Ancient India

Indus Valley Civilization Discovered in 1921 Belonged to the bronze age An area of about 1.3 mn sq km Existed between 3300-1600 BC in three phases: early, mature and late phases Sites Early (pre-Harappan) Mature (Harappan) Late phase (post-urban) Harappa Mohenjodaro Chanhu-daro Lothal Kalibangan Kalibangan Banawali Banawali (Hissar) Sutkagendor (Pakistan) Sukotada (Gujarat) Dholavira (Kutch) Dholavira Dholavira Rakhigarhi (Ghaggar) Rakhigarhi Rakhigarhi Bhagwanpura Manda (Jammu); Chandigarh, Shangol (Punjab); Daulatpur, Mitthal (Haryana); Alamgirpur. Hulas (West UP) Site Sutkagendor Surkotada Mohenjo-daro Remarkable Feature Marked by a citadel Great Bath; Large granary Impressive drainage system Piece of woven cotton Mother Goddess Seal of pashu-pati Grain and plough

Kalibangan

Town planning o Grid system The Indus people were the earliest to produce cotton

Aryans Male dominated Pastoral Horse was a significant animal Rig veda Consists of 10 mandalas (books): Book 1 and 10 are relatively new Earliest specimen of Indo-European language: 2200 BC inscription in Iran. Later in the Hittite inscriptions in Anatolia 1500 BC came to India Sindhu is the river par excellence for them Saraswati is the best of the rivers in Rig Veda Panchajana five tribes into which Aryans were divided Used ploughshare Land did not form a well-established type of private property Metal working was known Rajan king Samiti, sabha, vidatha,gana tribal assembly

Jainism 24 tirthankaras. First: Rishab Dev 23rd: Parshavnath Mahavir (599 BC 527 BC) or (540 BC 468 BC) In Kundagrama near Vaishali Father Siddartha (Jnatrika clan) Mother Trishala (sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka) Died at Pavapuri near Rajgir Five doctrines: Do not violence, steal, lie, acquire property and do observe brahmacharya Did not condemn the varna system Triratna: right knowledge, right faith, right action Spread to Kalinga in first century BC. King Kharavela Used Prakrit language. Literature written in Ardhamagadhi Prepared the grammar of Apabhramsha Contributed to the growth of Kannada Buddhism 563 483 BC Lumbini, Kapilavastu, Nepal. Shakya family. Suddhodan and Mahamaya Death: Kushinagar (Kasia in Deoria distt of UP) Eight-fold path (for end of misery) 1. Right observation 2. Right determination 3. Right speech 4. Right action 5. Right livelihood 6. Right exercise 7. Right memory 8. Right meditation Do not 1. Covet others property 2. Commit violence 3. Lie 4. Use intoxicants 5. Indulge in corrupt practices No god or atman exists Used Pali Main elements of Buddhism: Buddha, Sangha, Dhamma Brahamana ruler Pashyamitra Shunga persecuted the Buddhists Mihirakula (Huna king) killed Buddhists Buddhist text: Suttanipata Gandhara Art First human statues worshipped Barabar hills: Caves for monks

Territorial States Kingdoms and Capitals Kingdom Kapilavastu Lichchhavis Mahajanpadas Anga Kashi Koshala Mallas Vatsa/Vamsa Avanti Magadha Chedi/Cheti Kuru Panchala Matsya Surasena Ashmaka Gandhara Kamboja Vriji/Vajji Satvanahanas Pandya Chola Chalyukyas Pallavas Kadambas Gangas First Magadhan Empire Dyansty Haryanka

Capital Piprahwa Vaishali Champa Varanasi Shravasti Kushinara Kaushambi Ujjain (North)/ Mahishamati (South) Rajgir (Girivraja)

Mathura

Mithila Paithan Madurai Puhar (kaveripattanam) Badami (Bijapur) Kanchi Vijayanti Kolar

Ruler Bimbisara Ajatsatru Udayin Mahapadma Nanda

Remark Contemporary of Buddha Built fort on the confluence of Ganga and Son at Patna Destroyed the power of Avanti

Shishunagas Nandas (most powerful rulers of Magadha) Mauryas (Patliputra) Mauryas had a very elaborate bureaucracy

Chandragupta Maurya Bindusara Ashoka

Megasthenes visited during his time Links with Greek princes Buddhism Destroyed the Mauryan empire. Killed Maurya king Brihadratha

Shunga Pushyamitra Shunga

Balisadhaka tax collectors during the times of Nandas Shaulkiki or shulkadhyakshas were also toll collectors Shakyas and Lichchhavis were republics

Literature Book Digha Nikaya North-West India

Author/Language Pali

Remark Buddhist text

Menander (Milinda) was the most famous Indo-Greek ruler. His capital at Sakala (Sialkot) Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena (Nagarjuna) Shakas Succeeded the Greeks in North West Rudradaman I : most famous ruler o He issued first ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit Parthians Followed Shakas Famous king: Gondophernes o St. Thomas came during his reign Kushans Aka Yuechis or Tocharians Kadphises was the first king Kanishka is the most famous ruler o Started the Shaka era in 78 AD o Held the Buddhist council in Kashmir where the doctrines of Mahayana form were finalized o Patronized Ashvaghosa Kushan inscriptions and coins found at Toprak Kala in Khorezm Kushanas were the first rulers to issue gold coins on a large scale Introduced the Satrap system of government They controlled the Silk Route Worshipped both Shiva and Buddha. Some worshipped Vishnu too. Kanishka built a large number of Stupas Greek ambassador Heliodorus set up a piller in honor of Vasudeva near Vidisa. Appointed governors called strategos Deccan

Satavahanas Succeeded Mauryas in Deccan Brahmana rulers Gautamiputra Satkarni (AD 106-130) Vashishthiputra Pulimayi: Capital at Paithan Started the practice of granting tax-free villages to Brahmanas and Buddhist Monks Yajna Sri Satakarni Chaityas (Buddhist temples) and Viharas (monastaries) were constructed during their times o Most famous Chaitya at Karle in Deccan Show trace of matrilineal social structure Administration o Ahara district o Officials amatyas or mahamatras o Gaulmika head of a small military regiment and look after administration in rural areas o Three grades of feudatories: raja, mahabhoja, senapati o Language: Prakrit South Pandya Sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus

Chola Elara conquered Sri Lanka Karikala founded Puhar aka Kaveripatnam which was their capital Cheras Kerala and parts of TN Senguttavan is the greatest king Roman influence: Muziris. Also built a temple of Augustus Vellalas rich peasants Arasar ruling class Pariyars agricultural labourers Shrent artisan guilds Chalukyas Badami (Bijapur) Pulakesin II was the important ruler Court poet Ravikirti wrote his eulogy in the Aihole inscription Pallavas They succeeded the Ikshvakus Kanchipuram was their capital Came in conflict with kadambas o Mayurasharman had founded the Kadamba kingdom (Capital: Vijayanti/Banavasi) Nasrimhavarman occupied the Chalukya capital Vatapi in 642 AD o Assumed the title of Vatapikonda Constructed a number of temples Ratha temples at Mahabs built by Narsimhavarman who founded Mahabs Pattadakal: Papanatha temple and Virupaksha temple Kailashnath temple at Kanchi One of the major revolt in the south was the Kalabhras revolt. It was so widespread that it could be put down only through the joint efforts of the Pandyas, the Pallavas and the Chalukyas Three types of villages: Ur (commoners), Sabha (Brahmans), Nagaram (traders etc)

Foreign Invasions Major events 326-325 BC Literature Book Mudrarakshasa (play) Indika Milind Panho Buddhacharita Saundarananda (Sanskrit kavya) Mahavastu (Buddhist-hybrid Sanskrit) Divyavandan (Buddhist-hybrid Sanskrit) Kamsutra Charaksamhita Gathasaptasatti (Prakrit book) Tolkkappiyam (deals with grammar and poetics) Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are Tamil epics Natural History (Latin) Mrichchhakatika Abhijnanashakuntalam Amarakosha Romaka Sidhanta (Astronomy) Harshacharita Priyadarshika; Ratnavali; and Nagananda (plays) Astadhyayi

Alexanders invasion

Author Vishakhadatta Megasthenes Buddhist literature of questions of Manender to Nagarjuna Ashvaghosha Ashvaghosha

Vatsyayana Charaka Hala (Satavahana king) <Ilango Adigal? (silappadikaram)> Pliny (Roman writer) Shudraka Kalidasa Amarasimha Banabhatta Harshavardhana Panini

Mahabhashika Suryasiddhanta Brihatsamhita Sushrutsamhita Charaksamhita Travelers Traveler Megasthenes (ambassador of Seleucus) Fa Hein Hsuan Tsang Pliny wrote Naturalis Historia Philosophy Six schools School Samkhaya

Patanjali A treatise on astronomy. Authorship disputed. Varahmira (5th CE) Sushrut (2nd CE) Charak (2nd CE)

During time of Chandragupta Maurya Chandragupta Vikramaditya Harshavardhana

Work Indika

Yoga Nyaya

Vaisheshika

Mimansa

Vedanta

Philosophy Materialistic. No god. Later turned spiritualistic. PrakritiPurusha. Salvation through knowledge acquired through pratyaksha, anumana, shabda Slavation through meditation and physical application System of logic. Salvation through acquisition of knowledge. Discussion of material elements or dravya. Atom theory. (beginning of physics). Belief in god. Vedas contain the eternal truth. Reasoning provided for vedic rituals. Perform vedic rites for salvation. Brahmasutra. Brahma is the reality. Atma is identical with Brahma.

Major proponent Kapila

Shankara (Advaita) born in Kerala Ramanuja (Vishistadvaita) Shuddhadvaita (Vallabha) Charavaka

Lokayata

Materialistic philosophy.

Mauryan officers

Rajukas a class of officers appointed by Ashoka for administration of justice Dhammamahamatras officers of Ashoka for propagating dharma among various social groups Tirthas important functionaries Samaharta highest officer for tax assessment Sannidhata chief custodian of the state treasury Sangam literature Sangam was an assembly of Tamil poets held under royal patronage in Madurai Compiled around 300-600 AD Can be divided into two groups: narrative and didactic Narrative: Melkanakku (or Eighteen Major Works) Didactic: Kilkanakku (Eighteen minor works)

 Misc Guptas

Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are Tamil epics

Shataka was a special type of cloth made at Mathura Artisan guilds were called shrents Uttarapatha was a sea route most frequently in use Gomat wealthy person

After the fall of Kushans and Satvahanas in mid 3rd century AD Perhaps of Vaishya origin Chandragupta 1- Samudragupta Chandragupta II Kumargupta - Skandagupta Capital: Patliputra Chandragupta I o Started the Gupta era in AD 319-20 Samudragupta (aka Napoleon of India) o Delighted in violence and conquest o Court poet: Harishena Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) [375-415 AD] o Exercised indirect influence over the Central Indian kingdom of Prabhavati through his daughter o Ujjain was his second capital o Navratnas o Kalidasa, Varahmira and Amarsimha were at his court o Fa-hsien visited India Royal seal: Garuda Decline in long distance trade Emergence of priestly landlords Position of shudras improved Subordination of women Buddhism did not receive royal patronage Golden age of ancient India o Ajanta Paintings <not by Guptas but mostly during their period> o Nalanda university flourished o 13 plays written by Bhasa o Mrichchhakatika Shudraka o Kalidasa o Plays were mostly comic o Ramayana and Mahabharata compiled o Development of Sanskrit Grammar o Aryabhatiya Aryabhatta o Romaka Sidhanta book on astronomy Was poor in architecture Huna invasion made the empire weak Vishti forced labour by peasants for the army officials Harshavardhana After the fall of Guptas Capital: Kanauj Banabhatta: court poet (wrote Harshacharita) Ran the administration on similar lines as Guptas Law and order: not well maintained Nalanda flourished as a centre of Buddhist learning Became a great parton of Buddhism (was a Shaiva earlier) Convened a grand assembly as Kanauj to widely publicise the doctrines of Mahayana Authored three dramas: Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda

Architecture
Harappan Drainage system Rectangular intersecting roads

 Sanitary system Mauryan Monolithic Pillars Finely carved capitols Bull capitol and Sarnath capitol Stupas start during this period 4 gateways o Surface built with bricks Viharas and Chaityas o Barabar Caves Shunga Satvahanas Early classic architecture Carved railings and gateways around Buddhist shrines Kushan Sculpture developed The emperor himself was a divine authority Buddha was first time given a human form during this time Gupta period Beginning of Hindu temples temple at Deoghar, Udaigiri caves in Orissa Vaishnavite temple in Vidisha Pallavas Mandaps, Rathas and finely carved panels and pillars Shore temple at Mahabs is a structural temple Ratha temple is a rock cut temple Kanchipuram also has temples o Panels depict shiva as Natraja o History of Pallavas Cholas Tanjaur Temple: 65 m tall vimana Pillared halls and sculptures depicting Bharatas natyashastra Fine paintings Pandyas Built high outerwalls and gopuram Their gopurams can be seen from long distances Hoysalas Belur and Halebeed temples Profusion of manifold pillars with rich and intricate carvings Panels depict gods and goddesses Orissa Temples Lingraja temple o 40 m high Sun Temple Nagara, Dravida and Visara Table 1 Nagara Temples called PRASADA Shikhara is curvilinear No role of pillar No tank No enclosure Dravida Visara Combination of Dravida and Nagara (Chalukyas).

Mahadeva Temple

Shikhara pyramidal Pillar important Tank may be there Enclosure and gopuram Vimana Brihadeshwara

Eg Some in Khajuraho, Sirpur etc

Cave architecture Progressed in three phases Buddhist Jain Ajivika caves (3rd BC to 2nd AD)

o Kaneri, Nashik, Udaigiri Ajanta Ellora Cave (5th to 7th AD) Elephanta Ellora and Mahabs (7th to 10th)

Sculpture

Two major schools Gandhara o Greco-Roman Style o North West India o Stone and stucco Madhura o Indigenous style o UP Bihar o White spotted red sandstone used o Forms of Brahmanical deities crystallised for the first time in this art form Themes of Buddha and Bodhisatvas in Both

Arts
Different schools of art compared Table 1 Mughal Pahari Origin Earlier Originated Persian in the subblend. Himalayan Became kingdoms

Rajasthani/Rajput Early 16th century. Various sub-schools existed

Madhubani/Mithila Done traditionally by the women in the villages near the town

Manjusha/Angika

Tanjore 17th century under the patronage of Tanjores

Indian under Akbar.

of 19th century.

of Madhubani. It originated as floor and wall paintings. Essentially a folk tradition

Maratha rulers

Type

Mostly in miniature form Document of life at the Mughal court, battles, hunt, arrival of embassies, festivities Portrait paintings developed under Jahangir

Themes

Mostly done in miniature form Love of man for woman. Symbolised by Krishna and Radha

Strongly influenced by the contemporary literary and musical forms, and draw upon their motifs <details below>

Nature and Hindu religious motifs

Usually portrayed deities. Vishnu,Shi and Krishn

Exceptional Point

Characteristics

Realism is the keynote of this style Artists had made contacts with Western art. Influence can be seen.

Bold and intense Basohli Delicate and lyrical; Tones subdued and lines exquisitely fine Kangra

Decorate in their composition and colour scheme Landscape lacks the naturalism of the Mughal school

Was originally practiced by Brahmins and Kayasthas. Later SC women also adopted it. But the themes of the two are different. While higher castes depicted mythological themes, SCs experimented with day-to-day scenes. Two dimensional imagery. Colors derived from plants. No space is left empty. Gaps are filled by painting flowers, plants animals and even geometric shapes. Traditionally done as murals on mud walls. Now is also done one cloth, paper and canvas

Snakes are a prominent feature

Technique

Used wider canvas

Artists adhered strictly to iconograph as these paintings were made for ritual and worshi and not for display as mostly the case today Made on jackwood pasted with unbleached cloth to which a

mixture of limestone, chalk powder, gu and honey are applied in layers on a sketch of the icon. Extra coats given to raise some parts of the painting. Jewellery e are put. Major Artists Basawan, Daswanth, Kesudasa, Mansur Akbarnama illustratio ns; rare birds and animals Falcon (CS Museum, Bombay), Red Blossoms floral painting Basohli, Guler, Kangra Jagdamba Devi, Mahasundari Devi

Major Works

Jodhpur and Nagaur paintings.

Major schools

Malwa, Mewar (Ragamala paintings), Marwar, Kishangarh, Jaipur, Bundi, Kotah

Bharni style, Kachni style

Patrons

Akbar, Jahangir

Raja Kripal Singh (Bahsoli)

Sarabhiji 2 Shivaji 2, Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar

Rajasthani Art Schools Mewar (Ragamala) themes from the life of Krishna and his frolic with the gopis; heroes and heroines of Hindi poetry. Scenes from Bhagvata and Ramayana Landscape lacks the naturalism of the Mughal school Marwar Genuine Rajput style evolved under this school Equestrian portraits of the royal house and the nobility. Show bold types of expression with broad, fish eyes in human faces This school is essentially Hindu Jaipur Raslila was painted. It became an earthly erotic amusement Manjusha Art

Manjushas are temple shaped boxes containing eight pillars The boxes often contain the paintings of gods, goddesses and other characters The boxes are used in Bishahari Puja This is practiced in the Bhagalpur region of Bihar

Handicrafts Channapatna toys o Wooden toys from Karnataka Nirmal Toys o Wooden toys made in the town of Nirmal in Adilabad district Tanjore doll o Bobblehead made of terracotta Sandpainting Kolam Drawn using rice powder by female members in front of their home Mainly in South India Rangoli North India. Using sand colors, flour or flowers Other fine arts Mehandi Pichhwai o Intricate paintings that portray Lord Krishna o Exist in the town of nathdwara in Rajasthan Tarakashi o A type of metalwork from Cuttack Indian Art Awards

Kalaimamani o By Tamil Nadu Iyal Isai Nataka Manram Kalidas Samman o Presented by the MP govt Sangeet Natak Akademi Award Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship Shilp Guru o By GOI to a master craftsperson. Started in 2002. Tulsi Samman o By MP govt. In fields of art, theatre, dance and music. Varnashilpi Venkatappa Award o By Karnataka govt for excellence in painting

Capital Punishment Three of Rajiv Gandhis assassins have been scheduled to hanged to death on Sept 9. Last execution in India was in 2004: Dhananjoy Chatterjee 96 countries have already abolished CP. 34 are observing official or non-official moratorium on CP. CP is a throwback to a medievalist bloodlust that has no place in the modern criminal justice system. Some issues Long pendency of clemency petitions

NHRC Chairperson K G Balakrishnan has favoured capital punishment arguing that it is awarded in the rarest of rare cases and has a deterrent effect.

