Running head: CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE

Critical Review of The Longman Elementary Dictionary and Thesaurus (2010) and the Oxford American Dictionary for Learners of English (2011) Bridget Schuberg Colorado State University

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE Abstract

This review compares and contrasts two English Language Learner (ELL) dictionaries in terms of their front matters, back matters, ranges of content, information included in their entries, methods of organization, bases, and target audiences. Based on an analysis of this information regarding my plans of teaching internationally and the diverse needs and goals of my future students, I have concluded that the Oxford American Dictionary for Learners of English is more comprehensive and will be of more use to both me and my prospective students than the Longman Elementary Dictionary and Thesaurus.

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE Critical Review of The Longman Elementary Dictionary and Thesaurus and the Oxford American Dictionary for Learners of English In this paper, I will critically review two dictionaries: the first edition of the Longman

Elementary Dictionary and Thesaurus (751 pages) for beginning learners at an elementary grade level, published in 2010 by Pearson Education Limited, and the Oxford American Dictionary for Learners of English (852 pages) for intermediate learners, published in 2011 by Oxford University Press. I will compare and contrast the front and back matters of the two dictionaries, their ranges of content, the information included in their entries, their organization of senses, the inclusion of connotational and collocational meanings, the ways in which the two dictionaries deal with expressions related to the head word, and whether or not the dictionaries are based on corpora. Taking all of this information into consideration, I will state whether or not I believe these dictionaries are appropriate for the learners they are supposedly designed for, and whether or not these dictionaries will be relevant to my teaching career. Criteria I plan to teach internationally and hope to be an instructor for students of all different ages and proficiency levels over the course of time. Therefore, I have chosen to examine dictionaries aimed at two different populations so as to maximize my ability to provide valuable, age- and level-appropriate learner dictionaries to my students. The goals of these students may vary greatly; therefore, it is important that the scope of the dictionaries is broad enough to include enough information to benefit learners with diverse foci. The dictionaries should include information on par with American academic standards for students who wish to pursue education in a formal English-speaking environment, but should also not use esoteric language to ensure

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE usability for English language learners with more informal goals. Each section of this essay will comment on whether or not each dictionary meets my criteria in that category. Range of Contents The Longman Elementary Dictionary and Thesaurus (LEDT) contains a variety of features aimed toward facilitating the second language acquisition of learners at the elementary grade level (vi). It is composed of 20,000 words and meanings, clear and simple definitions that use only 2,000 different words, 20,000 example sentences, and more than 1,000 color photographs and illustrations to lessen the textual load for younger or less proficient learners (back cover). Pictures are usually shown for specific nouns or concepts that are hard to understand based on text only, but easy to grasp with a visual aid; for example, a picture of a sparrow is more telling than the textual definition a small brown or gray bird with a short tail

(613). The inside front cover of the LEDT includes a table with the pronunciation symbols of the vowel sounds, examples of words where each sound can be heard, and the pronunciation of these example words, shown with the books simple respelling system (inside front cover). The front matter contains the guide How to Use Your Dictionary, which details the various components of each entry and explains why each is helpful to the user and why each has been included. Definitions of terms such as guide words and index tabs and explanations of how to use these effectively, how to use the Word Family, Word Building, and Word Choice boxes, and how to locate critical parts of an entry such as the syllabification, pronunciation, part of speech, and definition are outlined in the front matter as well. Also included are the explanations of antonyms, synonyms, idioms, and the eight major parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections (iv-v). The back matter includes a

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE writers thesaurus (755-847) to help build...vocabulary and make...language more interesting (iv), a picture dictionary (A1-A16) depicting animals, nature, geography, verbs of movement, sounds, shapes, and parts of the body, and a reference section of twenty pages that includes

