since the value of Or, Zin = R Re Where R = R1 R2. Another point as explained under the voltage divider bias topic is that if must use equation. Hence the Zin = R1 To conclude: Theoretical Practical Zin = R1 Zin =Vin / Iin .(8) (where is equal to ) in place of , you ) ) = Re .(5) .(6) .(4)

<< Re, (Re +

Zin = R1 R2 Re

in the base voltage .(7)

It should be noted that there is usually a large percentage of error between the calculated and measured values for a BJT amplifier. This high percentage of error is caused by several factors like, the BJT internal capacitance values are estimated and can have a major impact on the measured values 3. Output Impedance, Zout Theoretical Practical Zout = Rc Zout = Vout / Iout .(9) .(10)

4. Current gain, Ai For each transistor configuration the current gain can be determined directly from the voltage gain, the defined load, and the input impedance. For the figure shown below, we can say Ai = Iout/ Iin Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. .(11) 18

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Iin = Vin/ Zin And Iout = - Vout/ RL

Rs

.(12) .(13)

Figure 15 Putting the equations 12 and 13 in equation 11, we get Ai = Iout/ Iin = - Vout/ RL = -Vout x Zin = -Av x Zin Vin/ Zin Ai = -(- Rc/ Re) x Zin = Zin Rc Now if Zin = R1 Then Ai = Re / Re Ai = -Av * Zin /Rc To conclude for our circuit Theoretical Ai = Practical Ai = Iout /Iin .(16) .(15) Re = R1 R2 Re Vin x RL RL .(14)

= R1 R2 Re Re

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Experiment 2 Object: To calculate Av, AI, Ro and Ri of CE RC-Coupled amplifier with potential divider biasing Apparatus required: 1. NV6542 trainer 2. CRO & CRO Probes 3. Digital Multimeter (DMM) 4. Multimeter probes 5. 2mm Patch chords 6. Mains cord Procedure: To measure Voltage gain, Av
BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer
RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier To CH1 of CRO Stage I B Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1 +12V Stage II Power

NV6542
DC Power Supply

Sine Wave Generator

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 16

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1. Connect a patch cord across sockets +12V of DC power supply and +12V of RC coupled amplifier section. 2. Connect a patch cord between Vin1 and 1 in RC-Coupled Amplifier section. 3. Connect a patch cord between pointsG1 and 2 in RC-Coupled Amplifier section. 4. Connect a patch cord between B and C. 5. Connect CRO probe from sockets Vin1 and G1 to channel CH1 of CRO. 6. Switch on the power supply. 7. Using the Frequency control and Amplitude control knobs of the Sine wave generator section, set the input signal at 2Vp-p, 1 KHz sine wave signal and observe the same on CRO channel CH1 (refer figure 16). 8. Switch off the power supply. Remove CRO probe.
BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer
RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I To DMM +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E B Range Selector C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10 KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1 +12V Stage II Power

NV6542
DC Power Supply

Sine Wave Generator

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 17 9. Refer to figure 17. Now set the multimeter dial to AC voltage mode. 10. Connect multimeter probes to test points Vin1 and G1. 11. Switch on the power supply. 12. Note down the value observed on multimeters display. It is Vin.

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NV6542
DC Power Supply

BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer


RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B +12V To DMM Stage II

Power

Sine Wave Generator

Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 18 13. Switch off the power supply. 14. Now refer to figure 18. 15. Connect multimeter probes to test points Vout1 and G2. 16. Switch on the power supply. 17. Note down the value observed on multimeters display. It is Vout. 18. Switch off the power supply. 19. Now calculate the Voltage Gain (AV) using the formula Av = Vout/ Vin 20. Now to verify this value of voltage gain we will calculate its theoretical value such that Av = -Rc /Re Note: The value of Rc is 94 and Re is 51.1 . 21. These values should be approximately equal ideally. Calculate the percentage error between both the values. Percentage Error (%) = Calculated value Theoretical value x 100 Theoretical value