Gabriel Garcia Marquez's classic, One Hundred Years of Solitude, begins with a line that could be read as a powerful argument against capital punishment: Many years later, as he faced the firing squad, General Aureliano Buendia was to remember that distant afternoon when his father took him to discover ice. The imminent extinction of a sentient life endowed with thought and memory, linked intimately to the lives of others, is a fearsome thing. So it is entirely understandable why that angst-ridden question Should India remove capital punishment from its statute books? refuses to go away. Here we are, with our much-feted legacy of non-violence, with our burnished democratic Constitution and Credentials, still attached by the feet to the ever-shrinking corner of the globe which continues to defend the death penalty. Uneasy defence It has been an uneasy defence for sure. The umbrella formulation that the death penalty should only be accorded in the rarest of rare cases, put forward in 1980 by the Supreme Court in Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab, has remained an uncertain talisman with Indian courts interpreting it in an astoundingly variegated manner, but it has remained a talisman nevertheless. Indian Presidents, too, have routinely dragged their feet over rejecting mercy pleas. The country has also, incidentally, seen attempts to institutionally reform the administration of the death penalty. The Model Prison Manual for the Superintendence & Management of Prisons In India' (2003) recommends that all prisoners going to meet their fate at the gallows be made to wear a cotton cap with flap so that he/she will not be able to see the gallows an highly ineffectual aid, surely, under such circumstances. Internationally, India continues to remain in an ambiguous position. It is party to the International Convention on Civil and Political Rights that requires countries to move towards the abolition of capital punishment, but has desisted from ratifying the Second Optional Protocol to the Convention and last November it voted along with China and Saudi Arabia to oppose a UN resolution for a moratorium on the death penalty. So while there may be some curling of toes over the prospect of denying criminals on death row their right to life, the Indian State has consistently balked at doing away with the hanging option. By and large, the argument put forward by the Law Commission of India in 1967 continues to hold sway. In its 35th Report, the Law Commission pronounced that Having regard to the conditions in India, to the variety of the social upbringing of its inhabitants, to the disparity in the level of morality and education in the country, to the vastness of its area, to the diversity of its population and to the paramount need for maintaining law and order in the country at the present juncture, India cannot risk the experiment of abolition of capital punishment. Necessary risk The fact is that 139 countries in the world and their number is rising not declining despite serious security challenges have taken this risk, precisely because it is a risk that modern and modernising states should take, given that not doing so would compromise the very notion of an enlightened state. Remember that many of these countries have had long and grisly trysts with capital punishment. Pre-19th century England, for instance, had over 200 crimes that could invite a hanging sentence. The list included thievery (goods valued at five shillings and more), maiming horses, impersonation and sodomy'. One of the justifications for persisting with the death penalty is, of course, that inchoate, arbitrary, unquantifiable and often irrational concept known as public opinion. Indian courts, incidentally, have been sensitive to public opinion. In a judgment, Dhananjoy Chatterjee v State of West Bengal, that had led in 2004 to the last public hanging India has witnessed so far, the Supreme Court stated: Imposition of appropriate punishment is the manner in which the courts respond to society's cry for justice against the criminals. Justice demands that courts should impose punishment befitting the crime so that the courts reflect public abhorrence of the crime But society's cry for justice is an uncertain foundation for justice as Arthur Chaskalson, who served as Chief Justice of South Africa from 2001 to 2005, reiterated. He put it this way, Public opinion may have some relevance to the enquiry, but in itself it is no substitute for the duty vested in the Courts to interpret the Constitution and to uphold its provisions without fear or favour. If public opinion were to be decisive there would be no need for constitutional adjudication The founding fathers and mothers of post-Independence India did not ban capital punishment and retained the 1861 Indian Penal Code providing for the death penalty. But it was not as if they did not envisage the possibility of the country exercising that option at some point. Amiyo Kumar Ghosh,

a member in the Constitutent Assembly, while opposing an amendment that wanted a partial ban on capital punishment, went on to say, I think that with the growth of consciousness, with the development of society, the State should revise a punishment of this nature Why persist? The questions we then need to ask is why, despite the long decades that have intervened since those words, India still cannot countenance such a possibility. Why does it continue to perceive the hangman's noose as coterminous with the scales of justice? Why does it settle for peremptory and irrevocable responses to heinous crimes, when the world is engaging with ideas of restorative rather than retributive justice? Can't post-independence India not hold itself to standards higher than those set by its one-time imperial rulers, standards that had been sharply critiqued by the freedom movement? A passage from Bhagat Singh's last petition to the Punjab governor should give us pause: As to the question of our fates, please allow us to say that when you have decided to put us to death, you will certainly do it. You have got the power in your hands and the power is the greatest justification in this world. We know that the maxim Might is right' serves as your guiding motto. The whole of our trial was just a proof of that. We wanted to point out that according to the verdict of your court we had waged war and were therefore war prisoners. And we claim to be treated as such, i.e., we claim to be shot dead instead of to be hanged. He and his comrades in arms, Rajguru and Sukhdev, were hanged on March 23, 1931.

Census
Rural-Urban For the first time since 1921, urban India added more numbers to its population in a decade than rural India did Census cites three possible causes o Migration o Natural increase o Inclusion of new areas as urban National Population Register

Created through amendment to the Citizenship Act 1955. Will carry specific biometric identification details and photographs of 120 crore Indians. It will also contain the UID number. The database will help government reach out even to the poorest of society and have a better security infrastructure. Caste Census The Union Cabinet considered the recommendations of the GoM and decided as follows: a) Caste of all persons as returned by them would be canvassed. b) The caste enumeration would be conducted as a separate exercise from the month of June 2011 and completed in a phased manner by September 2011 after the Population Enumeration phase (to be conducted in February-March 2011) of the Census 2011 is over. c) A suitable legal regime for collection of data on Castes would be formulated in consultation with the Ministry of Law & Justice. d) The Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner India would conduct the field operations of the caste enumeration. The Government of India would constitute an Expert Group to classify the caste/tribe returns after the enumeration is completed. The Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner India would hand over the details of the castes/tribes returned in the enumeration to the proposed Expert Group. Caste-wise enumeration had been given up as a matter of policy after independence. The last Census when caste-wise data was collected, tabulated and published in detail was the 1931 Census. Caste census as a separate exercise approved.

Climate Change
Climate Change

It is the long term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods of time Though it has been happening naturally for millions of years, in recent years it has accelerated due to anthropogenic causes and has been causing global warming. UNFCCC defines climate change as a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods

Global Warming

An increase in the average temperature of Earths near surface air and oceans since the mid20th century 4th assessment report of IPCC: global temperature increased 0.74+0.18 degree C during the 20th century. Caused by greenhouse gases o Water vapour, Co2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Ozone, CFCs (in order of abundance) Since the industrial revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has increased the levels of Co2 in the atmosphere from 280 ppm to 390 ppm. Climate Change Mitigation Alternative Energy sources o Renewable energy o Nuclear Power o Reduce the carbon intensity of fossil fuels Energy efficiency and conservation o Transport and urban planning o Building design o Reforestation and avoid deforestation o Eliminating waste methane Geoengineering o Greenhouse gas remediation Biomass Carbon air capture Carbon capture and storage Societal control o Population o Sustainable life-style Timeline http://www.nature.com/climate/timeline/icp/index.html Inter-governmental action IPCC UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit), 1992 Agenda 21 o An action plan of UN relating to sustainable development adopted at the Earth Summit, 1992 UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol IPCC 1988 by World Meteorological Organisation and UNEP tasked with reviewing and assessing the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of climate change Nobel Prize in 2007 The IPCC does not carry out its own original research, nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself. A main activity of the IPCC is publishing special reports on topics relevant to the implementation of the (UNFCCC) Till now, it has released four assessment reports (1990, 1995, 2001, 2007) Fifth assessment report is due in 2014 UNFCCC 1992 at the Rio Summit. 194 members. Secretariat at Bonn. Parties to UNFCCC are classified as: Annex I countries industrialized countries and economies in transition Annex II countries developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries Developing countries. Conference 1995 COP1 Place Berlin Outcome The Berlin Mandate

1996 COP2 1997 COP3 1998 COP4 1999 COP5 2000 COP6 /2001 COP6 2001 COP7 2002 COP8

Geneva Kyoto Buenos Aires Bonn The Hague/Bonn Marrakesh New Delhi

Kyoto Protocol

CDM and Joint Implementation adopted at Bonn Delhi Declaration: Calls for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of climate change on developing countries

2003 COP9 2004 COP10 2005 COP11/MOP1 2006 COP12/MOP2 2007 COP13/MOP3 2008 COP14/MOP4 2009 COP15/MOP5 2010 COP16/MOP6 2011 COP17/MOP7

Milan Buenos Aires Montreal Nairobi Bali Poznan, Poland Copenhagen Cancun Durban, South Africa

Bali Action Plan

Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol has put in place three flexibility mechanisms to reduce emission of Green House Gases. Although the Protocol places maximum responsibility of reducing emissions on the developed countries by committing them to specific emission targets, the three mechanisms are based on the premise that reduction of emissions in any part of the globe will have the same desired effect on the atmosphere, and also that some developed countries might find it easier and more cost effective to support emissions reductions in other developed or developing countries rather than at home. These mechanisms thus provide flexibility to the Annexure I countries, helping them to meet their emission reduction obligations. Let us take a look at what these mechanisms are. What are the three flexibility mechanisms put in place of the Kyoto Protocol for reducing GHG emission? The three mechanisms are joint implementation. Emissions Trading and Clean Development What is Joint Implementation? Through the Joint Implementation, any Annex I country can invest in emission reduction projects (referred to as joint Implementation Project) in any other Annex I country as an alternative to reducing emissions domestically. Two early examples are change from a wet to a dry process at a Ukraine cement works, reducing energy consumption by 53 percent by 2008-2012; and rehabilitation of a Bulgarian hydropower project, with a 267,000 ton reduction of C02 equivalent during 2008-2012. What is Clean Development Mechanism? The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows-'l developed country with an emission reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol to implement an emission reduction project in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission reductions in their own countries. In exchange for the amount of reduction In emission thus achieved, the investing gets carbon credits which it can offset against its Kyoto targets. The developing country gains a Step towards sustainable development. To get a CDM project registered and implemented, the investing country' has to first take approval from the designated national authority in the host country, establish "Additionally", define baselines and get the project validated by a third party agency, called a Designated Operational Entity (DOE). The Executive Body of CDM registers the project and issues credits, called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs), or carbon credits, where each unit is equivalent to the reduction of one metric tonne of. C02 or its equivalent. There are more than 4200 CDM projects in the pipeline as on 14.3.2010. The expected CERs till the end of2012 is 2,900,000,000 What is "Additionality" in a CDM project ?

The feature of "additionality" is a crucial element of a CDM project it means that the industrialized country that is seeking to establish the CDM project in the developing country and earns carbon credits from it has to establish that the planned carbon reductions would not have occurred on its own, in the absence of the CDM project. They have to establish a baseline of the project. Which is the emission level that would have been there in the absence of the project. The difference between this baseline level and the (lower) emission level achieved as a result of the project is the carbon credit due to the investing country What are some of the concerns regarding CDM ? The risk of false Credits" is a cause for concern with regard to CDM projects. If a project does not actually offer an additionally and the reduction in emission would have happened anyway Even without the project. CoP15 (Copenhagen Summit) Main aim was to establish a global climate agreement for the period from 2012 when the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol expires The conference did not achieve any binding agreement for long term action A political accord was negotiated by approximately 25 parties o Collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources , including forestry and investments through international institutions to a tune of $30 bn for the period 2010-12. Copenhagen Accord o Not legally binding and does not commit countries to agree to a binding successor to the Kyoto Protocol o Annex 1 parties would commit to economy-wide emissions targets for 2020 to be submitted by 31 Jan 2010. Delivery of reductions and finance by developed countries will be measured , reported and verified (MRV) in accordance with COP guidelines o Non-annex 1 countries would implement Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions to slow their carbon emissions o Commits $30 bn for 2010-12 o Copenhagen Green Climate Fund o The accord shall be assessed in 2015 Tarawa Climate Change Conference In the lead up to COP16, the leaders of the worlds most climate-change vulnerable countries met in Kiribati in November 2010 Ambo Declaration was adopted o It calls for more and immediate action to be undertaken to address the causes and adverse impacts of climate change. CoP-16/CMP-6, Cancun COP-16 President: Patricia Espinosa, Mexicos foreign secretary COP-17 will be held in Durban Issues Forestry issues and reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) plus The developed countries are pushing for transparency from countries where they will fund climate change mitigation. o The assessment of carbon emission mitigation for developing countries is right now through domestic communication but is subject to international consultation and analysis. This push for transparency is a major contentious issue. Fast-track finance: $ 30 bn had been committed at CoP-15. A large part of this funding is yet to come through. Goals Agreements Reached The outcome of the summit was an agreement, not a binding treaty, which calls on rich countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions as pledged in the Copenhagen Accord, and for developing countries to plan to reduce their emissions, to limit global warming to less than 2 degrees celsius above pre-industrial levels. There should be no gap between the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, which expires in December 2012, and the second phase.

The agreement calls on the developed countries to raise the level of ambition of the emission reductions to be achieved by them individually or jointly, with a view to reducing their aggregate level of emission of green house gases Allows flexibility in choosing the base year for setting emission reduction targets Emissions trading and the project based mechanism under the KP shall continue to be available to Annex 1 parties as a means to meet their quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives. The agreements recognize that in all climate change related action, human rights must be respected. They also recognise the need to engage with a broad range of stakeholders, including youth and persons with disability, and call for gender equality and effective participation of women and indigenous people in effective action on all aspects of climate change. The BASIC group softened the three demands it had before the talks began o Necessity of a second commitment period to the Kyoto Protocol o Need to accelerate disbursement under the fast start finance in the form of new and additional resources through a multilaterally supervised mechanism o Continued dialogue on IPRs as part of the technology development and transfer issues. REDD is a part of the package and proposed mitigation actions include conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks and sustainable management of forests. o REDD is a set of steps designed to use market/financial incentives in order to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation. Its original objective is to reduce GHGs but it can deliver co-benefits such as biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation o REDD+ calls for activities with serious implication directed towards the local communities, indigenous people and forests which relate to reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation. It goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks A Cancun Adaptation Framework has been proposed to strengthen and address implementation of action, and various kinds of assessments, apart from R&D and host of other issues. Green Climate Fund established. The fund will be designed by a transitional committee, with 15 members from the developed countries and 25 from the developing nations. Pledge by the developed countries to provide $100 bn annually till 2020.

Conclusion UNFCCC secretary-general Christian Figueres emphasised that the main achievement of the Cancun meet has been to restore some degree of faith in the multilateral process. The agreements dont mention any reduction targets. Though the agreements recognize the need to reduce the GHG emissions and curb the increase in global average temperatures below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, in the absence of any firm target, this could be an inadequate and vague provision Bolivia has rejected the agreement, saying that it wont support agreement without binding emission cuts. In a sense, the summit was both a major step forward as well as a failure It was a step forward because in recent years climate change negotiations had stumbled and this meeting helped overcome that It was a failure because it failed to reach an agreement for binding restrictions that are required to avert global warming. There was no agreement on how to extend the Kyoto Protocol, or how the $100 billion a year for the Green Climate Fund will be raised or whether developing countries should have binding emissions reductions. Assessment articles http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/article948372.ece http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/editorial/article948370.ece Under the Cancun Agreements, the targets set by industrialised countries for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions are recognised as part of the multilateral process. They must now draw up low-carbon development plans and strategies and also report their inventories annually. In the case of developing countries, actions for emissions reduction will be recognised officially; a registry will record and match

their mitigation actions to finance and technology support from rich countries; and they will report their progress every two years. These form a good preamble for target-setting for all member-countries under an agreed framework at Durban next year. Trivia A large amount of energy used during the conference came from renewable sources Around 10000 trees and bushes will be planted in Cancun Role of India and its relevance India can act as a mediator between the developing and developed countries Indias approach to climate change negotiations has been governed by three factors how to protect the countrys economic interest and environment agenda, to use climate change as a tool of global diplomacy and consolidate its position on world forums. At Cancun, India was responsible for having made five insertions into the Agreement o In the section on shared vision, the figure of 50 pc has been dropped from identifying a global goal for substantially reducing emissions by 2050 o The phrase access to sustainable development has been introduced in the context of working towards identifying a time-frame for global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions based on the best available scientific knowledge o International Consultation and Analysis (ICA) finds mention the agreements. It proposes to enhance the reporting for the non-Annex 1 parties or developing countries on mitigation action and its effects and support received At Cancun, India also proposed legally binding emission cuts. Climate Change related facts From 2001 to 2010, global temperatures have averaged 0.46 degrees Celsius above the 1961-1990 average and the highest value ever recorded for a 10-year period. What is REDD Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) is a set of steps designed to use market/financial incentives in order to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation. Its original objective is to reduce green house gases but it can deliver "co-benefits" such as biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation. REDD+ is being criticised by indigenous people and activists because it is designed to give more control over indigenous peoples forests to state forest departments, miners, companies etc resulting in violation of rights, loss of livelihoods etc. REDD is presented as an "offset" scheme of the carbon markets and thus, will produce carbon credits. Forest degradation accounts for 15% of greenhouse gas emissions, about the same as transportation sector. Mitigation cannot be achieved without the inclusion of forests in an international regime. Hence, it is expected to play a crucial role in a future successor agreement to Kyoto Protocol. Cancun climate agreement at a glance Cutting carbon emissions: Scores of rich countries made pledges over the last year to cut their greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 under the Copenhagen accord but they were not incorporated in the official UN process. Cancun now formally puts those pledges into UN documentation, although they may increase or decrease in future. For the first time, developing countries also agreed to look at how they can cut emissions in the future but did not make specific pledges. Crucially however, none of the cuts are legally binding. Climate aid: A new climate green fund was agreed at Cancun to transfer money from the developed to developing world to tackle the impacts of climate change. Poorer countries saw this as a success because they will outnumber rich countries on a supervisory panel for the fund, which is due to be set up in 2011. But no figure was put on how much money will go into it. Separately, ministers repeated their political promise made last year at Copenhagen to raise $100bn in climate aid by 2020, starting with $30bn by 2012 for fast track financing. Forests Formal backing was given for the UN's deforestation scheme, Redd (reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation), under which rich countries pay poorer nations not to chop down forests and so lock away carbon emissions. But details on when and exactly what form the scheme will take particularly whether developed countries will be able to use it to offset their emissions rather than make cuts at home are still vague.