descriptions of the solar system and the water cycle, and lists the 50 states of the U.S., key events in American history, U.S. presidents, weights and measures, the periodic table of the elements, affixes and word roots, academic words, and irregular verbs (iii). The Oxford American Dictionary for Learners of English (OADLE) contains 42,000 words, phrases, and meanings, 35,000 examples of how words are used, and 650 illustrations (back cover). The inside front cover details the phonetic symbols that will represent the pronunciation of words. The front matter includes a Guide to the Dictionary that aims to help learners quickly locate the words, phrases, and parts of the entries they are looking for, understand and accurately use the words in these entries, build vocabulary, pronounce words correctly, and avoid common mistakes (vii-xvi). The back matter of 25 pages contains specific information regarding irregular verbs, common prefixes and suffixes, the Academic Word List, the Oxford 3000 word list, North America, geographical names, terms used in Canadian English, expressions using numbers, punctuation rules, the writing process, and the various fields of writing, such as narrative, informative, and argumentative (R1). This dictionary also comes with a CD-ROM that allows users to search the A-Z dictionary, improve their writing skills with a tutorial on the writing process, listen to words and record their pronunciation, focus on content area vocabulary, and make their own word lists (back cover). Research on the benefits of including a CD-ROM with a dictionary (Winkler, 2000). suggests that CD-ROMs make the features of a dictionary more accessible and navigable, while enhancing learners' understanding

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE of the content (pp. 19-20). Information Included in Entries

In the LEDT, the head word of the entry is shown divided into syllables using a raised dot. The pronunciation is then given between forward slashes, with the syllables divided with hyphens as they are typically broken up in speech; the stressed syllable is in bold. I often disagree with the LEDT's approach to syllabification of these words, however. For example, in the description of the pronunciation of the word multiple, the syllables are broken up as /muhltuhp-uhl/ (423). MacNeilage (1988, as cited in Stoel-Gammon & Peter, 2008) states that the basic consonant-vowel (CV) syllable type is the most commonly occurring pattern across languages (p. 293). Therefore, I believe it would be beneficial for non-native speakers attempting to learn the correct pronunciation of new English words to be presented with a CV method of syllabification whenever possible. Additionally, consonant-consonant sequences are infrequent in many languages; attempts to pronounce syllables with C-C sequences made by learners with L1s such as Korean and Vietnamese have often resulted in the addition of an unnecessary vowel sound (i.e. epenthesis) between the consonants in order to mitigate this difference (Kabak & Idsardi, 2007). Therefore, I believe the dictionary should avoid syllabifying words to include consonant clusters, such as the /lt/ at the end of the first syllable of multiple. If the users of this dictionary overestimate the importance of this division and attempt to learn pronunciation by strictly adhering to this pronunciation guide, they may have unnecessary trouble. If the makers of this dictionary had divided this word as /muhl-tuh-puhl/, non-native speakers could potentially determine the correct pronunciation more easily, with little or no consequence to the comprehensibility of the utterance.

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE In the LEDT, the pronunciation that follows a word uses a respelling system with the

pronunciation symbols for vowels and the consonants of the English alphabet (inside front cover). However, a distinction is made between consonant sounds that are thought to be similar such as // and //, as can be seen when comparing the pronunciation descriptions of thread /thred/ and those /thoze/ (667), though this is not specifically outlined in the dictionary. // is represented with zh as can be seen in the entry for leisure as /leezh-ur/ (369), and /s/ is represented with ss. However, this dictionary does not point out these differences outright, which I think could possibly lead to confusion for some learners without the help of a teacher. Syncope, the loss of an unstressed vowel // or // following a strong syllable in the middle of a word, is accounted for, as can be seen in the pronunciation description of carton as /kartn/ (89). Next, the part of speech is given; this book uses what are typically thought of as the eight parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, interjections, articles, and pronouns) in the entries. The only subcategory of a part of speech mentioned is in the distinction between a and the, where the dictionary lists them as indefinite and definite, respectively (1, 663). For nouns, the plural is given in bold and parentheses if it is not regular; for example, the entry for cactus contains (plural cacti /kak-t/ or cactuses) (81). For base forms of verbs, the present, progressive and/or past tenses are shown in bold in parentheses following the part of speech if they are spelled irregularly. Abbreviations for the word, if they exist, follow the part of speech. After the listing of the senses, an example sentence is given. If a word has many synonyms, see Thesaurus may be shown at the end of the sample sentence. Common synonyms or antonyms may be listed there in the entry. If a picture of the word is available in the picture dictionary, see picture on page is shown followed by the corresponding page number. Idioms associated with certain words are

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE given following the list of the senses. Finally, grammar boxes with any prescriptive rules involving that word, Word Origin boxes giving the etymology of the word, Word Building boxes highlighting a root of the word, and Word Family boxes showing related words may follow the other components of the entry where appropriate. Word Choice boxes demonstrating how words are selected depending on context are also worthwhile, as studies suggest that to truly know the meaning of a word, a learner must know how its different senses are related through a core meaning and how it is related to and distinguished other lexemes with similar semantic content (Bartlett, 2000, p. 12). In my opinion, the supplementary boxes serve not only to provide information, but to build excitement and engage young learners.