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To calculate Input impedance, Zin 22. Remove the all connections & repeat steps 1 to 13. (refer figure 16 and 17). 23. Note down the value of Vin obtained. 24. Now remove the patch cord between Vin1 and 1. 25. Set the multimeter dial to AC current mode. 26. Connect multimeter probes between sockets Vin1 and 1 (refer to figure 19).
BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer
RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B To DMM +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1 Range Selector +12V Stage II Power

NV6542
DC Power Supply

Sine Wave Generator

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 19 27. Note down the value observed on multimeters display. It is Iin. 28. Switch off the power supply. 29. Now calculate the input impedance (Zin) using the formula Zin =Vin / Iin 30. Now to verify this value of input impedance we will calculate its theoretical value such that Zin = R1 Where

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Note: The value of R1 is 14.7 K, R2 is 6.6 K, take hFE = 50 (as per datasheet) and RE or Re is equal to 51.1 . 31. These values should be ideally approximately equal. Calculate the percentage error between both the values Percentage Error (%) = Calculated value Theoretical value x 100 Theoretical value Note: Ideally, the theoretical & practical values calculated should be equal but practically its not possible because the practical values are affected due to components. As already explain in theory (at page no. 19) To calculate Output impedance, Zout
NV6542
DC Power Supply To DMM

BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer


RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B +12V Stage II

Power

Sine Wave Generator

Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 20 32. Repeat steps 1 to 8 (refer to figure 16). 33. Repeat steps 14 to 18. (refer to figure 18). 34. Note down the value of Vout obtained. 35. Set the multimeter dial to AC current mode. 36. Remove patch cords between sockets B and C. Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 24

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37. Now connect multimeter probes between sockets B and C (refer to figure 20). 38. Switch on the power supply & note down the value observed on multimeters display. It is Iout. 39. Switch off the power supply. 40. Now calculate the output impedance (Zout) using the formula Zout =Vout / Iout 41. Now to verify this value of input impedance we will calculate its theoretical value such that Zo = Rc Note: The value of Rc is 94 . 42. These values should be ideally approximately equal. Calculate the percentage error between both the values Percentage Error (%) = Calculated value Theoretical value x 100 Theoretical value To measure Current Gain, Ai 43. Repeat steps 1to 8 (refer to figure 16). 44. Repeat steps 24 to 27 (refer to figure 19). 45. Note down the value of Iin obtained. 46. Repeat steps 35 to 39 (refer to figure 20). 47. Note down the value of Iout obtained. 48. Now calculate the Current Gain (Ai) using the formula Ai = Iout/ Iin 49. Now to verify this value of voltage gain we will calculate its theoretical value such that Ai = Note: The value of is between 25- 50 as per the specification sheet. 50. These values should be ideally approximately equal. Calculate the percentage error between both the values Percentage Error (%) = Calculated value Theoretical value x 100 Theoretical value

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Observation Table: S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. Parameters Input impedance, Zin (ohms) Output impedance, Zout (ohms) Voltage Gain, Av (no units) Current Gain, Ai (no units) Theoretical Practical value value Percentage Error (%)

Result: The calculated values of various parameters are: Voltage gain, Av = . Current gain, AI = Output Impedance Zo =.ohms Input impedance, Zin =..ohms

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Theory Bandwidth of an RC-Coupled Amplifier Most amplifiers have relatively constant gain across a range, or band, of frequencies. This band of frequencies is referred to as the bandwidth of the circuit. Bandwidth of an amplifier is a term used to describe the band of frequencies in which it will effectively amplify. When operated within its bandwidth, the values referred to as mid band gain values and values are

A frequency-response curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between amplifier gain and operating frequency. A generic frequency response curve is shown in Figure 21. This particular curve illustrates the relationship between power gain and frequency.