Kyoto protocol: Decisions on the future of the Kyoto protocol, the current international treaty binding rich countries to cut emissions, were effectively deferred until South Africa next year. Whether countries will sign up for a second commitment period to cuts beyond 2012 remains to be seen. Decisions on the role that the protocol will play in an ultimate future legal document that binds the world's countries to emissions cuts the holy grail of the UN negotiations were delayed. Technology transfer The idea of transferring knowledge of clean technology between countries was backed at Cancun. A technology executive committee and a climate technology centre and network are to be set up, but there are no details on the money, where they will be based, when or by whom. Countries agreed to the principle of having their emissions cuts inspected. Such monitoring, reporting and verification will depend on the size of the country's economy, though who will carry out the inspections was not specified. COP 17, Durban An agreement among by more than 190 nations to work towards a future treaty that would require all countries to reduce emissions that contribute to global warming. o To be decided by 2015 and to come into force by 2020 o The process for doing so, called the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action, would develop a new protocol, another legal instrument or agreed outcome with legal force that will be applicable to all Parties to the UN Climate Convention Agreed to launch a work plan to identify options for closing the ambition gap between countries current emissions reduction pledges for 2020 and the goal of keeping global warming below 2 degree C New arrangements for making more transparent the actions taken by both developed and developing countries to address their emissions Also agreed to on the creation of a fund to help poor countries adapt to climate change, and to measures involving the preservation of tropical forests and the development of clean energy technology The deal looks to renew the Kyoto Protocol for several more years. This will be decided o The second commitment period will run from 2013 to end of 2017 Next summit in Qatar Important Organisations relating to environment/climate change Name Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) HQ etc Bogor, Indonesia General info Had received the Queens Award for Forestry

View of different parties on climate change mitigation Developed countries Developing countries Most vulnerable countries/ AOSIS countries Activists/Environmental Groups Activists Activists have offered a serious criticism of market based measures like CDM, emissions trading and REDD as they will affect the developing countries and indigenous people adversely.

Committes/Commissions
Mullaperiyar Dam Panel Mullaperiyar Dam is constructed over the headwaters of the Periyar River river in Kerala, India. It is operated by the Government of Tamil Nadu according to a 999-year lease agreement made during erstwhile British colonial rule. The government of Tamil Nadu has proposed an increase in the storage level of the dam from the currently maintained 136 feet to 142 feet. The Kerala government has opposed this move, citing safety concerns for the more than hundred year old bridge and especially for the thickly populated districts downstream. A five member Empowered Committee headed by the former CJI, A S Anand, has been constituted to go into the safety of the Mullaperiyar dam. Election Commission

The Election Commission of India is an autonomous, quasi-judiciary constitutional body of India. Its mission is to conduct free and fair elections in India. It was established on 25 January 1950[1] under Article 324 of the Constitution of India. The commission presently consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two Election Commissioners, appointed by the president. Its recommendations and opinions are binding on the President of India. However, the decisions of the body are liable for independent judiciary reviews by courts acting on electoral petitions. The following are the principal functions of the Election Commission of India: 1. Demarcation of Constituencies 2. Preparation of Electoral Rolls 3. Recognition of Political parties and allotment of symbols 4. Scrutiny of nomination papers 5. Conduct of polls 6. Scrutiny of election expenses of candidates Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) It is a statutory body under the Electricity Act 2003. Its main function is to regulate the electricity tariff and inter-state transmission of electricity. Central Electricity Authority (CEA) CEA is a statutory body created under the electricity supply act 1948 which has been superseded by the Electricity Act 2003. The CEA advises the government on matters relating to the National Electricity Policy and formulates short-term and perspective plans for the development of electricity systems. Administrative Reforms Commission National Anti-Doping Agency The National Anti-Doping Agency (NADA) is the national organization responsible for promoting, coordinating, and monitoring the doping control programme in sports in all its forms in the country. NADA works towards a vision of dope free sport in India. World Anti-Doping Agency WADA is an independent foundation created through a collective initiative led by the international Olympic committee and was set up in 1999 to promote, coordinate and monitor the fight against drug in sport. President: John Fahey Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) CABE, the highest advisory body to advise the Central and State Governments in the field of education, was first established in 1920 and dissolved in 1923. It was reconstituted in 1935 and existed till 1994 till the expiry of its extended tenure. It was reconstituted in 2004. The board consists of members from LS and RS, government representatives (Union, State and UT). It has an important role in participative decision making in education and plays a pivotal role in reviewing educational development. Telecom Commission Estd. 1989 Deals with various aspects of telecommunication. The Telecom Commission and the Department of Telecommunications are responsible for policy formulation, licensing, wireless spectrum management, administrative monitoring of PSUs, research and development and standardization/ validation of equipment etc. National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector Ministry of Small Scale Industries, GoI Estd. 2004 To recommend measures for bringing about improvement in the productivity of these enterprises, generation of large scale employment opportunities on a sustainable basis, enhancing competitiveness, linkage of the sector with institutional framework and formulation of suitable arrangements for skills development. Income Tax Settlement Commission ITSC or Wealth Tax Settlement Commission was established in 1976 under the Wealth Tax Act, 1957. It is a quasi judicial body. The objective is to provide a body of experts in problems relating to direct tax to settle tax liabilities in prolonged litigations and complicated cases. National Disaster Management Authority

NDMA is a statutory body established under the Disaster Management Act, 2005 for laying down policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management for ensuring timely and effective response to disasters arising from natural and manmade causes. The Authority has nine Members including a Vice-Chairperson. The Prime Minister of India is the ex-officio Chairperson of the NDMA. Nutrient Based Subsidy Government of India has introduced Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) Policy for 2010-11 w.e.f. 1.4.2010 for decontrolled Phosphatic & Potassic (P&K) fertilizers (w.e.f. 1.5.2010 for Single super Phosphate (SS). Under the NBS Policy, subsidy for indigenous and imported P&K fertilizers has been announced on annual basis for 2010-11 based on the prevailing prices and price trends of fertilizers in the international market Central Water Commission (CWC) Estd. 1945 Premier organisation in the field of water resources. The Commission is entrusted with the general responsibilities of initiating, coordinating and furthering in consultation of the State Governments concerned, schemes for control, conservation and utilization of water resources throughout the country, for purpose of Flood Control, Irrigation, Navigation, Drinking Water Supply and Water Power Development. It also undertakes the investigations, construction and execution of any such schemes as required. National Environment Appellate Authority Estd 1997 Setup by the Ministry of Environment and Forests to address cases in which environment clearances are required in certain scheduled areas. The Authority shall become defunct and the Act shall stand repealed upon the enactment of the National Green Tribunal Bill 2009. National Commission for Protection of Child Rights Set up in 2007 under the Commission for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005. The Commission's Mandate is to ensure that all Laws, Policies, Programmes, and Administrative Mechanisms are in consonance with the Child Rights perspective as enshrined in the Constitution of India and also the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. The Child is defined as a person in the 0 to 18 years age group. Pranab Sen Committee (important) The committee has been set up under the chairmanship of statistician Pranab Sen to look into the price indexation of wages under MNREGA. There is also a Pranab Sen committee for slums. It has defined a slum as a compact settlement of at least 20 households with a collection of poorly built tenements, mostly of temporary nature, crowded together usually with inadequate sanitary and drinking water facilities in unhygienic conditions.

Sector Banking

Committee Malegam Committee on UTI (2001) Y H Malegam Committee (2010) to study the issues and concerns of MFIs

Recommendation

Capital Market Bimal Jalan Committee (2010) Makes tougher rules for new bourses (exchanges)

Table 1 Committee Mahalanobis-Gadgil-Rao Malegaon Abid Hussain C Rangarajan C Rangarajan SP Gupta Lakdawala SD Tendulkar NC Saxena Arjun Sengupta Subimal Dutt Goswami Anwarul Hooda Kirit Parikh Deepak Parekh Rakesh Mohan Raghu Ram Rajan Narsimhan 1

Area National Income MFIs Small Scale Industries Disinvestment Financial Inclusion Employment Poverty Estimation Poverty Line Poverty Estimates Unorganised Sector Industrial Licensing Industrial Sickness Mining Policy Integrated Energy Infrastructure Railways Financial Sector Financial Sector

Narsimhan 2 Vijay Kelkar Y B Ragahavan K N Raj Masani Rajadhyaksha RK Hazari Wanchoo LK Jha Bimal Jalan Vaidynathan

Banking Sector FRBM Competition Policy Agriculture Holding Tax Road Sector Aviation Sector Industrial Sickness Tax Enquiry MODVAT Market Infrastructure Institutions (2010) Agricultrual Statistics

Communalism
Possible questions. 1. Is a communal violence bill needed? Arnt the existing provisions in law enough? 2. What are the major features of the communal violence bill? 3. How can communal harmony be promoted in the country? Suggest steps. 4. Why a law needed? Commissions of enquiry setup after every major conflagration have consistently come down heavily on the State authorities as also certain parties and organisations for their role in violence However, it is in very rare cases that perpetrators have been convicted. By and large, police and the administrative class have been left untouched by the law Hence, a carefully designed law on communal violence is the need of the hour More arguments for a separate law It can be seen that various provisions exist in the IPC to punish the perpetrators of violence. Under sections 153A and B of the IPC even hate speeches are actionable. Similarly, even a public servant can be charged under the ordinary law. So it seems that at least a section of communal or targeted violence can be dealt with under the existing criminal law. Failure to implement the law rather than its absence is one of the major problems confronting the prevention of communal violence. But caveats exist o Turning a blind eye to communal and targeted hate speech o Refusal to register FIRs or registering them without naming the culprits even when some of the perpetrators are identified o Refusal to take adequate action to disperse mobs However there are large areas where laws are absent or inadequate Mass violence is a quantitatively different category from stray individual violence. The impact and trauma of mass violence is long term and ongoing. Second, though laws exist on hate speech, they cannot be set into motion without the prior sanction of the government. In this case what really matters is which party is in power. Third, even to prosecute public servants it becomes necessary to obtain the consent of the state which is a long, tedious process. Fourth, a large number of cases in court collapse because witnesses are too frightened to depose truthfully. Though an individual witness can ask for police protection against threats there is no comprehensive witness protection law in India Fifth, while in the aftermath of every carnage, a relief and rehabilitation package is announced, there is no uniformity in these packages. There is no legislative mandate or compulsion for reparation including relief and rehabilitation. Besides, communal violence is a specific form of brutality which is required to be dealt with in a holistic and comprehensive manner since it includes within it element of hate propaganda, sexual assault, uprooting of communities, societal bias, state complicity and judicial indifference. A law which deals specifically with targeted or communal violence thus becomes necessary Communal Violence (Prevention, Control and Rehabilitation of Victims) Bill, 2005 Objective: 1. Prevention and control of communal violence 2. Speedy investigation and trials 3. Rehabilitation of victims Sets conditions for the state government to declare an area as communally disturbed. A competent authority can take measures (such as regulating assembly, directing persons to deposit their arms etc) to control communal violence. Special courts to try offences under this law. Increased punishment. Features in the draft bill 1. Union Home Minister headed 11 member national council to oversee relief and the rehabilitation of victims. <Civil society is proposing instead a Communal harmony Justice and Reparation Commission (CHJRC) with national, state and district councils and wider powers>

2. There is a provision to declare certain areas as communally disturbed. <Civil society objects to this on the ground that such declaration would give the government a free hand to use draconian laws in such areas> This bill has been amended by the NAC and a new draft introduced in 2011.

Communal Violence Bill, 2011 The draft law features Defines communal and targeted violence as o Any act or series of acts, whether spontaneous or planned, resulting in injury or harm to the person and or property, knowingly directed against any person by virtue of his or her membership of any group, which destroys the secular fabric of the nation Elaborate definition of sexual assault to cover not just women but men as well Apart from treating some of the offences under the IPC as crimes under this law, the bill also creates certain additional offences like torture, command responsibility, etc Public Servants o Penalises public servants for torture to specific groups o Penalises for dereliction of duty o Breach of command responsibility treated as an offence o Public servants with the duty of maintenance of public order also given the duty to prevent communal and targeted violence o Command Responsibility: Any public servant in command of forces who fails to exercise control over his sub-ordinates which results in offences under the bill shall be guilty of breach of command of responsibility o Emergency provisions can be invoked o The occurrence of communal and targeted violence shall constitute internal disturbance within the meaning of Article 355 of the constitution and the Central Govt may take such steps as the nature and circumstances of the case so requires. Witness protection provisions are incorporated. Accountability framework set up concerning the police. Entails the provision of relief and rehabilitation. Creates the Communal and Targeted Violence Relief and Rehabilitation Fund National Authority for communal harmony, justice and reparation o The authority can initiate investigation and enquiry into complaints Similarly, state authorities for communal harmony, justice and reparation The act waives constitutional immunity for the purpose of proceedings under the act Some issues with the draft The law applies to only the minorities religious or linguistic in a state (+ SCs and STs) o This assumes that the majority community is always the perpetrator of violence and never the victim o This criticism however misses the basic point of democracy: that majority can take care of itself but minorities need certain protection o Article 29 and 30 in the constitution are such provisions o Worldwide minorities are protected through laws blacks in US, aborigines in US Communal violence defined in terms of an act that destroys the secular fabric of the nation o This definition is liable to be misconstrued o Even large scale riots may not present an actual threat to the secular fabric of the nation. The incorporation of the emergency provision

Conclusion Amended draft of the Communal and Targeted Viiolence Bill is a major step forward. However, it needs to incorporate within it lessons learnt from recent international advancement especially in matters pertainin g to reparation and command responsibility. The chapters concerning setting up of national and state level bodies need a complete review as do the provisions concerning dereliction of duties and witness protection

Constitution
Making of the constitution 1934: Idea of constituent assembly put forward by M N Roy 1935: INC officially demands constituent assembly

1938: JL Nehrus declaration on the constitution of India 1940: Nehrus demand accepted in the form of August Offer August Offer o PM: Winston Churchill o While rejecting INCs demand for independence of India after the war on the ground that INC is not representative of the minorities, three offers were made o Expansion of Viceroys executive council with the inclusion of Indian representatives o An advisory body with the members from British India and Indian princely states which were supposed to meet at consequent intervals was established o Two practical steps were decided to be taken in which it was to come at an agreement with the Indians on the form which the post representatives body should take and the methods by which it should come to a conclusion. o It further planned to draw out the principles and outlines of the Constitution itself o Congress rejected the offer 1942: Cripps Mission o PM: Winston Churchill Sec of State: Leo Amery Viceroy: Linlithgow o On the framing of an independent constitution to be adopted after the WW II o Cripps proposals rejected by the ML which wanted India to be divided into two autonomous states 1946: Cabinet Mission o PM: Clement Attlee Viceroy: Lord Wavell o Members: Pethick Lawrence (sec of state for India), Stafford Cripps, A V Alexander o Simla Conference o May 16 plan United dominion of india would be given independence Muslim majority and Hindu majority provinces to be grouped Central government to run foreign affairs, defence and communications while rest of the responsibility would belong to the provinces, coordinated by the two groups o Interim cabinet was formed. ML joined the cabinet but decided to boycott the constituent assembly 1946, Nov: Constituent Assembly formed under the Cabinet Mission Plan First meeting of CA on December 9, 1946. Sacchidanada Sinha was elected the temporary Presidetn Dec 11, 1946: Rajendra Prasad and H C Mukharjee elected as the President and VP of the assembly respectively. BN Rao was the constitutional advisor to the assembly Dec 13, 1946: Objectives Resolution moved by JL Nehru Jan 22, 1947: Objectives resolution adopted June 3, 1947: Mountbatten plan. Partition of the country announced. Jan 24, 1950: Final session of the CA. It however continued as a provisional body from Jan 26, 1950 till the formation of the new Parliament after the first general elections in 1951-52 Major Committees of CA Committee Chairman Union Powers Committee JL Nehru Union Constitution Committee JL Nehru Committee for Negotiating with States JL Nehru Steering Committee Rajendra Prasad Rules of Procedure Committee Rajendra Prasad Provincial Constitution Committee Sardar Patel Committee on Fundamental Rights and Sardar Patel Minorities. (J B Kriplani, H C Mukharjee) Two sub committees ( FR , Minorities) Drafting Committee B R Ambedkar Drafting Committee was setup on Aug 29, 1947. It had seven members o B R Ambedkar o Alladi Krisnaswamy Ayyer o N Gopalaswamy Ayyangar

o K M Munshi o TT Krishnamchari o N Madhava Rau o Syed Mohammad Saadullah Nov 26, 1949: Constitution was adopted The Preamble was enacted after the entire Constitution was already enacted Governor Same person can be appointed the governor of two or more states Appointed by the President May resign by writing to the President Qualification o Citizen of India o 35 years of age Art 161: Pardon for any offence against a law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the state extends Constitution does not state the procedure or the grounds for the removal of the Governor Council of Ministers The advice tendered by the CoM cannot be enquired in a court Number of ministers in the CoM (including the PM) cannot exceed 15 pc of the total number of members of LS (91st amendment, 2003) If a person is disqualified under the 10th schedule (defection), he cannot become a minister Art 75(3): Collective responsibility Attorney General Article 76 Should be qualified to be appointed as a judge of the SC Right of audience in all courts in the territory of India Has the right to take part in the proceedings of either houses, without the right to vote. Parliament Consists of the President, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha Six months should not intervene between consecutive sessions The president shall address a joint sitting of both the houses at the first session of every year and at the first session after the general elections The Chairman and Speaker can vote only in case of equality of votes Quorum: One-tenth of the total number of members of the House MPs resign by addressing their resignation to the Speaker of the Chairman If a member is continuously absent for 60 days without permission for all the meetings of the House, his seat is declared vacant Article 102: grounds for disqualification. o 5 grounds Decision on questions as to disqualification of members shall be referred to the President and his decision shall be final. The President, in giving his decision, shall act in accordance with the advice of the Election Commission Joint sitting: If passed by one house and rejected by the other, disagreement between houses on the amendments to the bill, more than six months has passed and the other house has not passed the bill Joint sitting does not apply to Money Bills Council of States Elected members: 238 from state and union territories o Allocation of seats given in the 4th schedule Nominated members: 12 o From field of Literature, science, art and social service Elected members of the states to be elected by respective Legislative Assembly by proportional representation by means of single transferrable vote Representatives of UTs to be chosen as Parliament may by law prescribe 1/3 members retire every 2 years At least 30 years of age Deputy Chairman can resign by addressing to the Chairman Most RS seats: UP>Maharashtra>TN=AP>Bihar=WB>Karnataka

States with only one RS seat: Arunachal, Goa, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura States with least RS seats: Above 8<HP=Uttaranchal<J&K<Haryana=CG UTs: Delhi-3, Puducherry-1, Rest-zero House of People 530 members from states by direct elections 20 from UTs chosen in a manner prescribed by the Parliament 2 nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community if it is not represented Ratio of LS seats allocated to a state and its population should be same across states o This may not be followed if the population of the state is less than 6 million Population kept as frozen till the census taken after 2026 o For LS constituency allotment to states: 1971 census data used o For defining boundaries of constituencies: 2001 census data used At least 25 years of age Speaker can resign by addressing to the Dy Speaker. The latter can resign by addressing to the Speaker When LS is dissolved, the Speaker shall not vacate his office until immediately before the first meeting of the LS after its dissolution Whenever the Deputy Speaker is appointed as a member of a parliamentary committee, he automatically becomes its chairman Most LS seats: UP>Maharashtra>AP=WB>Bihar>TN States with one LS seat: Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim Least LS seats: Above 3<Manipur=Meghalaya=Goa=AP=Tripura<HP<Uttaranchal<J&K UTs: Delhi(7), Puducherry(2), Rest -1 Reserved for SC: UP 17, WB - 10 Reserved for ST: MP 6, Jharkhand, Orissa 5, CG, Gujarat, Maharashtra 4

Fundamental Rights Discrimination not on grounds only of o Art 15: religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth o Art 16: religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence Reservation o First Backward Classes Commission: 1953, Kaka Kalelkar o Second BCC: 1979, B P Mandal (by Morarji Desai govt) o Article 340 Reasonable Restrictions o Speech and Expression: sovereignty and integrity of India, security of the state, friendly relations with foreign states, public order, decency or morality, contempt of court, defamation and incitement to an offence o Assembly: sovereignty and integrity of India and public order o Association: sovereignty and integrity of India, public order and morality o Movement: interest of general public and the protection of interests of any scheduled tribe o Residence: interest of general public and the protection of interests of any scheduled tribe o Profession: in the interest of the general public Protection against self-incrimination does not extend to civil proceedings Protection provided under normal detention in Art 22 not covers arrest under the orders of a court, civil arrest, arrest on failure to pay the income tax and deportation of an alien The president doesnt sit in Parliament. Why is he still consider an integral part of it? Because a bill passed by the Parliament cannot become a law unless it receives Presidents assent He also performs certain functions relating to the parliament eg, summoning and proroguing the sessions, issuing ordinances, addressing both the houses What does Rajya Sabha consist of? Representative of states o By elected members of state legislative assemblies Representatives of Union Territories

o By members of an electoral college constituted specially for this purpose Nominated members o From field of Art, Science, literature and social service. But, why have nominated members? To provide eminent persons a place in the RS without going through the process of election Why was proportional representation not adopted for election to LS? Difficulty for the voters to understand the system due to low literacy rate in the country Unsuitability to the parliamentary government due to the tendency of the system to multiply political parties leading to instability in government Disqualification of an MP Disqualification conditions mentioned in the constitution o Decided by the President on the advice of the EC Disqualification on the ground of defection (10th Schedule) o Decided by the Speaker/Chairman. Open to judicial review In what cases does a MP vacate his seat? Disqualification Resignation Absence Double Membership Some other cases Distinction between SC and HC Appointment of Judges SC A distinguished jurist can be appointed a judge Till 65 Jurisdiction cannot be curtained as mentioned in the constitution. Other jurisdiction and powers can be changed by the Parliament. In matters relating disputes between centre and states or between states HC Constitution does not make provision for appointment of a distinguished jurist Till 62 Ditto. Other jurisdiction and powers can be changed by both the Parliament and the State legislature. Some imp: 1. Disputes relating to the election of members of Parliament and state legislatures Can issue for fundamental rights and for any other purpose

Tenure of judges Jurisdiction

Original jurisdiction

Writ Jurisdiction

Can issue only for enforcement of fundamental rights

Posts Post State Public Service Commission HC Judge

Appointment Governor President in consultation with the CJI and the governor of the state

Removal President Same as SC judges

Taxes 1. Levied Centre Collected State Appropriated State Example Stamp duty on some bills of exchange, Excise duty on some medicinal prep

2.