The OADLE begins each entry with the head-word divided into syllables with raised dots which indicate where it can be broken if it does not fit at the end of a line (vii). If the word is considered one of the Oxford 3000, the word is printed in orange and is followed by a symbol of a key and may also be followed by the label AWL if it can be found on the Academic Word List. Next, the pronunciation is given between forward slashes; this pronunciation does not show syllabification, or where the spoken pronunciation is usually divided. The LEDT represents English sounds with a list of 21 vowels; /r/-colored vowels are shown as individual sounds. In addition to the list of IPA symbols typically associated with North American English, this dictionary also lists /x/ (to represent the IPA symbol //) in its chart of phonetic symbols, representing the initial sound in the traditional Hebrew pronunciation of Chanukah. The OADLE also lists the phonetic symbols and examples of words that use them along the bottom of every page, which serves as a quick and easy reference for the users of the sounds that the symbols represent. This dictionary shows three levels of stress: strong stress is denoted by the placement

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE

of // before the stressed syllable, while // precedes syllables with weaker (secondary) stress, and no mark is given for unstressed syllables. If a word has more than one acceptable pronunciation, the most common is listed first; an additional pronunciation is indicated by a dash followed by the part of the word that has changed, as can be seen in the entry for project: /'prdkt, -kt/ (558). The OADLE also indicates alternate pronunciations for words with vowels that have a tendency to be reduced (e.g. for /fr/ and /fr/), and syncope is accounted for in this dictionary as well (e.g. kitten /ktn/). Next, the part of speech is given: nouns are marked as either count or noncount and irregular plural forms are given; verbs are labeled as transitive or intransitive and irregular verb forms are given; irregularly-spelled comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are given. Each sense is followed by at least one sample sentence, and often a common phrase in which that word is found. To the left of each sense of a word that has multiple senses, a shortcut word is given so as to help users find the most relevant meaning of the target word as quickly as possible. For example, the adjective close has three shortcuts: one sense is listed as near, another as relationship, and a third as competition, election, etc. (131). Derivatives are given at the end of an entry, just before any synonyms, antonyms, idioms, and cross-references to related vocabulary associated with the head word are listed. If the head word has many common synonyms (e.g. afraid), a Thesaurus box which lists the various synonyms and in which situations each synonym is commonly used follows the entry (ix). Culture boxes are sometimes shown to give users insight into North American culture; for example, near the entry grade, a section on culture and the use of the letter-grade system is delineated (317). A lexeme is given separate entries for each part of speech it may belong to. Etymology is not included in this dictionary.

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE Organization of Senses/Meanings In the LEDT, senses are listed according to part of speech of the head-word, beginning with head word's most common usage. All the senses for that part of speech are then given in

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order of most frequently used to least frequently used. As this is a dictionary for young learners at an elementary level, the most particular definitions are not usually given unless they are commonly used. The organization of earlier senses to later senseswhich senses appeared first historicallydoes not exist in this dictionary. The OADLE follows the same pattern of sense organization. However, because this dictionary includes various registers and vocabulary from a variety of content areas, very specific definitions are given for the various senses a word may have depending on context. I believe this manner of presentation of the senses is the most beneficial for learners, as it likely reduces the amount of time learners will have to search for the target use or meaning, while also indicating which senses are the most important to memorize. Treatment of Connotational Meaning In the LEDT, connotational meaning is not expressed outright in the list of senses. However, it may be implied in the sample sentences. For example, stingy is only defined as not liking to spend money or give things, but the sample sentences indicate the negative connotation associated with this word: He was so stingy that he didn't even buy his mother a Christmas present (629). Attentive users may infer connotational meaning, but confusion among young learners could be avoided if such senses were explicitly stated. The OADLE, on the other hand, uses the explicit labels formal, informal, written, figurative, and old-fashioned to distinguish serious or official language, language used between