Figure 21 As shown: The circuit power gain remains relatively constant across the mid band range of frequencies. As operating frequency decreases from the mid band area of the curve, a point is reached where the power gain begins to drop off. The frequency at which power gain equals 50% of its mid band value is called the lower cutoff frequency ( ). As operating frequency increases from the mid band area of the curve, a point is reached where the power gain begins to drop off again. The frequency at which power gain equals 50% of its mid band value is called the upper cutoff frequency ( ). Note that the bandwidth of the circuit is found as the difference between the cutoff frequencies. By formula, BW = fC2 fC1

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd.

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NV6542

Measuring the Cut-Off Frequencies The cutoff frequencies of an amplifier can be measured with an CRO using the following procedure: 1. Set up the amplifier for the maximum undistorted output signal. 2. Establish that you are operating in the mid band frequency range by varying the frequency of the input signal several kilohertz in both directions. If you are in the mid band range, slight variations in operating frequency will not cause any significant changes in the output amplitude of the circuit. 3. If you are not at mid band, adjust until you are.

4. Adjust the volts/division calibration control on the CRO until the amplifier output waveform fills exactly seven major divisions (peak-to-peak). 5. To measure the value of , decrease the operating frequency until the amplifier output waveform fills only five major divisions. At this frequency, the amplitude of the amplifier has dropped to of its maximum value. This indicates that we are operating at the lower cutoff frequency. Note: You can also choose such other ratios like 3.545/5 = 0.707 or 4.242./ 6= .707 6. To measure the value of , increase the operating frequency until the same thing happens on the high-frequency end. The frequency at which this occurs is . Note: The value of 0.707 is based on the relationship between voltage and power. Power changes with the square of voltage. When voltage gain drops to gain drops by a factor of Gain and Frequency Measurements Figure 22 is a simplified frequency-response curve. A more practical curve is shown in figure below. In the curve shown: Power gain is represented using a ratio of expressed in dB. (at the given frequency) to , (which is half its mid band value). , power

The values of the frequency increments follow a logarithmic progression; i.e., eaCH1ncrement is a whole number multiple of the previous increment.

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NV6542

A more practical frequency-response curve

Figure 22 The frequency scale shown in above figure is a decade scale. A decade is a frequency multiplier of 10. As you can see, the value of eaCH1ncrement is the value of the previous increment. Another commonly used frequency scale is the octave scale. An octave is a frequency multiplier of 2. The value of eaCH1ncrement in an octave scale is the value of the previous increment. Theory vs. Practice It should be noted that there is usually a large percentage of error between the calculated and measured values for a BJT amplifier. This high percentage of error is caused by several factors: The BJT internal capacitance values are estimated. The BJT internal capacitances are in the pF range, as is the input capacitance of most CROs. As a result, the CRO input capacitance can have a major impact on the measured values of and

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd.

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NV6542

Experiment 3 Object: To plot the frequency response of RC-Coupled amplifier Apparatus required: 1. NV6542 trainer 2. CRO 3. CRO probes 4. Function generator 5. Function generator probes 6. 2 mm patch cords 7. Mains cord Procedure:
BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer
RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 To CH1 of CRO G4 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1 +12V Stage II Power

NV6542
DC Power Supply

Sine Wave Generator

G1

G2

G3

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 23 1. Connect 1 and 2 to channel CH1 of CRO (refer to figure 23). 2. Switch on the power supply. Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 30

NV6542

3. Using the Frequency Control and Amplitude Control knobs of the Sine Wave Generator section, set the Input signal at 1Vp-p, 100 Hz sine wave signal and observe the same on CRO channel CH1. 4. Switch off the power supply. 5. Remove CRO probes. 6. Now refer figure 24. 7. Connect a patch cord across sockets +12V of DC power supply and +12V of RC coupled Amplifier section.
BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer
RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I To CH1 of CRO +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E B C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1 +12V Stage II To CH2 of CRO Range Selector Power

NV6542
DC Power Supply

Sine Wave Generator

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 24 8. Connect a patch cord between points Vin1 and 1 and another patch cord between sockets G1 and 2without disturbing the Frequency Control and Amplitude Control knobs of the Sine wave generator section. 9. Connect a patch cord between B and C. 10. Connect CRO probes from Vin1 and G1 to CRO channel CH1. 11. Connect point Vout1 with point Vin2 and point G2 with G3 (This will cascade the two stages through RC coupling. Where Cc is the coupling capacitor and the combination of R1 and R2 will act as coupling resistance).