Centre

Centre + State

Centre + State

3. 4.

Centre Centre

Centre Centre

State Centre+ State

5. 6.

State Centre

State Centre

State Centre

containing alcohol Service Tax (88th amendment. Rule of appropriation decided by the Parliament) Some taxes on inter-state trade All other taxes expect those mentioned above and below (division decided by the FC) Wealth, Sales, some excise etc Surcharges on taxes referred to 3 and 4

Grants in aid Statutory grants on the recommendation of the FC. There are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India every year Discretionary grants on the recommendation of the Planning Commission These days discretionary grants > statutory grants Charged expenditure CAG UPSC CG, Jharkhand, MP and Orissa have to have a minister for tribal affairs. How is original jurisdiction of SC different wrt disputes of federal nature and those relating to fundamental rights? Ans: In federal cases SC has exclusive original jurisdiction whereas in writ cases SC has original jurisdiction which is not exclusive. It shares it with the high courts. Secondly, the parties involved in the first case are units of the federation while in the second case it is between a citizen and the government.

Various Constitutional Posts CAG UPSC

SPSC

EC

Nat Comm SC 338. By 65th amendment (1990) as Nat Comm of SC and ST President

Nat Comm ST 338A <89th amendment >

Article

148

315-323

315-323

324

Offi Ling Min 350 Ame 195

Appointment

By president

Chairman and Members by President

Governor (but can be removed only by President)

President

President

Chair, VC, 3 members Qualification None None (except half the members govt servants>=10 yrs None (except half the members govt servants>=1 0 yrs Max six years till 62 years. Single term President <same as UPSC>

Tenure

Max six years till 65 years Same manner and ground as SC judge

Max six years till 65 years. Single term. By president: Insolvent, outside employment, infirmity of mind or body. Also misbehaviour <has to refer to SC. Binding advice> Chairman: Not under the govt or state (except governor). Members: Only as UPSC or SPSC chairman

Max six years till 65

Determined by Pres. Hold office for 3 years

Determined by Pres. Hold office for 3 years

Removal

Further employment

Not eligible under centre or state govt

Chairman: As Chairman of UPSC of any other SPSC but no other under govt. Members: Same except that they can also be appointed as same SPSC chairman

CEC: Same manner and ground at SC judge Members: cannot be removed without the recommendation of the CEC Not debarred from any further employment

Service conditions

Determined by Parliament

Others

By president. Jurisdiction can be extended by parliament President can exclude posts, services and matters from

Similar to that of SC Judge

Governor can exclude posts, services and

Can regulate its own procedure

Bifurcated after 89th amendment (2003). So

HQ: Alla Reg offic

purview of SPSC. Rejected recommendations to be approved by the Appointments Committee

matters from purview of SPSC

Powers of civil court Also enquires matters relating to OBCs and Anglo Indians

came into being in 2004 Can regulate its own procedure Powers of civil court

Be Ch Ko

Fa the of Aff

Other Bodies Estd PC 1950 executive resolution NDC 1952 executive resolution NHRC 1993 Statutory SHRC 1993 - Statutory CVC 1964 executive res 2003 statute 1 CVC, 2 VC CIC 2005 statute

Composition

Qualification

1 Chair, 4 Members, 4 exofficio members (Chair of Nat com of SC, ST, Minorities, Women) Chair: Ex CJI Members: Ex or serving SC/ HC judge; 2 persons having human rights knowledge or experience President on recommendation of six member committee PM, Speaker, Dy Chair (RS), Leaders of Opposition in Both Houses, Home Min 5 years or till age of 70

1 Chair, 2 Members

1 CIC and <=10 members. Persons of eminence in public life etc.

Appointment

Chair: Ex CJI of HC Members: Ex or serving HCJ/ Dist J min 7 year exp and a person having knowledge of HR By Governor on recommendation of committee ( centre counterparts)

President 3 member committee

President by committee: PL, Leader of Opp in LS, a Cabinet Minister

Tenure

5 yrs of till age 70

4 years or till age of 65

5 years of 65 age. No reappointment. IC can be appointed as CIC but total term <= 5years

Further employment Removal

No By President. Same as UPSC.

No By President. Same as UPSC.

No By President. Same as UPSC. Same as By President. Same as UPSC. Same as EC/

Conditions

By Central Govt

By State Govt

of services Powers

Of a civil court. Can look into a matter only within one year of its occurance.

Powers of Civil court. Can look into a matter only within one year of its occurrence. Can enquire only on HR violations in matters relating to state list and concurrent list.

UPSC Powers of a civil court

SC Powers of a civil court

If you know this, you know that CIC State IC

Corruption
United Nations Convention against Corruption 2003 First legally binding international anti-corruption instrument Obliges its state parties to implement a wide and detailed range of anti-corruption measures affecting their laws, institutions and practices India ratified it in 2011

To check corruption Institutional Changes A single, empowered Lokpal needs to be established. It should be empowered to investigate and prosecute politicians, bureaucrats and judges. While CVC and CAG are independent, they are merely advisory bodies to the govt. They need to be strengthened. CVC can be merged with the institution of lokpal Major corruption cases exposed in 2010 Commonwealth Games 2G spectrum allocation Adarsh Society Case, Maharashtra Land Scam, Yeddurappa, Karnataka LIC Housing Scam <Niira Radia tapes> Proposition: Corruption exists and is high Report published by Global Financial Integrity showed that corruption, tax evasion and trade mispricing have cost India hundreds of billions of dollars over the past several years o The study pointed out that the process had gained momentum after the opening up of the economy in 1991 Issues Increasing nexus between corporate and politics: A rise in corruption could be attributed to this nexus. Corporates are trying to manipulate government in multiple ways to have their way in business <ref. 2G spectrum and Radia tapes> Dealing with the issues We need a truly independent CBI to get to the bottom of the cases. o Right now, CBI seems to be manipulable by the political masters. o In the 2G case, SC is directing CBI. One possibility could be to make CBI answerable to the judiciary instead of the executive to enhance its independence. 4th ARC report on Ethics in Governance has recommended a large number of measures which could enhance probity among public servants 1. Amendment of the Prevention of Corruption Act 2. Delegating powers to grant sanction of prosecution to an empowered committee 3. Fixing time limit for trial of anti-corruption cases 4. enhancing powers of the CVC 5. Repeal article 311 6. Creating a multi-member Lokayukta 7. Simplifying disciplinary procedures 8. Creating mechanism which can empower citizens to seek legal relief against fraudulent claims against the government 9. Confiscation of property acquired by corrupt means 10. Ensuring accessibility and responsiveness of government functionaries 11. Adopting measures to protect honest civil servants Serious Fraud Investigation Office (SFIO) Under the ministry of corporate affairs For detecting and prosecuting or recommending for prosecution white-collar crimes/frauds Corporate corruption Insider trading: Rajat Gupta, Rajaratnam KG Basin: Reliance Niira Radia tapes

 Satyam Indias Black Economy In late 2010 and early 2011 there was a huge outcry regarding Indias black economy as news about secret foreign bank accounts of Indians started pouring in. In addition, the Global Financial Integrity Report claimed that independent India had lost $462 bn due to illegal financial outflow The government was pulled up by the SC to disclose the names of individuals who had funds stacked away in foreign banks To deal with the issue, India inked Tax Information Exchange Agreement (TIEA) with five taxhavens by March 2011. These are: Bahamas, Isle of Man, British Virgin Islands, Caymen Islands and Bermuda o Purpose of TIEA is to promote international cooperation in tax matters through exchange of information. Wanchoo committee o 1971 o Estimated the size of black economy Reasons for Black money <can divide it into pre liberalisation and post liberalisation> 1. Structure of taxation 2. Price control policy 3. Quota and license system 4. Scarcity of commodities 5. General election 6. Share market 7. Real estate 8. International Activities 9. Privatisation 10. Police force Impact of black money o May remain idle or often gets invested in unproductive activities o Deprives govt of the tax revenue How to curb it o Special courts should be established to dispose the corruption cases o Pranab Mukharjees five pronged approach: joining the global crusade against black money; creating an appropriate legislative framework; setting up institutions for dealing with illicit funds; developing systems for implementation; and imparting skills to the manpower for effective action Devils advocate Some people argue that black economy also generates jobs and production o A lot of goods are bought in the market using black incomes, and that leads to increase in production and employment o Black economy generates informal sector employment and helps the poor o Some argue for bribes as speed money There is some truth in these claims but the costs of black economy exceed its benefits. Counterattack for those who justify black money Speed money: In order to extract a bribe, the bureaucracy first slows down work and harasses the public. If work was automatically done, why would anyone pay bribes? The administration becomes rundown since rather than devising ways to work efficiently, it is busy thinking of ways to make money by setting up roadblocks to efficient functioning. Much of black economy in India is like digging holes and filling them. Activity without productivity. Because of the growing black economy, policies fail both at the macro-level and the microlevel. The flight of capital lowers the employment potential and the level of output in the economy The direct and indirect costs are of policy failures, unproductive investments, slower development, higher inequity, environmental destruction and a lower rate of growth of the economy At the social level, the cost is a loss of faith in society and its functioning. Various committees on corruption 1956: Kaldor Report

 1964: Santhanam Committee 1971: Wanchoo Committee 1979: Dagli Committee 1985: NIPFP Report 2002: Kelkar Committee Movements Against Corruption 1972: Nav Nirman 2011: Anna movement Lokpal Bill Major differences between the Lokpal and Jan Lokpal drafts Table 1 Jan Lokpal Selection Panel Two elected politicians, four serving judges and two independent constitutional authorities Search committee <this is a 10 members: 5 from former body to ensure countrywide senior judiciary, CAG and CEC, search and co-option in a and five to be co-opted from the transparent manner of the best civil society talents in the country> Investigation After a preliminary enquiry the accused is associated for questioning or interrogation as per the law not prior hearings to share his defence or selfincrimination. He produces his defence before the judicial courts as is under the law.

Lokpal Six elected politicians (five from the ruling establishment), two serving judges and two officials. No such provision for accommodating the representatives from the civil society Enquiry - > report to Lokpal -> hearing of the accused > investigation -> one more hearing before the final chargesheet.

Team Annas demands Selection of the Lokpal be done by a committee as proposed in the Jan Lokpal bill Provision of Lokayuktas in the states to deal with public servants of the state. <Creation of Lokayukta is within the purview of the state governments. For the parliament to pass a law to force them to do so, might seem to go against the principles of federalism> Wide jurisdiction of the Lokpal Put in place a grievance redressal system There were six major areas of differences between the government and the Jan Lokapal bill 1. Should one single Act be provided for the Lokpal in the centre and Lokayukta in the states? Would the states be willing to accept a draft provision for the Lokayukta on the same lines as that of the Lokpal? 2. Should the PM be brought under the Lokpal? If so, should there be a qualified inclusion? 3. Should judges of the SC/HC be brought within its purview? 4. Should the conduct of MPs in Parliament be brought within the purview of the Lokpal? 5. Whether Articles 311 and 320(3)(c) of the constitution notwithstanding members of a civil service be subject to enquiry and disciplinary action including dismissal by the Lokpal/ Lokayukta, as the case may be? 6. What should be the definition of the Lokpal, and should it itself exercise quasi-judicial powers also or delegate these powers to its sub-ordinate offices? Report of parliamentary standing committee on Lokpal <Nov 10, 2011> Recommended o Exclusion of lower bureaucracy from purview of Lokpal o Parliament to decide whether PM should be included o Group C and D officers should be covered by the respective state Lokayuktas or by the CVC at the central level

Role of CAG Following cases of scam were brought forth recently by CAG 2G spectrum CWG Reliance KG Basin In order to make the institution of CAG more robust, it has proposed the following amendments to the Audit Act 1971: Amendment to ensure that the government departments reply to audit enquiries in 30 days rather than in the open-ended manner as of now. CAG wants the statute to stipulate a clear timeframe for the tabling of completed audit reports on the floor of the relevant legislature. Bringing the CAGs legal mandate up to speed with the changes that have taken place in the way public money is spent. Because of ambiguities in its mandate the CAG feels unable to adequately audit all areas of public economic activity. <eg, the new institutions after the 73 rd and 74th amendment, public-private partnerships after liberalisation> Adapt audit approach to keep pace with the latest fiscal developments. Types of audit o Regulatory Audit: CAGs current function. Auditing whether the money used was legally available and spent through the right authority. o Performance Audit: looking at the economy and appropriateness of spending. Could the spending be done in a more efficient manner to get the maximum returns out of the expenditure? Good opportunity for CAG to have a proactive role in many areas including: o Poor implementation of the FRBM Act 2003 and obsession with showing achievement of quantitative budget deficit with the help of revenue buoyancy and one time receipt like spectrum auction o 13th finance commission has suggested a review mechanism to be set up for evaluating the fiscal reform problems. CAG can contribute valuable inputs for this reform process. o Output and outcome budgeting: Need to move from the former to the latter. CAG can do some case studies of output/outcome budgeting and focus on the system defects for corrective action. Introduction of management accounting was one of the goals when audit was separated from accounts in 1976. This is still a paper goal and accounts are still considered by the ministries as a statutory nuisance. Some examples of lack of transparency in government finances o Govts contingent liabilities shown in the budget document do not indicate the default position of the borrowers. o The figures of fiscal deficits need more amplification. Quasi-fiscal deficit should be explicitly stated. Many cases of understatement of expenditure are noticeable. For example, oil subsidies do not reflect the full annual subsidy payable by the government. 150 Years of CAG in 2010 An evaluation 1860 The findings of Audit should not only be reported to the President and Parliament as close to the events as possible, but also made known simultaneously to the media and public, with some explanations to aid understanding Several reports of the CAG have matters that have not been discussed. A way should be devised so that CAG reports are more effectively discussed There is a criticism of overreach when Audit widens its horizons and attempts to examine efficiency or cost-effectiveness or propriety. The criticism is untenable because any meaningful audit must necessarily go into these aspects, and the supreme audit institutions of many countries do as a matter of course. When faced with executive intransigence, the CAG does not have enough powers to compel cooperation. The CAG needs to take a lead in using the relevant constitutional provisions to make the institution stronger The process of selection of such an important constitutional functionary should be open, objective and credible.