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE friends or in a relaxed situation, language used in books, letters, and reports, language not used

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with its literal meaning, and language that is no longer common, respectively (xvi). Beyond these labels, connotational meaning is insinuated through the sample sentences. I believe the use of implication is more appropriate in this case, as these learners are of an intermediate level, are not as young as the elementary learners, have a better understanding of how words are used, are more likely to have advanced inferencing abilities, and are more familiar with how to use a dictionary. Treatment of Collocations While usage notes are given in Word Choice boxes following certain entries, collocational meaning is typically not given in the LEDT. Perhaps this is because the main goal of comprehensibility for beginning learners can be fulfilled without explicit knowledge regarding collocations. Nevertheless, examination of the sample sentences may help learners infer typical collocations. For example, the sample sentences in the entry for think use the phrase think about twice (666). The OADLE is much more explicit, containing notes which exhibit the words and phrases that are typically connected with particular topics, in conjunction with a selection of verbs to use with those words and phrases. For example, under the topic collocation e-mail and the internet, phrases such as set up an e-mail account, check your email, and open an email are listed (ix). Furthermore, collocations that appear in sample sentences are highlighted (viii). This dictionary also includes a list of words that tend to collocate with words in the Academic Word List (xi). AWL Collocations notes show the user that words from the Academic Word List often occur in combination with other nouns, verbs, adjectives, and

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE adverbs, especially in academic writing; for example, theory, valid, and predict (xi). Treatment of Expressions Related to Head-Word The LEDT deals with expressions related to the head-word in a variety of ways. For

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derivationally related forms of words that have the same or similar root, Word Family boxes that list the related words and their corresponding parts of speech are shown after the entry. For example, the entry for normal includes a Word Family box listing normally as an adverb, abnormal as an adjective, and normality as a noun (437). Word Building boxes are shown for entries that are prefixes or suffixes. For instance, the entry for -ship contains a Word Building box which states that -ship is a suffix used in nouns, followed by examples of nouns containing ship (championship, citizenship, friendship, etc.); the box then explains that -ship shows that someone or something has a particular quality or position (585). Compounds typically receive their own entries (e.g. sea level, secret service, senior citizen), while homographs are listed in the same entry under their respective parts of speech. Idioms are given at the end of an entry; the entry for cross, for example, shows the idioms cross my heart, cross your legs/arms, and cross your mind and their corresponding definitions. However, fixed expressions of multiple words such as collocations and proverbs are not given explicitly. In the OADLE, expressions involving the head-word are dealt with more directly. Derivationally related forms are given at the end of an entry (vii), and a guide for learners regarding the pronunciation of derivatives is included in the front matter (xv). Compounds receive their own entry, and the pronunciation of compounds is specifically shown with stress markers. Homographs are given their own entries according to part of speech; for example, the various senses of call as a verb are separate from those that are nouns. Idioms that involve the

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE head-word, if any exist, are shown in a separate section which follows the entry with the label

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IDM. Phrasal verbs are also given their own separate section with the label PHRV following the sample sentence. It is logical that this dictionary presents a much more comprehensive collection of fixed expressions than the LEDT, as beginning learners need to grasp vocabulary first before they can accurately use the vocabulary in fixed expressions. Treatment of Controversial Usage Issues I believe that a descriptive rather than a prescriptive dictionary is more useful to learners. As Davidson (2006) points out, even self-proclaimed usage commentators who are concerned with supposed correct usage disagree about the accuracy and appropriateness of certain definitions of and distinctions between numerous words and expressions (p. 15). He notes that because learners are most often trying to immerse themselves in the real world of today's American English, usages that are still considered correct and meaningful by the majority of native speakers should not be hidden from learners and should be accepted by instructors (p. 16). Learner dictionaries should provide ELLs with a practical resource to consult when they encounter new words and expressions. Prescriptive rules that are not typically observed in native speech should not be a high priority in language curriculum, and native dictionaries that include these prescriptions are always available to learners who do have a desire to expand their knowledge of the language beyond description. The LEDT takes more of a descriptive rather than prescriptive approach to word usage. For example, eager is given as a synonym for anxious (24), one of the senses of awfully is defined as an adverb meaning very (39), and can is given a nonstandard definition as to be allowed to do something (83). These usages might be considered controversial by prescriptive