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NV6542

12. To observe the output waveform at Stage 2 between points Vout2 and G4, use a CRO probe from Vout2 and G4 to CRO channel CH2. 13. Increase the amplitude of Input signal until you get maximum undistorted output signal. Note down the value of Input signal (Vin). Note: This will be the value of input signal to be used throughout this experiment for calculating the gain. 14. Keep on rotating the Frequency Control pot while recording the values of both the input frequency (Hz) and output voltage amplitude (Vout). 15. Now we will calculate voltage gain Av given by Vout /Vin. 16. Now calculate Voltage gain Av (dB) = 20 log Av. 17. Plot the graph between Input Frequency (Hz) and Voltage Gain (dB). 18. To measure the maximum amplitude of the output sine wave and the frequency range for which the output wave amplitude is 3dB down the maximum amplitude (this will give two valves of frequency fL and fH, the lower 3dB frequency and higher 3dB frequency respectively) you will have to proceed as illustrated in the following steps. 19. Establish that you are operating in the mid band frequency range by varying the frequency of the input signal several kilohertz in both directions (If you are in the mid band range, slight variations in operating frequency will not cause any significant changes in the output amplitude of the circuit). If you are not at mid band, adjust until you are. 20. Adjust the volts/division calibration control on the CRO until the amplifier output waveform (obtained in step 19) fills maximum major divisions (peak-to-peak) on the display. We will take this number of divisions as Vout1. 21. Now we will have to calculate the value of Vout2 divisions such that the ratio Vout2/Vout1 = 0.707. 22. To measure the value of fL, decrease the operating frequency until the amplifier output waveform fills only Vout2 major divisions. 23. At this frequency, the amplitude of the amplifier has dropped to Vout2 / Vout1 = 0.707 of its maximum value. This indicates that we are operating at the lower cutoff frequency, fL. Note down this value as fL Note: You can also choose such other ratios like 3.535 / 5=0707 or 5 / 7 = 0.707 or 4.242 / 6 = 0.707 The value of 0.707 is based on the relationship between voltage and power. Power changes with the square of voltage. When voltage gain drops to , power gain drops by a factor of mid band value). Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. (whiCH1s half its

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Figure 24(a) 24. To measure the value of fH, increase the operating frequency until the same thing happens on the high-frequency end. The frequency at which this occurs is fH. 25. Now increase the input frequency value and observe the output waveform amplitude on CRO and if fH requires frequency more than 100 kHz, you can connect a function generator externally as shown in figure 24(a). Note down this value of fH. 26. Calculate bandwidth of RC-Coupled amplifier using equation BW= fH fL Result: fL (lower 3dB frequency) = . fH (higher 3dB frequency) = . Bandwidth (fH fL) = .

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Theory In the figure below, since a resistive load was not attached to the output terminal, the gain is commonly referred to as the no load gain and given the following notation:

Avnl = Vout/ Vin

Figure 25 In the figure above if we add a load in the form of a resistor RL, the overall gain of the circuit will be changed and the resultant circuit will be that like shown below.