Beyond the spectrum The enormity and complexity of government budget throw a special burden on CAG The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) has been in limelight recently for his report on the irregularities and loss of revenue to the Central Exchequer in allotment of spectrum licences. Public awareness and appreciation of the role of CAG, especially in the media, is to be welcomed. As the supreme auditor of the government, it is his responsibility to check that collection of revenue and spending of public money is done properly according to rules and regulations. It is a creditable achievement to unravel all the ramifications of this complex transaction and bring out a comprehensive report without fear or favour. This is time to recognise the wider role CAG can play in the larger context of economic development and fiscal consolidation. On behalf of Parliament and the public, CAG is responsible to check that public revenue is collected and public expenditure is incurred in the most efficient and lawful manner. India is a welfare state and the government is implementing a number of schemes and projects under the five-year plans, resorting to borrowing. The enormity and complexity of government budget throws a special burden on CAG. The budget estimate of revenue receipts for the current year is Rs.6.80 lakh crore and total expenditure Rs.11 lakh crore financed through substantial borrowing. The CAG's role extends to see that the budget is implemented to achieve the government's objective of promoting development with fiscal prudence. Two areas for such non-routine audit can be identified ouput/outcome budget and fiscal responsibility legislation. One major factor in public expenditure of a modern welfare state is the wide range and complexity of functions, schemes and projects undertaken by the government to promote all inclusive economic growth. This has altered the budget formulation in a significant way. The budget is no longer a mere financial budget. Now the emphasis is on what is expected from the large scale spending. Efficiency and effectiveness became the key words. The physical output from the financial input is reflected in the budget. The country has followed this world-wide trend by introducing budgetary reforms. The annual performance budget was introduced to highlight financial and physical aspects of major schemes and programmes of all ministries dealing with development activities. Even after 25 years, this did not bring any significant improvement in efficiency and effectiveness in public expenditure. Presenting the Central budget for 2005-06, the then Finance Minister announced putting in place a mechanism to measure the development outcomes of all major programmes to ensure that programmes and schemes are not allowed to continue from one Plan period to another without an independent and in-depth evaluation.'' Outcome budget The output/outcome budget is a complex task. It involves the following criteria. Defining and measuring the output and the outcome from expenditure. The output refers to physical measure of production and the outcomes deal with the effect of the policy and impact (Example: assets from expenditure on irrigation projects are dams and canals and the outcome is the increase in crop production and the efficient use of water. School and hospital buildings are the assets to be completed within timeframe and cost estimates, but the outcome is the quality of education and medical care). Realistic cost assumptions to link financial budget provision with targeted output/outcome; Designing a suitable system of financial and physical data; System for internal check, monitoring and corrective action when needed; and Presenting an annual analytical statement comparing the actual financial and physical performance with that of budget estimates and targets. If the new outcome budget is to fare better than the earlier performance budget and become a practical management tool, a special CAG audit of a few select cases will throw up the problems in adhering to the criteria mentioned above and any system weakness. Omission of substantial non-Plan expenditure such as operation of schools, hospitals, irrigation projects from the output/outcome budget is a major flaw. Expenditure on public private partnership (PPP) and direct transfer of funds to non-government bodies do not come under this output/outcome discipline. CAG can marshal data to draw attention to this lacuna in expenditure management. Fiscal prudence

Another important subject for the audit scanner is action or rather non-action to inculcate fiscal prudence in government expenditure. A historic landmark in fiscal history is the enactment of the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act, 2003, by Parliament. It prescribes targets and ceilings for the budget deficits and thereby borrowings by government to finance expenditure. This is a commendable and timely legislation to control spending on non-priority and non-productive areas by taking loans. It also calls for a long-term view of fiscal prudence and sustainable public debt through Medium Term Fiscal Plan (MTFP) beyond the annual budget. But the implementation of this Act suffers from serious defects. Achievement of quantitative deficit targets is taken an end in itself and not as a means for achieving fiscal prudence. Deficit management has been done with the help of buoyancy in revenue, especially through disinvestment and revenue from spectrum auctions, off budget items and other means. Reform in expenditure policy and management has been put on the backburner. The MTFP presented with the annual budget is not supported by disaggregated data on revenue and expenditure projections and the underlying assumptions. There is no road map based on identification of the numerous specific problems in budget formulation, revenue mobilisation and expenditure policy and implementation with a time-bound action plan. An in-depth special audit by CAG of the implementation of the FRBM Act will be timely. CAG has the power and access to data for doing this. The Comptroller and Auditor General can recruit any technical staff needed for this nonroutine audit (already an officer of Indian Economic Service has been taken on deputation). If this audit is done with a proper perspective, it can dispel the mistaken negative impression of audit as only a fault finder of individual irregularities.

Defense
Indias Defence System Worlds largest arms importer Third largest military force in the world Defence budget: Number of commands <head> o Army: 7 <Lieutenant generals> o IAF: 5 operational and two functional commands <Air Marshal> o Navy: 4 commands <Vice Admiral> Indian navy is only one of the six navies in the world to have nuclear capability IAF: fourth largest air force Indian Coast Guard: 1978 through the Coast Guard Act Major Operations of the Armed forces Army Operation Polo (1948) Operation to annex the princely state of Hyderabad Chiefs Army

Gen. V K Singh (PVSM, AVSM, YSM, ADC) 26th General Rajput regiment Succeeded Deepak Kapoor First Chief: Robert McGregor Mcdonald Lockard First Indian Chief: Field Marshal K M Cariappa Gen Pran Nath Thapar was Chief during Indo-China war <V K Krishna Menon was Defence Minister> Gen Joyanto Nath Chaudhuri during 1965 war Field Marshal Manekshaw during 1971 war Gen Ved Prakash Malik during Kargil conflict

Weapons Aircraft Carrier INS Viraat -The oldest carrier in service. - Centaur Class -Commissioned in 1959 as Royal Navys HMS Hermes and transferred to India in 1987 -The only carrier in service in Indian Navy as of 2011 -Soviet: Admiral Gorshkov - Kiev Class - To enter Indian service in 2012 - entered service in 1987 -Indigenous -Under construction -Retired in 1997

INS Vikramaditya

Vikrant Class INS Vishal INS Vikrant

Submarines Akula-II <INS Chakra> -Lease from Russia. For training purpose - Nuclear powered attack submarine -Can deliver nuclear missiles to

INS Arihant

Scorpene class

range of 300 km -nuclear powered ballistic missile submarines -launched in 2009 -Indias first Indigenously designed and built submarine -Constructed as a part of the Indian Navys Advanced Technology Vessel Project -diesel electric attack submarine -developed by French DCN and Spanish company Navantia -India has 6 -multi role frigates with stealth features -first warships being build in India with such features -lead vessel commissioned in 2010 -built by Mazagon dock limited -built by Russia -this was the predecessor of Shivalik

Frigate Shivalik Class

Talwar class

Multimission Maritime Aircraft Aircrafts

Boeing P-8 Poseidon

HAL Tejas

HAL Marut

Helicopter

HAL Dhruv

Medium altitude long endurance unmanned aeriel vehicle Missiles

DRDO Rustom

-indigenous -lightweight multirole jet fighter -tailless -Received Initial Operating Clearance in Jan 2011 -Second supersonic fighter manufactured indigenously by HAL after HAL Marut 1960s -retired in 1985 -indigenous -multi-role helicopter -indigenous -2002 -exported to several countries including Israel, Burma, Nepal and Equador -will replace Heron UAVs

Brahmos

Astra

Shourya

-Worlds fastest cruise missile <2.8 mach> Range: 290 km -Already inducted into army and navy. -beyond visual range air-to-air missile -ranges beyond 20 nm -under test -hypersonic missile (7-8 mach) -range: 700 km

Prithvi I Prithvi II Prithvi III (Dhanush) Agni (medium to intercontinental range ballistic missiles) Agni I Agni II Agni II Prime (aka Agni IV) Agni III Agni V (under development) Agni VI (under development) LCA Program

Surface to surface missile Land variant of K-15 missile (which is launched under the water) Army version 150 km Air Force Version 250 km Naval Version 350 km

Medium range (500-700 km) Intermediate range (2000-2500 km) 2500-3000 km Intermediate (3000-5500 km) Intercontinental (5000 km) Intercontinental (10000 km)

Improvement Program Futuristic Infantry Soldier As a System (F-INSAS) It is Indias program to equip the infantry with state of the art equipment Indias nuclear missiles and nuclear warheads are handled by the Strategic Forces Command. It was created in 2003. It is a part of the Nuclear Command Authority. PM heads the NCA. Indias Joint Defence Exercises Name Shatrujeet Yudh Abhyas Vajra Prahar INDRA Garuda Indradhanush Malabar SIMBEX Konkan Varuna IBSAMAR EKUVERIN Vanguard: US-China MCRA Competition IAF Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft Competition bid to supply 126 multi-role combat aircraft to the IAF. Indias single largest defence deal (USD 9.37 bn) 2 of the 6 competing fighter jets have been shortlisted o Eurofighter Typhoon (built by consortium of three countries) o Dassault Rafale (France)

Type Military Military Military Military Air Force Air Force Naval Naval Naval Naval Naval

With country? USA USA USA Russia France UK USA Singapore UK French Joint naval exercise of India, Brazil and SA India-Maldives

Disability
<refer Shankar notes> First global report on disability o 1 billion disabled people worldwide: 15 pc of the global population Despite all the shift towards inclusion, disabled people remain second class citizens according to WHO and WB Barriers/Problems o Stigma/negative social attitude o Discrimination o Lack of adequate healthcare and rehabilitation services o Inaccessible transport, buildings and information/built environment o A large proportion of the physically challenged are not even aware of their entitlements o India Census 2001: 2.19 crore persons with disabilities in India (2.13% of the total population) India is a signatory to the Proclamation on the Full Participation and Equality of People with Disabilities in the Asian and the Pacific Region. The Persons with Disabilties (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 o <notes> o Provides for the Office of the Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities which has been mandated to take steps to safeguard the rights of the persons with disabilities Compliance with the recommendations in the law has been extremely uneven o Because it says that the concerned organisations/governments/local bodies should adopt these measures within the limits of their economic capacity and development Other initiatives by the govt Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India, 1972 National Handicapped Finance and Development Corporation Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992 National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disability Act, 1999 National Policy for Persons with Disabilities 2006 o Physical rehab o Educational rehab o Economic rehab New legislation for persons with Disabilities has been proposed Some local level initiatives for inclusion Mayurbhanj District Administration (Orissa) launched an initiative called Window of Hope o Re-engineering of complex government processes to suit the needs of the differently abled peoples

Disasters
Nuclear Catastrophes International Nuclear Event Scale Introduced in 1990 by IAEA Enables prompt communication of safety significance in case of nuclear accidents Logarithmic There are 7 levels: 3 incident levels and 4 accident levels Level 7 Major accident: Chernobyl, 1986 Level 6 Kyshtym disaster (Mayak, Soviet Union), 1957 Level 5 Three Mile Island US, 1979; Windscale Fire (UK), 1957 Chernobyl Disaster Three Mile Island Disaster 2011 Japan Nuclear Disaster At the three reactor units at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power station Located in the town of Okuma in the Futaba District of Fukushima Prefecture, Japan. Combined capacity of 4.7 GW. What caused it? o The earthquake caused a power failure o The subsequent tsunami knocked out the generators that produced the power o Lack of power in turn caused the cooling systems of the reactors to fail o This led to a partial meltdown in the three reactors Background o Fukushima 1 reactor went critical in 1971 o All the three are Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) and use demineralised water for cooling nuclear fuel Methods that can be adopted to avoid a meltdown o Pump sea water to reduce the heat o Boric acid is an excellent neutron absorber. Using it would reduce the chances of nuclear reactions restarting even if the fuel is found loose inside the reactor core. o Nuclear Safety The disaster has re-ignited the debate on the safety of nuclear power AERB should be made an independent regulator Earthquakes Ring of fire in the pacific ocean Largest Earthquakes by Magnitude o Valdivia, Chile, 1960: 9.5 o Prince Sound Willaim, Alaska, 1964: 9.2 o Sumatra, Indonesia, 2004: 9.1 o Kamchatka, USSR, 1952: 9 o Sendai, Japan, 2011: 9 Tsunami Intensity measured by the Soloviev-Imamura tsunami intensity scale. Major Tsunamis o 2011: Japan o 2004: Indian Ocean o 1908: Messina, Italy

Drama
Origins Origins of Indian theatre not very well known Drawings on caves show that dance, music and drama were an intrinsic part of the life of the people Sitabengona and Jogimara (Ramgarh, MP) have structures that are possibly the oldest theatres of the world IVC: a seal shows a person beating drum while other disguised as a tiger A few hymns of the Rig Veda are in the monologue and dialogue form Natyashastra evolved some guidelines for drama Folk Theatre vs Classical Sanskrit Theatre Table 1 Classical Sanskrit Place of Normally performed privately performance or semi-privately in palaces or rich homes, or in temple courts Auditorium Design of auditorium described in Natyashastra. Stage Use features like backstage, front-stage, wings and curtains Themes Plays written by dramatists well structured. Themes of love, grief, myths etc

Folk Performed in open grounds or in pandals

Modern Auditoriums

Folk legends and myths. Later themes focusing on social conditions became important Spontaneous, simple and sometimes crude. Combines music, dance and acting More regional in form

Dramas began to take up social themes, voice political unrest, express resentment against alien rule

Acting

Other characteristics

Actors use rich gesture language and facial expressions to communicate effectively atmosphere and situation Standard form

Prominent folk theatre forms Kerala o Mudiyettu Ritualistic dance drama Performed annually in Kali temples Signifies triumph of good over evil as Kali vanquishes the demon Darika Included in UNESCO list of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity (2010) o Krishnattam o Kudiyattam (Sanskrit theatre) o Theyyam Assam o Anika Nat (one act play) Rajasthan o Bhavai o Khyal (dance drama) Haryana o Saang Kashmir o Jashin Himachal Pradesh o Karyala Maharashtra o Tamasha

TN: Therukkothu Bengal, Orissa: Yatra Goa: Zatra UP: Nautanki MP: Macha North India in general o Rasleela o Ramleela Important Dramatists Classical Asvaghosa - Buddhacharita Kalidasa Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghduta, Kumarsambhava Bhasa - Madhyamavyayoga Shudrak - Mricchkatika Vishakahdatta - Madrarakshasa Bhavabhuti Mahaveercharita Modern Dinbandhu Mitra Neeldarpan Aga Hashra Kashmiri (aka Indian Shakespeare?) Bhartendu Harishchandra Jaishankar Prasad Habib Tanveer Mitti ki Gadi, Charandas Chor Mohan Rakesh Ashadha ka ek din Dharamveer Bharti Andha Yug Vijay Tendulkar Shantata Court Chalu Ahe, Ghasiram Kotwal Girish Karnad Tughlaq, Yayati Puppet Theatre Rajasthani Kathaputli o Legend of Amarsingh Rathore is very popular Orissa: Sakhi Kundhei Assam: Putla Nach Maharashtra: Malasutri Bahuly Karnataka: Gombeyatta TN: Bommalattam Kerala: Tolpavakoothy AP: Tholu Bomalata Modern Drama New theatre movement was initiated in Bengal and Maharashtra Influence of Europeans European plays translated and staged Themes: Dramas began to take up social themes, voice political unrest, express resentment against alien rule o Deenbandhu Mitras Neeldarpan took the theme of the plight of the indigo plantation workers o Krishnaji Prabhakar Khadilkars Kichaka Vadha relected nationalist sentiments Indian Peoples Theatre Association (IPTA) became a part of the mass struggle of peasants, youth and workers o It was the cultural wing of the CPI Parsi theatre aimed at entertainment Maharashtra o Indian National Theatre o Prithvi Theatre Government Initiatives National School of Drama, 1959

Economy

Depository Receipt A depositary receipt (DR) is a type of negotiable (transferable) financial security that is traded on a local stock exchange but represents a security, usually in the form of equity, that is issued by a foreign publicly listed company. The DR, which is a physical certificate, allows investors to hold shares in equity of other countries. One of the most common types of DRs is the American depositary receipt (ADR), which has been offering companies, investors and traders global investment opportunities since the 1920s. Global Depository Receipt A bank certificate issued in more than one country for shares in a foreign company. The shares are held by a foreign branch of an international bank. The shares trade as domestic shares, but are offered for sale globally through the various bank branches. Global Depository Receipts facilitate trade of shares, and are commonly used to invest in companies from developing or emerging markets. American Depositary Receipt An American Depositary Receipt (abbreviated ADR) represents ownership in the shares of a nonU.S. company that trades in U.S. financial markets. The stock of many non-US companies trade on US stock exchanges through the use of ADRs. ADRs enable U.S. investors to buy shares in foreign companies without the hazards or inconveniences of cross-border & cross-currency transactions. ADRs carry prices in US dollars, pay dividends in US dollars, and can be traded like the shares of USbased companies. Each ADR is issued by a U.S. depositary bank and can represent a fraction of a share, a single share, or multiple shares of the foreign stock. Commercial Paper An unsecured, short-term debt instrument issued by a corporation, typically for the financing of accounts receivable, inventories and meeting short-term liabilities. Maturities on commercial paper rarely range any longer than 270 days. The debt is usually issued at a discount, reflecting prevailing market interest rates. Qualified Institutional Placement - QIP A designation of a securities issue given by the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) that allows an Indian-listed company to raise capital from its domestic markets without the need to submit any pre-issue filings to market regulators. The SEBI instituted the guidelines for this relatively new Indian financing avenue on May 8, 2006. Minimum Alternate Tax (MAT) The Indian Income Tax Act contains large number of exemptions from total income. Besides exemptions, there are several deductions permitted from gross total income. Further, depreciation allowable under the Income Tax Act is not the same as required under the Companies Act. The result of such exemptions, deductions, and other incentives under the Income tax Act in the form of liberal rates of depreciation is the emergence of Zero tax companies which inspite of having high book profit are able to reduce their taxable income to nil. The system of minimum alternate tax has accordingly been introduced under which a company is required to pay a minimum tax of 7 % of the book profit in case the tax on the total income computed under the normal provisions of law works out to less than this amount [Sec 115JB]. Negotiated Dealing System Negotiated Dealing System (NDS) is an electronic platform for facilitating dealing in Government Securities and Money Market Instruments. NDS facilitates electronic submission of bids/application by members for primary issuance of Government Securities by RBI through auction and floatation. NDS also provides interface to Securities Settlement System (SSS) of Public Debt Office, RBI, thereby facilitating settlement of transactions in Government Securities including treasury bills, both outright and repos. National Spot Exchange Estd. 2008 HQ: Mumbai It is a private commodity exchange in India that is a joint venture of Financial Technologies (India) Ltd. (FTIL), Multi Commodity Exchange (MCX) and National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Limited (NAFED). Basel III India is a member of the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. It has actively engaged in the development of the Basel III accord. Proposals entail:

1. Require banks to hold more and better quality capital 2. Require banks to carry more liquid assets This would limit their leverage and mandate them to build up capital buffers in good times that can be drawn down in periods of stress. Teaser Loans Loans usually house loans that have low, customer friendly and fixed interest rate for initial some time and high interest rate set on a floating rate basis thereafter. The problem with such loans is that there is a greater risk of default as the interest rate increases. National Payments Corporation of India Incorporated in 2008. To consolidate and integrate the multiple systems with varying service levels into nation-wide uniform and standard business process for all retail payment systems. Promoted by 10 banks. Multidimensional Poverty Index Developed by Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative supported by UNDP It was featured in HDR-2010 and replaces Human Poverty Index (HPI) which had been included in HDR since 1997 Was created using a technique developed by Sabina Alkire and James Foster The Alkire-Foster method measures outcomes at the individual level (person or household) against multiple criteria (dimensions and indicators) The method is flexible and can be used with different dimensions and indicators to create measures specific to different societies and situations The method can show the incidence, intensity and depth of poverty, as well as inequality among the poor, depending on the type of data available to create the measure <details in the file in the economy section> Commodity Exchanges in India Though there are about 25 commodity exchanges in India, the following are the major ones: Multi Commodity Exchange (MCX) 2003 Mumbai MCX COMDEX index National Commodity and Derivatives Exchange (NCDEX) 2003 - Mumbai National Multi-commodity Exchange (NCME) 2001 Ahmedabad - first de-mutualised, online exchange dealing in numerous commodities Indian Commodity Exchange (ICEX) Others are: Bharat Diamond Bourse (Diamond Exchange) Mumbai International Pepper Exchange 1997 Kochi These are regulated by the Forward Market Commission setup in 1953 Credit Default Swaps It is a form of insurance against debt default. When an investor buys corporate (or govt) bonds he/ she faces the risks of default on part of the issuing agent. The investor can insure its investment in such bonds against default through a third party. The investor pays a premium to the party providing insurance. In the event of default by the bond issuer, the insurer would step and pay the investor. A CDS is just that insurance, which is bought by those who fear default and sold by those who believe it wont. Seigniorage When the cost of production of a note or coin is less than its face value, seigniorage is said to exist. In some cases, especially for low denomination coins, negative seigniorage can exist. This will mean that the cost of producing the coin is more than its face value. Takeout Finance Takeout finance is essentially a mechanism designed to enable banks/lenders to avoid asset liability mismatch that may arise out of extending long tenor loans to infrastructure projects. Under this arrangement, banks that extend credit facility to infrastructure projects enter into an arrangement with a financial institution for transferring the loan outstanding in the banks books to the books of the financial institution who take out the loan. Subsequent to the announcement in the Union Budget of 2010-11, the government entrusted India Infrastructure Finance Company Ltd (IIFCL) with the task of introducing the Takeout Finance Schemes (TFS) The scheme enhances the availability of long tenor debt finance for infrastructure projects, enables availability of cheaper cost of finance available for the borrower, addresses sectoral/group/single party exposure issues of banks etc. Recently (in Sept 2011), three institutions IIFCL, LIC and IDFC signed MoU to provide takeout finance for infrastructure projects.