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE grammarians, but are included in this dictionary regardless. The OADLE also generally represents the language as it is actually used, not as prescriptive grammarians believe it should be. The aforementioned unconventional senses of

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anxious, awfully, and can are also given in this dictionary. In addition, the word alright, whose existence is rejected from a prescriptive point of view, receives its own entry. Basis of Content All Longman learners' dictionaries are based on the Longman Learners' Corpus so as to determine which information will address the exact needs of ELLs. I believe this corpus is appropriate for the intended users of this dictionary because it is geared toward learners of English specifically, and is based on authentic scripts from students of all backgrounds and levels. This corpus has been coded according to nationality and language level so as to pinpoint which groups (of what background and of what level) make errors in which areas (Longman, 2008). In this way, Longman dictionaries can help limit the amount of mistakes learners of all types typically make, while presenting them with the most advantageous vocabulary. The OADLE contains example sentences that have been based on corpora (vi), and specifically includes the most frequently-used words listed by the American English section of the Oxford English corpus of more than 2 billion words from both written and spoken texts (R5). This dictionary also includes the Oxford 3000, a list of the most important and useful words to learn in English, as determined by language experts and experienced teachers (R5). If words have been deemed important by the corpus due only to their frequency in certain content areas, a subject label such as Business, Chemistry, or Physics is listed in the entry in small capitals after the part of speech (x). As learners move beyond the goal of mere comprehension and begin to

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE desire a more native-like command of the language, they need specific information on spoken speech. Therefore, this corpus is appropriate for this level, as it is based on real texts and

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authentic conversations to help learners speak naturally using idioms, phrases, and collocations correctly. Target Audience and Relevance to Future Teaching The publishers of the LEDT have targeted elementary school students, particularly those in grades 3-5. Because my main goal is to teach internationally, I will encounter a variety of different age and proficiency levels in my classes. In many countries, young learners often have more education opportunities than adult learners. Furthermore, I believe every teacher should have a sense of the level of vocabulary that beginning learners typically possess; a teacher can always facilitate comprehension with simple, basic language, but language that is unfamiliar to them cannot be used to negotiate for meaning. For these reasons, I believe that the LEDT will be appropriate for my teaching purposes. The publishers of the OADLE have designed their dictionary based on the needs of intermediate learners and the of vocabulary. Upon examining the inclusion of specific facets of language application in this dictionary, I believe that the OADLE is appropriate for its target audience and accomplishes its goal of effectively presenting and stressing vocabulary. I also think it will be relevant in my future teaching, especially if I teach intermediate-level learners. Though I may teach beginning learners, knowledge of the contents of this dictionary will help me measure the amount of progress my students should have made by the time they leave the beginning level. Even if I teach advanced learners, familiarity with this dictionary will allow me to gauge which words these students already know and to what extent I can teach using complex

CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE vocabulary. I believe that overall, the OADLE is more useful than the LEDT. The range of information presented in the OADLE is more extensive than that in the LEDT, yet is still explained in a comprehensible manner with enough guidance for even beginning users with diverse language goals to be able to use it with ease.

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CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE LEDT AND THE OADLE References Bartlett, T. (2000). Dictionary, systemicity, motivation. Edinburgh working paper in applied linguistics. Online: http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED453663.pdf Bradbery, J., Bull., V., & Lea, D. (2011). Oxford American dictionary for learners of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Davidson, M. (2006). Right, wrong, and risky: A dictionary of today's American English usage. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. Kabak, B., & Idsardi, W. (2007). Perceptual distortions in the adaptation of English consonant clusters: Syllable structure or consonantal contact constraints? Language and Speech, 50(1), 23-52. Pearson Longman (2008). Corpus General. Longman Dictionaries. Online: http:/www.longmanusahome.com/dictionaries/corpus.php. Stoel-Gammon, C., & Peter, B. (2008). Syllables, segments, and sequences: Phonological patterns in the words of young children acquiring American English. In P. F. MacNeilage (Ed.), The syllable in speech production (pp. 293-323). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Winkler, B. (2000). Students working with an English learners' dictionary on CD-ROM. ELT perspectives on information and technology & multimedia: Selected papers from the ITMELT 2001 conference. Online: http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED459601.pdf.