Figure 26 This loaded gain is typically given by following notation:

Av = Vout/ Vin

with RL

In below circuit, both a load and a source resistance have been introduced, which will have Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 34

NV6542

an additional effect on the gain of the system. The resulting gain is given as:

Avs = Vout / Vs with RL and Rs

Figure 27 The analysis of all the three circuits above shows that: The loaded voltage gain of an amplifier is always less than the no-load gain. In other words, the addition of a load resistor RL to the first configuration will always have the effect of reducing the gain below the no-load level. The gain obtained with a source resistance in place will always be less than that obtained under loaded or unloaded conditions. In total, therefore, the highest gain is obtained under no-load conditions and the lowest gain with a source impedance and load in place. That is, for the same configuration,

Avnl > Av > Avs

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NV6542

Experiment 4 Object: To study the effect of load resistance and source resistance on operation of an amplifier Apparatus required: 1. NV6542 Trainer 2. CRO 3. CRO Probes 4. Multimeter (DMM) 5. Multimeter Probes 6. 2 mm patch cords 7. Mains cord Procedure: 1. Connect 1 and 2 terminals to channel CH1 of CRO. Switch on the power supply.
NV6542
DC Power Supply

BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer


RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B +12V Stage II

Power

Sine Wave Generator

Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 To CH1 of CRO G4 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1

G1

G2

G3

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 28 2. Using the Frequency control and Amplitude control knobs of the Sine wave generator section, set the input signal at 2Vp-p, 1 KHz sine wave signal and observe the same on CRO channel CH1 (refer figure 28).

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NV6542

Note: Be careful that you will not disturb the settings of the knobs any where in this experiment later 3. Switch off the power supply. 4. Connect a patch cord across sockets +12V of DC power supply and +12V of RC coupled amplifier section. 5. Connect a patch cord between sockets B and C. 6. Connect a patch cord between Vin1 and 1 in RC coupled amplifier section. 7. Connect a patch cord between pointsG1 and 2 in RC coupled amplifier section.
BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer
RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B To DMM Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1 +12V To DMM Stage II Power

NV6542
DC Power Supply

Sine Wave Generator

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 29 8. Switch on the power supply. 9. Set the multimeter dial to AC voltage mode. 10. Connect multimeter probes to test points Vin1 and G1 (refer figure 29). 11. Note down the value observed on multimeters display. It is Vin. Note it down. 12. Now connect multimeter probes to test points Vout1 and G2 (refer figure 29). 13. Note down the value observed on multimeters display. It is Vout. Note it down. 14. Switch off the power supply.

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NV6542

15. Now calculate the no-load voltage gain (Avnl) using the formula Avnl = Vout/ Vin

NV6542
DC Power Supply

BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer


RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B To DMM +12V To DMM Stage II

Power

Sine Wave Generator

Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 30 16. Now refer to figure 30 and connect the sockets D and E using a patch cord (this will connect a load RL at the output of Stage1). 17. Repeat steps 8 to 14. 18. Calculate the loaded voltage gain, Av using the formula Av = Vout/ Vin
with RL

19. Now remove the patch cord between Vin1 and 1. 20. Now apply the same signal (i.e. 2Vp-p, 1KHz Sine wave signal) to the input Vin by connecting a patch cord between 1 and Vin (refer to figure 31). 21. Connect another patch cord from A to Vin1 (In this way we are applying the source signal through a source resistance). 22. Switch on the power supply. 23. Set the multimeter dial to AC voltage mode. 24. Connect multimeter probes to test points Vin and G1 (refer figure 31).

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NV6542

NV6542
DC Power Supply

BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer


RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B +12V To DMM Stage II

Power

Sine Wave Generator

To DMM Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 31 25. Note down the value observed on multimeters display. It is Vin. Note it down. 26. Now connect multimeter probes to test points Vout1 and G2 (refer figure 31). 27. Note down the value observed on multimeters display. It is Vout. Note it down. 28. Switch off the power supply. 29. Calculate gain obtained with a source resistance in place, Av using the formula Avs = Vout / Vin
with RL and Rs

30. Compare three results obtained in steps 15, 18 and 23. They should satisfy the condition Avnl > Av > Avs Result: No-load Voltage Gain [Avnl = Vout / Vin] = .. Loaded Voltage Gain [Av = Vout/ Vin with RL] = Gain obtained with a source resistance [Avs=Vout/Vin with RL and Rs]= Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 39