Electoral reforms
To curb money power in elections following measures are being adopted in the TN state assembly, 2011 elections There are two types of measures: Preventive and Punitive

Preventive o Advertisements in the press to be issued to educate voters of their rights and responsibilities, besides highlighting ethical voting o Meetings with NGOs and citizens forums and appeal to political parties and candidates for self-restraint Punitive o CEOs of the state would identify those constituencies which were prone to high expenditure and corrupt practices. Large number of assistant expenditure observers and more number of flying squads and surveillance teams would be posted in these constituencies o Expenditure observer to be appointed for each district o Each candidate to open a separate account for election expenditure o All election expenditure are to be incurred by issuing cheques o Banks would be required to report to the Commission any suspicious withdrawal of money exceeding Rs 1 lakh o Set up a 24*7 call centre and complaint monitoring mechanism o Static surveillance teams would keep a watch on large quantities of cash or illicit liquor or any suspicious item being carried in the constituencies o District level media certification and monitoring committees would go into the entire process of media advertisements to check paid news Suggestions for electoral reforms Rule 49-O of the Conduct of Election Rules: Give the voters a provision in electronic voting machines to enable voters to exercise the option of not casting their votes. This proposal has been suggested by the CEC Qureshi to the Union Govt. This would help tackle impersonation Increase the ceiling for LS election from 25 lac to 40 lac and from assembly election from 10 lac to 16 lac

Energy Wind Power in India Wind power in India is a relatively new sector with its development beginning only in the 1990s. India has the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the world. As of October 2009, the installed

capacity of wind power in India was 10,925 MW. It accounts for about 6 pc of Indias total installed power capacity and it generated 1.6 pc of countrys power. Major states: TN, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Rajasthan, MP, Kerala, WB. Muppandal wind farm in TN (Kanyakumari Distt) is the largest in Asia.

Jawahar Lal Nehru National Solar Mission

Launched: 2010 Salient features: 1. To create an enabling policy framework for deployment of 20000 MW of grid solar power by 2022. 2. To ramp up capacity of grid connected power generation to 1100 MW by 2013 with active support from state governments. 3. NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam (NVVN) to purchase solar power from 1000 MW grid connected plants by 2013. 4. NVVN to bundle solar power with un-allocated thermal power and sell bundled power to utilities 5. Both solar photovoltaic as well as solar thermal technologies being promoted. 6. Compliance to international quality norms and standards 7. Encourage domestic manufacturing 8. Excise and custom duty concessions. Jaitapur Nuclear Project This nuclear project is to come up at Madban village of Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra. There were protests against the project by the locals and the environmentalists as it is located in the ecologically sensitive coastal region. It is a 9900 MWe project. It involves setting up six units of 1650 MWe capacity each. French giant Areva will collaborate in the project. Global Centre for Nuclear Energy Partnership To be established in Bahadurgarh, Haryana. At centre is aimed at strengthening Indias cooperation with the international community in the areas of advanced nuclear energy systems, nuclear security etc. It will be open to international participation through academic exchanges, training and research and development efforts Environment & Sustainability Convention on Biodiversity Opened for signature at the Earth Summit in 1992 and entered into force on December 29, 1993 There are 193 parties. Its secretariat is based in Montreal, Canada. US has signed but not ratified the treaty. It is an international legally-binding treaty with three main goals: o conservation of biodiversity o sustainable use of biodiversity o fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources Its overall objective is to encourage actions which will lead to sustainable future CBD covers biodiversity at all levels: ecosystems, species and genetic resources It also covers biotechnology through the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety Its governing body is the Conference of Parties (COP). They meet every two years The Ecosystem Approach, an integrated strategy for the management of resources, is the framework for action under the Convention Precautionary principle: it states that where there is threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such threat. 2010 is the International Year of Biodiversity. COP-10 of CBD Held at Nagoya, Japan in October 2010. It achieved three inter-linked goals o Adoption of a new ten year strategic plan to save biodiversity o Resource mobilization strategy to increase official development assistance for biodiversity

A new international protocol on access to and sharing the benefits from the use of the genetic resources of the planet (Nagoya Protocol) Japan Biodiversity Fund was established COP-11 will take place in 2012 in India Nagoya Protocol Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from Their Utilization The protocol creates a framework that balances access to genetic resources on the basis of prior informed consent and mutually agreed terms with a fair and equitable sharing Expected to enter into force in 2012 The Strategic Plan of CBD, which aims to arrest biodiversity loss throughout the world by 2020, will be called the Aichi Target. <Aichi is the prefecture in which Nagoya is situated> Aichi Target The Strategic Plan of the CBD or the Aichi Target adopted by the meeting include 20 headline targets, organised under five strategic goals that address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss, reduce the pressures on biodiversity, safeguard biodiversity at all levels, enhance the benefits provided by biodiversity, and provide for capacity building. The Aichi target will be the overarching framework on biodiversity not only for the biodiversityrelated conventions, but for the entire UN system. Some targets o 17 pc inland and 10 pc marine ecosystem o Conserving coral reefs o Restore 15 pc of degraded areas o Halve or bring to zero the rate of loss of natural habitats including forests Target is that by 2020, at least 17 pc of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 pc of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem are conserved The conservation is to be done through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes. o Important Treaties Treaty Aarhus Convention on Access to information for public participation in decision making and access to justice in environmental matters Vienna Convention for the protection of Ozone layer Signed/Into force 1998 Major Points Aarhus is a Danish city Adopted at the fourth ministerial conference in the Environment for Europe process Links environmental rights and human rights India No Does not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs At Vienna Conference It is a protocol to the Vienna Convention perhaps the single most successful international agreement Kofi Annan 196 states ratified Includes CFCs, HCFCs Particularly to prevent waste transfer from Developed to LDCs 175 parties Signed but not ratified: Afghanistan, Haiti, US Rotterdam is a city in Netherlands Endosulfan is proposed to be added to the list

1985/1988

Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone layer

1987/1989

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their disposal Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain

1989/1992

1998/2004

Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in international trade Stockholm Convention on persistence organic pollutants Bamako Convention

2001/2004 1991/1998

173 parties On the ban on the import into Africa and the Control of movement of Hazardous waste within Africa Negotiated by 12 nations of Organisation of African Unity at Bamako, Mali

The CBD Framework Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

Seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern technology. The Protocol applies to the transboundary movement, transit, handling and use of all living modified organisms that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health

Nagoya Protocol For Conservation CITES: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Aka Washington Convention Convention on Migratory Species aka Bonn Convention Antarctic Treaty System

1973/1975

1979/1983 1959/1961

International Whaling Commission UN Convention to Combat Desertification

1946

1994 (on the basis of Agenda 21) /1996

Under IUCN. Trade in specimen should not threaten the survival of plants and animals. Only one species under it Spix Macaw has become extinct in the wild. To conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species 12 original members. HQ: Buenos Aires. India joined in 1983. Sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve and bans military activity there. First arms control treaty during the cold war. Signed in Washington. Moratorium on whaling adopted in 1986. Following countries havnt adopted the moratorium: Norway, Iceland, Japan. First and only internationally legally binding framework set up to address the problem of desertification. 194 2006: Int. Year of Deserts and Desertification. Non-parties: Iraq, Montenegro, Vatican Secretariat: Rome Meetings: 1st Rome 1997, 9th Buenos Aires, 2009

Treaties on Hazardous wastes: Basel, Rotterdam, Stockholm (in chronological order) Treaties on Ozone: Vienna, Montreal Red List: Published by IUCN since 1963. Categories 7+2. Extinct Extinct in wild Critically endangered Endangered Vulnerable Near threatened least concern (data deficient) (not evaluated) Global Environmental Facility: is an independent financial organisation that provides grants to developing countries with economies in transition for projects related to biodiversity, climate change etc. South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme: (SACEP) is an organisation established in 1982 by SA govts for protection of environment. Members: All SAARC members. SACEP is not a part of SAARC. HQ: Colombo

SAARC Forestry Centre: Bhutan Perspectives on Sustainable Development Bruntland Report (1983) was the first publication and recognition of the term Sustainable Development o meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the needs of the future generation Three pillars of sustainable development (Bruntland) o Care and respect for People, Planet and Prosperity (Commercial Activities) <hence poverty alleviation, conservation and business development> o These three pillars are of equal importance SD is about a value system. It is not a scientific formula. Thinking beyond pure self-gratification to awareness that harm to one will eventually be harm to all. Interconnectedness and interdependence of all things All three pillars have equal importance. Focus on only one of them will unbalance the whole SD is a necessity, not a luxury that we can afford to miss. Questioning Development <too detailed; at times peripheral. Be choosy> Current practices must change Should shatter the development myth. Simply economic growth will not create more jobs and more wealth for all. Steady-state economics. Economic growth is measured in terms of how much we produce and consume, and what we destroy in the process need not be included in the calculations. 20% of the world consumes 80% of its resources According to UNDP, consumption of goods and services in 1997 was twice that in 1975 and six times more than in 1950. An estimated 1 billion people still do not have the means to meet their basic needs. Inequalities are increasing. The assets of worlds three richest men are greater than the combined national product of 48 poorest countries. Higher crime rates are associated with wider income gaps Jobless growth. Under-nutrition is still a huge problem among children Economic Growth and Sustainability Over-consumption has led to depletion of resources Main environmental threats o Depletion of resources o Global warming o Expansion of waste arising from production and consumption o Population pressure o Pollution o Loss of biodiversity and extinction of species. Green National Income Account o Conventional national income accounting does not capture the environmental degradation due to production and consumption o This omission leads to misrepresentation of improvements in social welfare o Since there is no market for many environmental resources, it is difficult to place monetary values on them o Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare: adjusts the national income to make an allowance for defensive spending (i.e. that incurred in cleaning up for pollution and other forms of environmental damage) Economic Sustainability o Calls for reforms in the manner that we conduct our economic activity o Removing unfair trade barriers and subsidies that harm the environment o Upholding the polluter pays principle o Tax not on labour but on consumption <already there in the form of indirect taxes> o Pricing products in terms of value they have deducted from the common natural base o Increase resource productivity Sustainable agriculture

o o

Use of practices and methods to maintain/enhance the economic viability of agricultural production, natural resource base, and other ecosystems which are influenced by agricultural activities Minimizing the adverse impact on the natural resources base Flexible farming systems to manage the risks associated with climate and markets

Ecological Sustainability Sustainable forest management o Forest Principle adopted at the 1992 Rio Summit o In 2007, GA adopted the Non Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests. The instrument is the first of its kind and is committed to promote SFM by bringing all stakeholders together o Ministerial Conference on Protection of Forests in Europe defined SFM as the attainment of balance between societys increasing demands for forest products and benefits, and the preservation of forest health and diversity. o Forest managers must assess and integrate a wide array of sometimes conflicting factors to produce sound forest plans o Ecosystems approach has been adopted by the CBD. The CBD definition of Ecosystems Approach is known as the Malawi Principles. o Ecosystems Approach is a strategy of management of land, water and living resources in a way that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Focused on use of scientific methodologies for each level of biological organisation and their interaction. o SFM was recognised by the parties to CBD in 2004 to be a concrete means of applying the Ecosystems Approach to forest ecosystems Objectives of SFM o Maintain environmental stability through preservation of ecological balance that has been adversely affected due to the depletion of forest cover o Preserve the natural heritage of the country o Improve productivity of forests o Protecting through cooperation with local communities on the principle of Joint Forest Management India o One of the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world o National Forest Policy 1988 emphasizes environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance o Existing infrastructure for forest protection is inadequate o Surveys not carried out in many areas. Question of tribal rights o Protect from forest fires Integrated Forest Protection Scheme o 10th FYP. In all States and UTs o Formed by merger of two 9th FYP schemes: Forest Fire Control and Management and Bridging of Infrastructure Gaps in the Forestry Sector in the North Eastern Region and Sikkim o Components Infrastructure development: survey and demarcation, strengthening the infrastructure for Forest Protection Division Forest fire control and management o Implementing agencies Central Component: Forest Protection Division, MoEF; Forest Survey of India, Dehradun; Central institutions like Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (Dehradun), IIFM (Bhopal) etc shall be involved State Component: Forest dept of the concerned state/UT Wetland Conservation Programme o Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic system where the water table is usually near the water surface and land is covered by shallow water. o Essential as: control floods, water treatment, recharging of water sources, reduce sediments, check soil erosion, bulwark against encroachment by the sea, winter resort for birds and important for flora and fauna. They also provide a variety of resources

Ramsar Convention: mangroves, corals, estuaries, bays, creeks, flood plains, sea grasses, lakes etc included o A programme on conservation of wetlands was initiated in 1987 with the basic objective of identification of wetlands of national importance, assessment of wetland resources, promotion of R&D activities and formulation and implementation of management action plans o A steering committee in each state headed by the Chief Secretary consists of members from all departments related to the wetland conservation in the state. Successful model. o India is a member of the Standing Committee of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1971 Steps forward o Make use of the traditional knowledge of the people living near the wetlands for its conservation along with the engineering solutions o Monitor the impact of implementation of management action plans o

Wetlands of India under Ramsar Convention Name State 1. Ashtamudi WL Kerala 2. Bhitarkanika Orissa Mangroves 3. Bhoj WL MP 4. Chilka Lake Orissa 5. Deepor Beel Assam 6. East Calcutta WL WB 7. Harike Lake Punjab 8. Kanjli Punjab 9. Keoladeo National Park Rajasthan 10. Kolleru Lake AP 11. Loktak Lake Manipur 12. Point Calimere Wildlife TN and Bird Sanctuary 13. Pong Dam Lake HP 14. Ropar Punjab 15. Sambhar Lake Rajasthan 16. Sasthamkotta Lake Kerala 17. Tsomoriri J&K 18. Vembanad-Kol WL Kerala 19. Wular Lake J&K 20. Chandratal HP 21. Renuka HP 22. Rudrasagar Tripura 23. Upper Ganga UP 24. Hokarsar (Hokera) 25. Surinsar & Mansar 26. Gharana (2010) J&K J&K J&K

Remark

2nd largest in India: 116500 ha

Largest in India: 151250 ha 2nd Smallest: 49 ha Smallest: 20 ha Total area of these 26 wetlands: 677131 ha Kerala has the highest area under wetlands J&K has the largest number of wetlands (4)

The Montreux Record. Sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance which are considered to have undergone, to be undergoing, or to be likely to undergo change in their ecological character brought about by human action may be placed on theMontreux Record and may benefit from the application of the Ramsar Advisory Mission and other forms of technical assistance. Keoladeo national park and Loktak lake from India are included in the list Changwon Declaration The primary purpose of the Changwon Declaration on human well-being and wetlands,adopted by Resolution X.3 of the recent meeting of the Conference of the Parties, is to transmit key messages

concerning wetland-related issues to the many stakeholders and decision-makers beyond the Ramsar community who are relevant to the conservation and wise use of wetlands, to inform their actions and decision-making Social Sustainability Fairness in the access to and benefits from the Earths resources Impact of poverty on environment/Environment and poverty are related issues Diverting resources to non-productive areas Health and SD o Environment and public health are inter-related Agenda 21 was adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) [Earth Summit] in 1992 o It also places particular emphasis on the need to take health considerations into account in planning for SD Urbanisation Need for holistic approach Water and SD Agriculture consumes nearly 70 pc of water consumption worldwide, industry -22 pc and household activities 8 pc [WDR, 2010] Geographical distribution of water: just nine countries account for 60 pc of all available freshwater supplies Industrial use takes about 60 pc of water in rich countries and 10 pc in the rest. Suggestions o Use of sea water o Judicial use of freshwater o Development of salt-resistant crops SD in a globalising world Globalisation is increasing the gap between the rich and the poor It has to be steered so that it serves not only the commercial interests but social needs of development Mechanisms to safeguard trade and livelihoods, especially in developing countries, must be evolved and negotiated to make globalisation an effective vehicle of SD Industrialised countries must continue to assist the developing countries as well as promote trade Environment and social causes must not be used selectively to erect trade barriers against developing countries

Equity,Social Security
A case for conditional cash transfers Successful social protection programmes in many countries like Mexico, Brazil and South Africa Redistributive transfers have multiplier effects and create more secure societies They provide growth with equity and are in the national interest of the countries Reduce the economic loss due to health and education problems

CCTs can also serve as effective tools for population stabilization by providing social security. Poor have many children as an insurance against old age. If social security programmes exist they might not have to depend so much on this insurance and can have less children. What needs to be done? o Programmes like NRHM measure effectiveness in terms of process indicators like the infrastructure built, increased heath personnel, delivery structures etc. While these are important, it is necessary to measure the actual effectiveness by measuring the impact on actual health indicators. o CCTs work in tandem with public institutions. One needs a public hospital to make use of the cash transfer for health purpose. Hence, the government must also focus on providing health institutions for good health care while using CCTs. Conclusion o CCTs are not a panacea for poverty, ill health or for stabilising populations. o For health, they will deliver within the context of an effective health care system. o The use of CCTs as a proxy for the delivery of good health care is fallacious o The use of CCTs should not result in the government abdicating its responsibility of providing public services to the poor. o They should also not be viewed as another business opportunity for free market players. o CCTs are not complete solutions and call for a nuanced understanding of the strategy, context and issues.

Family
Domestic Violence Act 2005 Features: 1. Recognizes violence in relations of consanguinity, marriage, relationships in the nature of marriage (live-in), adoption or joint family. 2. Domestic violence includes actual abuse or threat of abuse, whether physical, sexual, verbal, economic and harassment by way of dowry demands. 3. Preventing ones wife from taking up a job or forcing her to leave job are also under the purview of the act 4. Provides a woman the right to reside in a matrimonial or shared household even if she does not hold a title in the property. <this is an important step towards economic security> 5. All crimes under this act are non-bailable. Imprisonment upto one year and fine upto Rs 20000 6. The act also covers sexual violence like forced intercourse. Also addresses child sexual abuse. Covers verbal violence as well. 7. Economic violence: no providing money, food, clothes, medicine, hindering employment opportunities, forcing a woman to vacate her house. 8. Provides for setting up and function of Protection Officers. Non compliance of duty by the protection office is also an offence. 9. The other relief envisaged under the Act is that of the power of the court to pass protection orders that prevent the abuser from aiding or committing an act of domestic violence or any other specified act, entering a workplace or any other place frequented by the abused, attempting to communicate with the abused, isolating any assets used by both the parties and causing violence to the abused, her relatives and others who provide her assistance from the domestic violence. Assessment of the Act: Pros Inclusion of economic, verbal and sexual violence under domestic violence a step forward in protecting women in households. The women can live in the same household even while fighting a court case against the husband. Gives greater economic security.

Cons Can be used as a device to blackmail men

Though protection officers have been provided for in the act, with the exception of West Bengal and Delhi no state had appointed them by June 2010. The Protection Officers also need legal training.

Delhi HC recently (2010) ruled that woman can also be held liable under the Protection of Women from Domestic violence Act 2005. Its pros and cons are presented below Pros Cons Violence in the family may be propagated by woman relative, say mother-in-law. So this ruling an impose a check on that

My views: There is a certain degree of acceptance of domestic violence in the Indian society. The mindset needs to be changed. NFHS-3 reveals that uneducated women are the largest victims of domestic violence. There is a need to raise awareness among such women about their rights. The law should be targeted to minimize domestic violence against poor and uneducated women. Though there is a possibility of abuse of the act, we need to look at the act as protecting women and not necessarily as anti-men Hindu Marriage Act and Special Marriage Act Divorce laws

Financial Stability
Questions: 1. What causes financial instability? 2. How can RBI deal with financial instability? 3. Trade-off between financial stability and growth? Reasons for financial instability Increased non-official capital flows across countries through banks and international capital markets.

 Hasty and non-strategic liberalisation Deregulation of financial sector Opening up of the capital account in many countries Intiatives by RBI Had set up the Committee on Financial Sector Assessment in 2009 Will setup a dedicated interdisciplinary Financial Stability Unit with the remit to assess the health of the financial system with a focus on identify and analysing potential risks to systemic stability and carrying out stress tests on an ongoing basis Financial Stability Reports are being released Financial Stability Report Three FSRs released till June 2011 First was released in March 2010 As per the three FSRs released so far, there is no serious threat to the Indian financial system FSR 2011 o states that the Indian financial system remains stable in the face of some fragilities being observed in the global macro-financial environment. o Banking sector continues to be stable o Banking stability indicator confirms the overall improvement in the stability of banking sector o Toxity index/vulnerability index: the probability of a bank causing distress to another bank or being affected by the distress of another bank FS in India The relatively crisis free environment in the Indian financial system can be attributed to the strength of state home grown policies pursued with caution and prudence. In the late 1990s, FS was incorporated as a specific objective of the RBIs policy after the Asian Financial crisis. Present weaknesses in the financial system o Greater access of domestic corporate to ECBs has resulted in increased currency mismatches o Increased reliance on market borrowings could adversely affect the liquidity position of banks o There remains gaps in the regulatory framework for NBFCs

Food/Agriculture
Food Security Food is the first among the hierarchical needs of the humans (Maslows basic needs) Achieving food security for all has been a national goal since 1947 JL Nehru said Everything else can wait, but not agriculture. What is FS? Physical, economic, and social access to balanced diet, clean drinking water, environmental hygiene and primary healthcare Why is food security essential?

 Support 1 billion people Employment provision Malnutrition is closely linked to food security Hence, having food security (as defined above) can increase human capabilities Remove unfreedoms (Sen: Development as Freedom) What is the scenario in India? Under and malnutrition remains widespread o Statistic Mostly children and women suffer the most Paradigm Shift Shifted from a patronage to a rights approach. Hence now we are moving towards having legal rights through legislations. National Food Security Bill will confer the specified group the legal right to food. Sustainable food security We need not just food security but sustainable food security. To achieve sustainable food security, following need attention o Availability of food: function of production and import o Access to food: function of purchasing power and employment o Absorption of food: function of clean drinking water, sanitation and healthcare Thus food and non-food factors are essential in sustainable food security Government schemes aimed at improving the non-food aspects of food security o Rajiv Gandhi Drinking Water Mission o Total Sanitation Programme o National Rural Health Mission Programmes like MNREGA help in providing the minimum purchasing power to purchase food PDS is there for distribution to ensure access to food Government schemes to increase availability of food o Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana o National Food Security Mission o National Horticulture Mission Challenges to food security 1. Agriculture is still very vulnerable to the behaviour of the monsoon 2. We have to produce food for not just 1.2 bn people but for about a billion farm animals as well 3. Agriculture in India is not just a food producing machinery but a source of employment for a majority of people National Commission on Farmers (2004-06) Has provided a detailed strategy for the agricultural progress of India Strategy has following components o Conserve the gains in the areas of green revolution (UP, Punjab etc) through climate resilient farming o Extend the gains of green revolution to the excluded areas: Eastern India o Make new gains in rainfed areas which constitute nearly sixty percent of the cultivated area. RWH and Watershed Mgmt MSSs recommendations Bridge the growing mismatch between production and post production technologies A national grid of grain storages based on modern technology should be established Community Grain Banks Animal food security is also essential for human food security because otherwise the yield from animals will be low Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture Factors to cope with o Unfavourable changes in temperature o Unf changes in precipitation o Floods/snow melt o High Co2

Sea level rise

Meeting the challenges of climate change Implement alternative cropping strategies based on different weather conditions Seed reserves should be build Computer simulation models can be used to identify scientific strategies needed for reducing the adverse impact of drought on agriculture To deal with sea level rise o Develop mangrove and non-mangrove bio-shields o Promote Sea Water Farming through agri-aqua farms o Promoting below sea level farming as already practiced by farmers in Kuttanad area of Kerala Establish Research and Training Centre for Climate Risk Management Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies Mitigation o Carbon sequestration o Soil Carbon Banks through trees which enhance soil nutrient status Adaptation o Green house horticulture should be promoted

International perspective A committee setup by the UN Committee on Food Security under the chairmanship of MSS o Analyses the potential impact of acquisitions, particularly in Africa, on food security o It has been estimated that 50 mn to 80 mn hectares of farmland in developing countries has been the subject of negotiations by international investors in recent years, two thirds of them in sub-Saharan Africa, widely recognised as a hot spot for endemic hunger o The report found little evidence that such large-scale acquisitions have helped to provide food and jobs to the local population o More than three quarters of the deals are yet to demonstrate improvements in agricultural output o The panel identified several steps that governments should take towards more effective and equitable land tenure systems to protect land rights The growing diversion of farmland for fuel production in industrialisied countries, increased consumption of meat on the part of the affluent, and loss of land to roads, houses and industries are likely to lead to acute food scarcity, sever price volatility and high food inflation by the end of this decade The Arab Spring had its genesis in food inflation

Revamping food procurement Critical Policies in ensuring effective PDS Minimum Support Price Procurement Distribution MSP

Objective o To ensure that the farmers get a remunerative price for their produce How calculated o Looking at various factors including cost of production, cost of living, price parity etc MSP was to be the last resort for the farmer Declared for around 25 crops but are effective for virtually only wheat and rice and to some extent for coarse cereals Why are MSPs revised upwards? Counter inflationary impact Induce more cultivation of certain crops Populist motivations What are the consequences of higher MSP? Upward bias imparted to all prices as the MSP serves as the benchmark for all other product o Inflationary impact has hence been quite significant which raises issues on whether the farmers or consumers interests are of greater importance Tendency for the cropping pattern to get skewed towards rice and wheat as the prices offered are high and the procurement system is also strong in certain states o MSP has hence evolved to become the first choice rather than the last resort Procurement Motivations for procurement by the govt To provide food security Provide for the PDS Stabilize prices Buildup of stocks Earlier the PDS was universal Wadhwa Committee on PDS Deficiencies of this system are: o Multiple ration cards being issued under a single name o Faulty system of issue and record keeping o Pilferage PDS foodgrains find way to market and all the lot dont reach the eligible/needy person o No bio-matric identification for the users o No central monitoring system to track the carriage trucks o The delivery mechanism has no RFID (Radio Frequency Identification Device) Recommendations Has suggested that PDS operations be computerized and human intervention be reduced to the extent possible, so as to check the diversions and leakages which plague the system at present. If the disbursement to the beneficiaries in the State can be equated to the allocation to the state, there can be no diversion Ration card database should be digitized and distribution to the beneficiary should be made after biometric identification Integrate the different steps in allocation from Centre till the beneficiary so that there is no pilferage Smart card and PoS devise should be used Monitoring the functioning of PDS operations through the use of information and communication technology should be given the highest priority National Committee must be set up to lay down uniform standards for software components

Right to Food
APL could be roped in by reducing the BPL provisions to 30 kg, says Rangarajan. AADHAAR can be used to for better provision. Some amount (5.5 kg) could be entitled to each individual. NAC suggests: 1. Implement in a phased manner. Initially, extend universal food entitlements to one-fourth of either the poorest districts or the poorest blocks in the country. In the remaining areas, status quo will continue with the current application of the PDS. 2. Universalization of food security would currently not be possible given the current state of agricultural productivity and the level of grain procurement. P Sainath: The general arguments against universal PDS: 1. There is no money. <the government however gave out Rs 500000 crore of tax exemptions to the wealthy in the budget 2010> 2. There are not enough grains for a universal system The average daily net per capita availability of foodgrain between 2005 and 2008 is a dismal 436 grams per Indian. Thats less than it was half a century ago. Pulses availability was 70 grams in 195558 whereas in 2005-08 it was around 35 grams. NAC recommendations on Food Security Bill NAC, in October 2010, made the following recommendations for the food security bill: 1. The law should provide a legal entitlement subsidised foodgrains for at least 75 per cent of the population, which translates into 90 per cent of the country's rural population and 50 per cent of the urban population. 2. This 75 per cent of the population is, in turn, divided into priority households who should have a monthly entitlement of 35 kg at a subsidised price of Re. 1 a kg for millets, Rs. 2 a kg for wheat and Rs. 3 a kg for rice and general households who should have a monthly entitlement of 20 kg at a price not exceeding 50 per cent of the current Minimum Support Price for the three grains. 3. The NAC proposes that 46 per cent of the rural population and 28 per cent of the urban population would be classified as priority households. And that 44 per cent of the rural and 22 per cent of the urban population would be classified as general households. The criteria for categorising households as priority' or general' should be specified by the government of India. These proposals are new in that they offer a legal entitlement to around 75 percent of the population. Rangarajan Committee on the Food Security Bill This committee was created to examine the NAC recommendations relating to the RTF It favours NACs recommendation of legal entitlement of foodgrains to the poor, but has rejected the recommendation that APL households be partially covered, saying it is not feasible at the current levels of grain production and procurement. Critique of NAC recommendations The framework hinges on the unscientific division between the general, priority and excluded households Identification criteria is left to the central government with some discretion for the state governments. Hence no one is guaranteed inclusion except for few ultra marginalised groups. This undermines the basic purpose of the Act The transition from the current APL-BPL framework to the new framework is likely to be disruptive. There are at least three sources of disruption: o The creation of an excluded category o Transition to the new BPL list o Switch from household to per capita entitlements The NAC framework fails to delink PDS entitlements from official poverty estimates Draft Food Security Bill Retains the identification of beneficiaries based on the BPL criteria Divides the population into priority and general under which 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population will be entitled to subsidised foodgrains and the rest will be excluded. Reduced the monthly entitlement of the general households from 4 kg per person to 3 kg per person

The government (central) will determine the number of priority households in each state based on a state wise poverty ratio to be updated from time to time The stated aim of the draft Bill is to provide for food and nutritional security, in human life cycle approach, by ensuring access to adequate quantity of quality food at affordable prices, for people to live a life with dignity. To realise this, we must ensure that every child, woman and man has physical, economic and social (in gender terms) access to a balanced diet (that is, the needed calories and protein), micronutrients (iron, iodine, zinc, Vitamin A, Vitamin B12 and so on), as well as clean drinking water, sanitation and primary health care. A life cycle approach to food security will imply attention to the nutritional needs of a human being from conception to cremation. The most vulnerable but neglected segment is the first 1,000 days in a child's life the period from conception to the age of two, when much of the brain development takes place. To make food-for-all a legal right, it is necessary to adopt a Universal Public Distribution System (PDS) with common but differentiated entitlements with reference to the cost and quantity of foodgrain. The widening of the food basket by including a range of nutri-cereals (normally referred to as coarse cereals), along with wheat and rice is an important feature of the Food Security Bill. Nutri-cereals such as bajra, ragi, jowar, maize, constitute health foods, and their inclusion in the PDS, along with wheat and rice, will encourage their production by farmers. Nutri-cereals are usually cultivated in rainfed areas and are more climate-resilient. Hence, in an era of climate change, they will play an increasingly important role in human nutrition security. Giving cash will reduce interest in procurement and safe storage. This in turn will affect production. The government should consider adopting as a general policy the formula suggested by the National Commission on Farmers (NCF), that MSP should be C2 plus 50 per cent (total cost of production plus 50 per cent). Finally, the Bill provides for the creation of Food Security Commissions at the State and Central levels. The two essential ingredients of implementing the legal right to food are political will and farmers' skill. Hence, State-level Food Security Commissions should be chaired by farmers with an outstanding record of successful farming Criticisms of the Draft Food Security Bill The governments bill seems to be aimed not at improving access to food but at minimising its own obligations Identification criteria is flawed Urban Food Insecurity A large segment of urban working population is mostly without productive asset and relies primarily on wage or marginal self employment to survive. They face food insecurity in terms of access to food. There has been a proliferation of slums lacking basic amenities. Lack of safe drinking water and sanitation leads to poor biological utilization of food and repeated episodes of morbidity. <Refer: Report on the State of Food Insecurity in Urban India, MS Swaminathan Research Foundation, 2010> What the government can do? Expansion of productive and remunerative employment by assistance to small and tiny enterprises in the urban economy Access to safe drinking water and toilets Programmes like JNNURM should also focus on the needs of slums in all cities and address the needs of the poor Address needs of vulnerable sections such as street children, orphans, HIV-AIDS patients through initiatives such as community kitchens. Universal urban PDS

In June 2010, the SC directed the government to distribute to the poor the rotting food in the FCI godowns. The issue here is: Tonnes of food grains every year are eaten up by rodents or gets perished in rains due to inadequate storage facilities. The PM has, however, said that SC should not intervene in policy matters and that it is not possible for the government to distribute food grains free of cost. MS Swaminathan Hunger in India is due to poverty and not due to lack of food grains We have many years before we achieve the Millennium Development Goal of eradicating extreme hunger and poverty Food prices are going up Suggestions: 1. Distribute the grain for which there is no safe storage 2. Food grains exposed to rains might get rotten. Such rotten food grains should not be distributed to the poor 3. Food losses due to poor storage should be measured both in quantitative and qualitative terms. <Qualitative: Are they fit for human consumption> 4. Procurement at remunerative prices is the key in keeping up farmers interest in farming. 5. Strategies for Farm Growth 1. Loans are not easily available. It is advisable to waive loans of farmers with farm size up to four hectares in non-irrigated areas. 2. The government should arrange to supply quality seeds and seedlings of high yielding varieties. 3. About 65 percent of the cultivable land area in India is in rain-fed area and hence dependent on the vagaries of nature. It is essential to protect the farmers against losses through crop insurance schemes. 4. Crops are lost during transit. It is essential to build proper storage capacity. 5. Provide adequate transport to transport produce from fields to marketing centres. 6. Support prices should be announced ahead of the sowing season. 7. Eliminate middlemen. Ensure direct procurement under PDS. 8. In order to fulfil the need of fuel in every village, energy plantation should be undertaken. Global Hunger Index 2010 International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC The 2010 index calculated for 122 developing countries and countries in transition Index scores based on three equally weighted indicators: the proportion of people who are undernourished, the proportion of children under five who are underweight, and the child mortality rate. It ranks countries on a 100-point scale, with 0 being the best score and 100 being the worst In 2010 report, India has been placed in the alarmingcategory. Even Pakistan, Sudan and Rwanda are above India. No of hungry people worldwide: 925 million 2010 report focused on Child Undernutrition State led policies like cash transfers in Brazil can directly address hunger. Undernutrition is often accompanied by lack of sanitation, drinking water and cooking fuel. India is home to 42 pc of the worlds underweight children and 31 pc of its stunted children. Government Efforts to Tackle Problem of Hunger and Starvation For tackling the problem of hunger and starvation in the country and to ensure that people living below poverty line get adequate food grains, the Government has been implementing the following schemes providing food grains at highly subsidized prices to the targeted population through the State/UT Governments: 1. Government is allocating food grains at subsidized rates for 6.52 crore Below Poverty Line (BPL), and Antyodaya Anna Yojna (AAY) ration card holder families under Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS). Under this scheme, foodgrains are allocated to the States/UTs @ 35 kg per BPL/ AAY family per month. Depending upon availability of food grains in the Central Pool, food grains are allocated for Above Poverty Line (APL) families also. Presently, allocations of food grains to APL

category range from 15 to 35 Kg per family per month. During 2010-11, a quantity of 470.65 lakh tons of food grains have been allocated to States/U.Ts under TPDS . 2. Under Annapurna Scheme, indigent senior citizens of 65 years of age or above who are not getting old age pension, are provided 10 Kg of food grains per person per month free of cost. 57,760 tons of food grains have been allocated to States/UTs under the scheme during 2010-11. 3. Under the Emergency Feeding Programme (EFP) implemented in eight KBK Districts of Orissa, rice at BPL rates are allocated to the State Government for approximately 2 lakh beneficiaries in these districts. 18,000 tons of rice have been allocated under this scheme during 2010-11. 4. To provide safeguard against starvation during natural calamity and lean season, under the Village Grain Bank Scheme, foodgrains are allocated free of cost by Government of India to States. So far 20,148 Village Grains Banks have been sanctioned in 20 States and 80,592 tons of foodgrains have been allocated. 5. The Government also makes allocation of foodgrains to States/UTs under Mid Day Meal Scheme for providing food to school children studying in primary and upper primary levels. 29.85 lakh tons of foodgrains have been allocated under the scheme during 2010-11. 6. Under the Wheat Based Nutrition Programme aimed at improving the nutritional status of children below 6 years of age and expectant/lactating women, 15.00 lakh tons of foodgrains have been allocated during 2010-11. 7. Under the Scheme for Welfare Institutions, Government makes allocation of foodgrains to States/ UTs for Welfare Institutions run by NGOs, charitable institutions, etc. 1.38 lakh tons of foodgrains have been allocated to various States/UTs during 2010-11. 8. Under the Scheme for SC/ST/OBC Hostels, Government makes allocation of foodgrains to States/ UTs for meeting requirements of foodgrains of SC/ST/OBC Hostels. 0.50 lakh tons of foodgrains have been allocated to various States/UTs, during 2010-11.

National Food Security Mission NDC in its 53rd meeting held in 2007 adopted a resolution to launch a food security mission Comprising rice, wheat and pulses to increase the production of rice by 10 mn tonnes, wheat by 8 mn tonnes and pulses by 2 mn tonnes by the end of the eleventh plan. Hence, NSFM has three components o Rice o Wheat o Pulses Farmer Suicides At least 17,368 Indian farmers killed themselves in 2009, the worst figure for farm suicides in six years, according to data of the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB). This is an increase of 1,172 over the 2008 count of 16,196. It brings the total farm suicides since 1997 to 2,16,500. The share of the Big 5 States, or suicide belt' Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh in 2009 remained very high at 10,765, or around 62 per cent of the total, though falling nearly five percentage points from 2008. Maharashtra remained the worst State for farm suicides for the tenth successive year, reporting 2,872. Though that is a fall of 930, it is still 590 more than in Karnataka, second worst, which logged 2,282 farm suicides. On average, around 47 farmers or almost one every 30 minutes killed themselves each day between 2004 and 2009.