NV6542

Theory Emitter Follower (using Darlington Pair) In recent years, electronics have been integrated into motor speed drives and a variety of switching-type power supplies. This means that standard discrete components needed to be altered to provide better characteristics. The need for the Darlington pair grew from the limitations of SCRs and triac-type thyristors. Thyristors control current by delaying the turn-on time. The later the pulse is applied to turn them on, the smaller the amount of current they will conduct during each cycle. On the other hand, a transistor uses variable current (0 to saturation), which provides an output current that will be a duplication of the input. This means the transistors will produce an analog signal when an analog signal is provided to its base. The simple bipolar transistor has several limitations including slow switching speeds, low gains, and larger power losses due to the switching process. A family of high-gain transistors called metaloxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) was produced to address the gain problem, but they did not have the capability of controlling larger currents, so the Darlington pair was designed. The Darlington pair can actually be two discrete transistors that are connected in the driver/output configuration, or they can be a single device that has the two transistors internally connected at the point where it was manufactured as a single package. In Darlington pairs, transistor collectors are tied together and the emitter of the first transistor is directly coupled to the base of the second transistor. The total gain, which is often 1000 or more, is the- product of the gain of the individual transistors. For large currents it is standard and good procedure to use a Darlington pair of transistors, rather than a single one, which effectively acts like a single transistor with that is the product of the two s of the individual transistors. Figure 32 shown below is a Darlington pair since the emitter current of Q1 is the base current for Q2; the Darlington pair has an overall current gain of =
1 2

. (3)

NPN Darlington Pair

Figure 32 Semiconductor manufacturers can put a Darlington pair inside a single case like figure 33 known as Darlington transistor and it acts like a single transistor with a very high current gain. Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 40

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Darlington Transistor

Figure 33 Complementary Darlington is a connection of NPN and PNP transistors, such that, the collector current of Q1 is the base current of Q2. If the PNP transistor has a current gain

Complementary Darlington

Figure 34 of 1 and the NPN output transistor has a current gain of 2, the complementary Darlington acts like a single PNP transistor with a current gain of 1 2. The Complementary Darlington is sometimes used is class B push-pull power amplifiers. Input Current and Input Impedance measurement:

Figure 35 Vin is the signal applied with Rs. Vin is the signal at the input terminal of the Darlington pair with Rs. Ii is the input current of the Darlington pair which can be measured using the formula Iin = (Vin-Vin)/ Rs Input Impedance can be measured by Zin =Vin/ Ii Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. . (5) 41 (4)

NV6542

Advantages: The key advantage of the Darlington configuration is that the total current gain of the circuit equals the product of the current gain of two devices since its current gain is much higher Darlington transistors are circuits that combine two bipolar transistors in a single device; hence, they require lesser space than configurations that use two discrete transistors. Darlington connection can have very high input impedance and can produce very large outputs current. Disadvantages: The disadvantage is the larger saturation voltage compared to single transistor configurations. Darlington transistor pairs have more phase shift at high frequencies and can become unstable with negative feedback more easily. Darlington transistors also have a higher base-emitter voltage, whiCH1s the sum of both base emitter voltages. Applications: Darlington connections are used with voltage regulators and power amplifiers.

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NV6542

Experiment 5 Object: To calculate the current gain and input impedance of Darlington pair and Apparatus required: 1. NV6542 trainer 2. Digital Multimeter (DMM) 3. Multimeter probes 4. 2mm Patch chords 5. Mains cord Procedure: 1. Connect a patch cord across sockets +12V of DC power supply and +12V of Emitter follower amplifier section (refer to figure 36).
NV6542
DC Power Supply

of a transistor

BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer


RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B +12V Stage II

Power

Sine Wave Generator

Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1K Hz - 10KHz 10 KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 To DMM B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output C Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 36 2. 3. 4. Connect +5V of DC power supply to Vin1 terminal of Emitter follower amplifier section. Connect a patch cord between socket A and B of Emitter follower amplifier section. Connect a patch cord between socket E and F. 43

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd.

NV6542

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Now set the digital multimeters dial to DC voltage mode. Now connect the multimeter through multimeter probes to A and G1 Switch on the power supply. Now measure the DC voltage between A and ground G1 using DMM. This will give value of dc voltage input Vin to the transistor T1.Note it down. Switch off the power supply. Calculate the input current (Ii) by substituting the value in following equation Iin = (Vin1-Vin)/ Rs Where, Vin1 = 5 V, Rs =100 K, Vin = DC voltage measured in step 8.

11.

Note down this value of input current Iin.


NV6542
DC Power Supply

BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer


RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B +12V Stage II

Power

Sine Wave Generator

Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10 KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 To DMM c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 37 12. Calculate the input impedance (Zin) by following formula Zin =Vin/ Ii Where, Vin = DC voltage measured in step 8, Ii =Input DC current calculated in step 10. 13. 14. Now remove the patch cord between sockets +5V and Vin1. Also remove the patch cord between sockets A and B.

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd.

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NV6542

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Now connect +5V directly at the base terminal B of transistor T1. Remove the patch cord between socket E and F and connect a DMM through probes between the sockets E and F. Now set the digital multimeters dial to DC current mode to measure the output DC Current, Iout between the sockets E and F (refer to figure 37). Switch on the power supply. Note down the value of output current Iout displayed on the DMMs display. Ratio of output current to input current gives the overall of Darlington pair. Calculate the ratio of output current to input current by following formula = Iout / Ii

21.

Individual of transistors can be calculated by considering the transistors having identical and using the formula = 1x 2 1= 2= Note: Range of is from 55 to 90.

Calculation: Ii = (Vin-Vin)/ Rs Zin = Vin/ Ii = Iout / Ii = Result: Current Gain of Darlington Pair, Individual =
1

of transistor = =.........

Input impedance of emitter follower =

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NV6542

Experiment 6 Objective: To calculate the voltage gain of Darlington pair using voltage divider biasing Apparatus required: 1. NV6542 Trainer 2. CRO 3. CRO probes 4. 2mm patch chords 5. Mains cord Procedure: 1. Connect the Sockets 1 and 2 of Sine Wave Generator section to CRO channel CH1 through CRO probes (refer to figure 38). 2. Switch on the power supply.
BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer
RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 To CH1 of CRO G4 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1 +12V Stage II Power

NV6542
DC Power Supply

Sine Wave Generator

G1

G2

G3

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V 1 C B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 38

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd.

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NV6542

3. Using the Frequency control and Amplitude control knobs of the Sine Wave Generator section, set the input signal at 1Vp-p, 1 KHz sine wave signal and observe the same on CRO channel CH1. 4. Switch off the power supply. Remove the CRO probes. 5. Connect a patch cord across sockets +12V of DC power supply and +12V of Emitter follower amplifier section. 6. Connect a patch cord between points Vin and 1 and another patch cord between sockets G1 and 2in Emitter follower amplifier section.
BJT Amplifiers and Emitter Follower Trainer
RC-Coupled (Common Emitter) Amplifier Stage I B Range Selector +12V R1 Vin Rs1 A Vin1 Cin T1 E C Rc1 D R3 Vout1 Vin2 Cc T2 RL2 R4 Re2 Ce2 Rc2 Cout Vout2 10Hz - 100Hz 100Hz - 1KHz 1KHz - 10KHz 10KHz - 100KHz R2 Re1 RL1 Ce1 +12V Stage II Power

NV6542
DC Power Supply

Sine Wave Generator

G1

G2

G3

G4

+5V Emitter Follower (Common Collector) Amplifier +12V To CH1 of CRO B R1 Gnd Vin1 Rs A Vin Cin D F RL E 2 Frequency Control G2 c1 b1 T1 e1 b2 c2 T2 e2 Cout Vout 1 C To CH2 of CRO Sine Wave Output Amplitude Control

R2

G1

Figure 39 7. Connect a patch cord between sockets B and D. 8. Connect another patch cord between sockets E and F. 9. Connect the Sockets Vin and G1 to CRO channel CH1 through CRO probes (refer to figure 39). 10. Connect the Sockets Vout and G2 to CRO channel CH2 through CRO probes (refer to figure 39). 11. Switch on the power supply. 12. Observe simultaneously the input waveform between points Vin & G1 on CRO display and measure the amplitude of input waveform. It is Vin. Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd. 47

NV6542

13. Also observe the output waveform between points Vout and G2 on CRO display and measure the amplitude of the output waveform. It is Vout. 14. Calculate the voltage gain (it will be approximately equal to unity). Av =Vout / Vin Calculation: Voltage Gain, Av = Vout / Vin Where, Vin = Input Voltage Vout = Output Voltage Result: Voltage gain of Darlington pair = ...

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Sample Results Experiment 1 Stage-I Vin = 2 Vpp Vout = 3.4 Vpp Av1 = 1.7 Stage-II Vin = 2 Vpp Vout = 3.9 Vpp Av2 = 1.95 Hence, Av = Av1 X Av2 Av = 1.7 X 1.95 Av = 3.315 Cascading Vin = 2 Vpp Vout = 6.2 Vpp Av' = Vin / Vout Av' = 3.15 Result: Av Av' Experiment 2 Voltage Gain (Av) Practical value: Theoretical value: Current Gain (Ai) Practical value: Theoretical value: Ai = 44.9 Ai = = 25-50 Av = 1.695 Av = 1.84

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Input Impedance (Zi) Practical value: Theoretical value: Output Impedance (Zout) Practical value: Theoretical value: Experiment 3 Lower 3dB Frequency: f L = 60 Hz Higher 3dB frequency: f H = 6.9 MHz Bandwidth: BW = f H - f L BW= 6.9 MHz - 60 Hz BW = 6.89 MHz Result: BW = 6.89 MHz Experiment 4 No-Load gain: Av nl = 1.744 Loaded gain: Av with RL = 1.728 With source resistance gain Avs with RL and Rs = 0.377 Result: Av nl > Av > Avs Zout = 94 Zout = 94 Zi = 2.57 K Zi = 1.64 K

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Experiment 5 Input Current Input Voltage, Vin = 4.40 V Iin = [Vin1 - Vin] / Rs Iin = [5 - 4.40] / 100 x 10 3 Iin = 6 A Input Impedance Zin = Vin/ Ii Zin = 4.40 / 6 x 10 -6 Zin = 733 K Output Current Iout = 35.4 mA Current Gain of Darlington Pair = Iout / Iin = 35.4 mA / 6 A = 5900 Individual of transistor 1 = 2 = = 76.8 Experiment 6 Input Voltage Vin = 1 Vpp Output Voltage Vout == 1 Vpp Voltage gain of Darlington pair Av = Vout / Vin Av = 1 Vpp / 1Vpp Av = 1

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Datasheet

Nvis Technologies Pvt. Ltd.

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NV6542

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Warranty 1) We guarantee the product against all manufacturing defects for 24 months from the date of sale by us or through our dealers. Consumables like dry cell etc. are not covered under warranty. The guarantee will become void, if a) The product is not operated as per the instruction given in the learning material. b) The agreed payment terms and other conditions of sale are not followed. c) The customer resells the instrument to another party. d) Any attempt is made to service and modify the instrument. 3) The non-working of the product is to be communicated to us immediately giving full details of the complaints and defects noticed specifically mentioning the type, serial number of the product and date of purchase etc. The repair work will be carried out, provided the product is dispatched securely packed and insured. The transportation charges shall be borne by the customer.

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List of Accessories 1. 2mm Patch Cords 12 .......10 Nos. 2. Learning Material CD01 No. 3. Mains Cord .....01 No.

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