Article by Jean Dreze and Reetika Khera on PDS in Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Shows the Way (Nov 13, 2010, The Hindu Magazine) We had an interesting view of this turnaround a few months ago in Lakhanpur Block (Surguja District), on the sidelines of a survey of NREGA in the area. Everyone we spoke to, across the Block, said that they were receiving their full quota of 35 kg of grain each month, that too at the correct price one or two rupees per kilo, depending on the type of ration card. The stocks apparently reach the village on time, on the seventh day of each month, and are promptly distributed. There were no complaints of cheating. This is no mean achievement, in an area where the PDS was severely dysfunctional just a few years ago. Other reports from Chhattisgarh suggest that this is not an isolated success. One survey of foodrelated schemes, conducted in September-November 2009 in eight Blocks spread over the state, found that 85 per cent of the cardholders were getting their full 35 kg of grain every month from the PDS (others were getting at least 25 kg). Only two per cent of the entries in the ration cards were found to be fake. Eliminating middlemen One of the early steps towards PDS reform was the de-privatising of ration shops. In Chhattisgarh, private dealers were allowed to get licences for PDS shops from 2001 onwards (before that, PDS shops were run by the state co-operatives network). This measure allowed the network of ration shops to widen, but also created a new nexus of corrupt players whereby dealers paid politicians to get licences as well as protection when they indulged in corrupt practices. In 2004, the government reversed this order (despite fierce opposition from the dealers) and put Gram Panchayats, Self-Help Groups, Van Suraksha Samitis and other community institutions in charge of the ration shops. Aside from bringing ration shops closer to people's homes, this helped to impart some accountability in the PDS. When people run their own ration shop, there is little incentive to cheat, since that would be like cheating themselves. Community institutions such as Gram Panchayats are not necessarily people's institutions but, nevertheless, they are easier for people to influence than corrupt middlemen or the government's bureaucratic juggernaut. Another major reform was to ensure doorstep delivery of the PDS grain. This means that grain is delivered by state agencies to the ration shop each month, instead of dealers having to lift their quotas from the nearest godown. How does this help? It is well known that corrupt dealers have a tendency to give reduced quantities to their customers and sell the difference in the black market (or rather the open market). What is less well understood is that the diversion often happens before supplies reach the village. Dealers get away with this by putting their hands up helplessly and telling their customers that picche se kam aaya hai (there was a shortfall at the godown). When the grain is delivered to the ration shop, in the village, it is much harder for the dealers to siphon it off without opposition. Truck movements from the godowns to the ration shops are carefully monitored and, if a transporter cheats, the dealers have an incentive to mobilise local support to complain, as we found had happened in one village. These two measures (de-privatising ration shops and doorstep delivery) were accompanied by rigorous monitoring, often involving creative uses of technology. For instance, a system of SMS alerts was launched to inform interested citizens (more than 15,000 have already registered) of grain movements, and all records pertaining to supplies, sales, timelines, etc. were computerised. This involved much learning-by-doing. For instance, at one point the state government tried distributing pre-packed sacks of 35kg to prevent cheating, but the practice had to be discontinued as it was found that these sacks were being tampered with too. Therefore, in recent months, a move towards electronic weighing machines has been initiated. Perhaps the most important step was improved grievance redressal, based, for instance, on active helplines. Apparently, the helplines are often used by cardholders, and if a complaint is lodged, there is a good chance of timely response. Further, action is not confined to enquiries in many cases, FIRs have been lodged against corrupt middlemen and it is not uncommon for them to land in jail (there was at least one recent case in Lakhanpur itself). Grain has also been recovered from trucks that were caught off-loading their stocks at unintended destinations. Increased transparency Greater transparency is an important step towards corruption-free administration. This is one important lesson from the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA). Information walls in Rajasthan, whereby the names and employment details of all Job Card holders in a village are painted on the walls of the Gram Panchayat office, can help eliminate bogus Job Cards and fudged Muster Rolls. The NREGA's Monitoring and Information System (MIS), which computerises all records and makes them available on the Internet, is another important transparency measure that people are slowly learning to use.

Along similar lines, simple transparency measures have been introduced in Chhattisgarh to eliminate bogus ration cards. For instance, every house in Lakhanpur had a large round sign, painted next to the door, displaying the type of ration card held by that household and the corresponding entitlements (price and quantity). This serves the dual purpose of generating awareness about entitlements and of naming and shaming those who possess a ration card (e.g. an Antyodaya card) for which they are not eligible. Enhancing Voice' Turning to the demand side of the story, the most significant step in Chhattisgarh was a major expansion in the coverage of the PDS. In what is widely seen now as a shrewd political move, Raman Singh (BJP leader and current Chief Minister) revamped the PDS ahead of the 2007 state elections. Today, close to 80 per cent of the rural population including all SC/ST households is entitled to PDS grain at either one or two rupees per kilo. The fact that most rural households have a strong stake in the PDS has generated immense pressure on the system (ration shops in particular) to deliver. Expanded PDS coverage and lower issue prices have both contributed to enhancing the voice of otherwise poor and disempowered rural cardholders. As Rajeev Jaiswal (Joint Director, Food and Civil Supplies) put it: At the moment we are only using the voice of 80 per cent of the rural community. When the PDS is universalised, the entire community including the better educated and more vocal sections will start putting pressure on the system. Political move Ultimately, however, it is political will that seems to matter most. Somehow, the PDS became a political priority in Chhattisgarh and a decision was made to turn it around, instead of siding with the corrupt dealers who were milking the system. When political bosses firmly direct the bureaucracy to fix a dysfunctional system, things begin to change. The fact that government functionaries were under enormous pressure to make the PDS work was evident in Lakhanpur. For instance, monitoring grain movements had become one of the top priorities of the patwaris and tehsilars. The tehsildar mentioned that the PDS was the first agenda item whenever meetings were held at the district level. The political pressure was also manifest in their willingness to stand up to vested interests, e.g. by arresting corrupt middlemen and taking them to Court if need be. It would be nave to think that the revival of the PDS in Chhattisgarh reflects the kind-heartedness of the state government, especially in the light of its contempt for people's rights in other contexts. It was a political calculation, nothing more. But it worked, and it can happen elsewhere too.

Free Speech
Recent incidents of bans A K Ramanujans essay Three Hundred Ramayanas was dropped from the DU syllabus Rohinton Mistrys Such a long journey was dropped from the Mumbai University syllabus Movies like Aarakshan, Bandit Queen, Water etc have been banned by some state governments India was the first country to ban Rushdies The Satanic Verses Why protect freedom of Speech? Self government argument: For a robust democratic process. It is essential for people to communicate on political matters, which in turn enables them to fully participate in democratic affairs Laissez faire argument: in a marketplace of ideas, the better ideas eventually prevail through competition. It is essential in a societys search for truth, which will ultimately emerge after a competition of all ideas in the marketplace Freedom of speech as promotion of every individuals self-fulfillment and autonomy. This rationale posits that protection of free speech is essential for human identity. To be fully human, it is essential to protect thoughts. Indias constitutional tradition strongly supports freedom of speech.

Fundamental Rights
Freedom of Assembly Guaranteed by the Article 19(1)(b) Recently violated in the evacuation of Baba Ramdev from the Ramlila Maidan Section 144 of the CrPC imposed in the area around Jantar Mantar in August 2011 o Because of this there is a ban on any protest or even gathering of four or more people in the area By seeking to deny citizens the right to stage even peaceful, non-violent protests, the regime is betraying not just intolerance but also a lack of confidence in the face of growing public anger against political corruption and the cover-up of allegations of corruption.

Gender & Equality

Adverse Sex Ratio Among the many forms of gender inequality, perhaps the most insidious is the one related to the sex ratio. India ranks high among countries having an adverse sex ratio, with fewer women than men. The 2011 Census revealed a small improvement in the overall sex ratio, from 932.91 females for every 1000 males (in 2001) to 940.27, but a steep fall in ratio for the 0-6 age group, from 927.31 to 914.23. Now the World Banks World Development Report 2012 has come up with more shaming numbers. After China, India has the highest number of missing girls at birth, that is, the numbers that should have been born in keeping with the average world sex ratio at birth. It is small consolation that in India, the number of girls missing at age zero has come down marginally since 1990. The report, titled Gender Equality and Development, notes that were it not for these two countries, an additional 1.2 million girls would have been born in the world (1 million in China alone). In both countries, the son preference a clear cultural preference for boys combining with the easy availability of technology to discover the sex of the foetus has resulted in sex-selective abortions, a phenomenon Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen terms natal inequality. The high numbers in India show that attempts to tackle female foeticide through a ban on sex-determination tests, imposed under the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act, have been largely ineffective.

China and India also account for the highest excess female mortality after birth, that is, the numbers of girls and women who die prematurely. The disproportionate mortality of girls during infancy and early childhood is the result of discrimination and a lack of access to water, sanitation, and health facilities. In India and some other countries, complications of pregnancy and childbirth are the cause of excess deaths of women in the reproductive

age. The World Bank report makes the telling point that despite stellar economic growth in recent years, maternal mortality [in India] is almost six times the rate in Sri Lanka. On the other hand, in sub-Saharan Africa, which accounts for 1.1 million missing women a majority of them in the reproductive age group the report notes the dramatic impact of HIV/AIDS on the increase from about 639,000 in 1990. From these and other numbers presented by the report, it is clear that, while more women are getting educated and entering the labour force, the gender gap stubbornly persists in vital domains. These gaps cannot be addressed unless it is first realised that gender inequality is not a womens issue and that it affects the well being of both men and women. Womens Reservation Bill 2010
It was a momentous development when the Women's Reservation Bill was passed by the Rajya Sabha on the 9th of March, 2010. For more than ten years now, the Bill has led to heated debates in the Parliament, with supporters saying that it will pave the way for an active participation of women in politics, and detractors saying that it will benefit only a narrow spectrum of privileged women. Let us take a look at what the Bill has to offer, and what the controversy is all about. What does the Women's Reservation Bill provide? The Women's Reservation Bill is a proposed legislation to reserve 33.3 per cent of seats in Parliament and State legislatures for women. This would mean reserving 181 of the 543 seats in the Lok Sabha and 1,370 out of a total of 4,109 seats in the 28 State Assemblies for women. In case of seats reserved for SC-ST candidates, 33.3 percent would have to be reserved for women. The reservation of seats is proposed to be on rotation basis, which means that the 33.3 % seats reserved in one election would cease to be reserved in the next election. In its place, another set of seats totaling 33.3 % would get reserved. The provision for reservation is proposed to be in place for 15 years. The Bill is an extension of the 33.3 % reservation of seats for women in the Panchayats to the State Legislatures and the Pm-ti1Gllent. Reservation for women in Panchayats has resulted in probably one of the largest mobilization of women in public life in the world. How did the Bill originate? The proposed legislation was first introduced in the Lok Sabha on September 12, 1996 by the United Front government as the 81 st Constitutional Amendment Bill. In 1998 it was reintroduced in the 12th Lok Sabha as the 84th Constitutional Amendment Bill by the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government. It was reintroduced again in 1999, 2002, 2003. In 2004 it was included in the Common Minimum Program of the UPA government. All these years the Bill could not be passed because of lack of political consensus. It was again tabled in the Rajya Sabha in 2008, and has now been passed by the Rajya Sabha in 2010. What is the objective of the Bill? The Bill is aimed at fostering gender equality in Parliament, which in turn would lead to the empowerment of women as a whole. It is expected that increased political participation will help Indian women fight against the age old discrimination and deprivation they have been subjected to, and the inequality they suffer from. The Bill, it is felt, would create a level playing field for the women to enhance their presence and status in politics initially and in society eventually. What are the apprehensions regarding the Bill? Some political parties are apprehensive that the reservation for women would rob the chances of many of their male leaders to fight elections. Coupled with the reservation that already exists for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, a further reservation for women would be discriminatory for other sections of people. Others say that the reservation would benefit only elite women, causing further discrimination and under representation to the poor and backward classes. They are opposed to the bill in its present form and want a quota within quota for women from backward classes. It is also felt that rotation of seats being reserved may reduce the commitment of the elected MPs to their constituencies as their chances of getting reelected would be very little. What is the status of the Bill now? The Bill, which is also the Constitution (108thAmendment) Bill, was passed by the

Rajya Sabha on 9th March 2010. It will now be tabled in Lok Sabha. Once approved

by both houses, it will be sent for Presidential consent and then become a law, giving 33% reservation to women in Parliament and State Assemblies. The reservation will remain in place for 15 years and then be extended, if necessary. Protection of Women Against Sexual Harassment at Workplace Bill, 2010
Provides for mandatory setting up of an internal committee by a company or any other institute to probe a written complaint by an aggrieved person or settle the matter through conciliation It fixes the responsibility on the employer as well as the District Magistrate or Additional District Magistrate or the Collector or Deputy Collector of every district in the State as a District Officer and lays down a statutory redressal mechanism. In the case of false or malicious complaint, the bill provides for action against the complainant in accordance with service rules and in any other manner in case no service rules exist. Options Make cities safer for women Delhi is one of the most unsafe city for women in the world, with a rape being reported every 29 minutes Interestingly, most of these crimes happen in the most public of places. Public places are unsafe: women feel most unsafe when travelling in a bus, walking on street or in a market place Gender issue needs to be comprehensively addressed in city planning and governance Seoul is one of the most women-friendly cities in the world. It has taken the following measures o Certify and assess women-friendly workplaces; womens safety audit of public areas such as parks and streets to map the unsafe ones; gender governance strategies; safe parking locations for women. Female foeticide Institutional mechanisms to deal Pre-conception and pre-natal diagnostic techniques act

General
Cut Motion

Cut motion is a veto power given to the members of the Lok Sabha to oppose a demand in the financial bill discussed by the government. This can turn into an effective tool to test the strength of the government. If a cut motion is adopted by the House and the government does not have the numbers, it is obliged to resign. INS Shivalik

Great Andaman Trunk Road NH 223 or the Great Andaman Trunk Road connects Port Blair and Mayabunder in A&N Islands. It covers a distance of 300 km. In 2002, the SC had ordered the closure of this road due to its effects on the indigenous tribes there. This order hasnt been implemented, however. Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) Established: 1988 HQ: Pune C-DAC is the premier R&D organization of the Department of Information Technology, MCIT for carrying out R&D in IT, Electronics and associated areas. Their wide range of products, services and solutions are designed to cater to a large market ranging from health care systems, datawarehousing, multimedia and multilingual technologies, networking solutions to technical consultancy, training and eGovernance solutions. They had developed the PARAM series of supercomputers. Jogbani Integrated Check Post

This ICP is to be constructed at Jogbani in Bihar on the Indo-Nepal Border. It has been undertaken as a part of the 11th FYP. It is the third ICP in the country after Attari (Punjab) and Raxaul (Bihar). Integrated Check Posts

The Department of Border Management has finalized the Detailed Project Reports for the 13 ICPs to be set up on the borders between India and Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan and Myanmar. The ICPs are envisaged to overcome the infrastructural bottlenecks at the various entry and exit points on the land borders of the country. They are expected to provide facilities for effective and efficient discharge of sovereign functions such as security, immigration, customs, quarantine, etc. while also providing support facilities for smooth cross-border movement of persons, goods and transport. A Bill has been introduced in Parliament for the establishment of a Land Ports Authority of India (LPAI), which has been envisaged as a statutory body for the planning, construction, maintenance and management of these ICPs. Multidimensional Poverty Index

Will be featured in the 2010 HDR. Developed and applied by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative with UNDP support. MPI assesses a range of critical factors or deprivations at the household level: from education to health outcomes to assets and services. The measure reveals the nature and extent of poverty at different levels: from household up to regional, national and international level. According to this measure, 8 Indian states have more poor than 26 African Nations.

Separatist Movements Major movements: Northern Cyprus, Somaliland, Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, Abkhazia and Transnistria

National Sports Awards National Sports Awards are given every year to recognize and reward excellence in sports. Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award is given for spectacular performance in the year under consideration; Arjuna Award is given for consistently outstanding performance for three consecutive years preceding the year of award; Dhyan Chand Award for lift time contribution to sports development; and Dronacharya Award for producing medal winners at prestigious international sports events in past three years. Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Award is given to only one sportsperson in a year. Arjuna Award is given to not more than 15, Dhyan Chand Award to not more than 3 and Dronacharya Award to not more than 5 persons. With a view to recognizing the contribution made to sports development by entities other than sportspersons and coaches, Government has instituted last year (2009), a new award entitled Rashtriya Khel Protsahan Puruskar, which has four categories, namely, community sports development, promotion of sports academies of excellence, support to elite sportspersons and employment to sportspersons. Madrid Agreement Madrid system for the international registration of marks is the primary international system for facilitating the registration of trademarks in multiple jurisdictions around the world. It is administered by the International Bureau of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIIPO) in Geneva, Switzerland. General Insurance Four major GI public sector companies in India: National Insurance Co. Ltd, The New India Assurance Co. Ltd, The Oriental Insurance Co. Ltd, United India Insurance Co. Ltd. UN Missions MINUSTAH UN Stabilisation Mission in Haiti Section 124A of the IPC Charges of sedition. It was invoked against Binayak Sen. Gandhiji was also charged against the same in 1922. whoever by written or spoken words, or by signs or visible representations attempts or brings into hatred or contempt or attempts or excites disaffection towards the government established by law shall be punishable with life imprisonment. Multidimensional Poverty Index Sabina Alkire and James Foster 10 indicators. 3 dimensions: health, education, living standards South Asia has 51 % of MP people; Africa 28% Niger is most poor: 93 % MP people 8 states of India > MP than 26 sub-saharan countries Bihar: 81 % MP

Geography/Places
Earthquake

An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor, temblor or seismic activity) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are measured with a seismometer; a device which also records is known as a seismograph. The moment magnitude (or the related and mostly obsolete Richter magnitude) of an earthquake is conventionally reported, with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being mostly imperceptible and magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. The Mercalli intensity scale is a scale used for measuring the intensity of an earthquake. The scale quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth's surface, humans, objects of nature, and manmade structures on a scale of I through XII, with I denoting not felt, and XII total destruction The Richter magnitude scale, also known as the local magnitude (ML) scale, assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released by an earthquake. It is a base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by calculating the logarithm of the combined horizontal amplitude (shaking amplitude) of the largest displacement from zero on a particular type of seismometer (WoodAnderson torsion). The largest earthquake that has been measured was the 9.5 magnitude one in Chile in 1960. Pattanam Pattanam is a small village in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. Recent excavation conducted by the Kerala Council for Historical Research (KCHR) and Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) indicates that this place could be the ancient trading city of Muziris which is referred to by Roman historians. Baratang Baratang is an island in the Andaman Islands (area: 238 sq.km). This island contains the only known examples of mud volcanoes in India. Barren Island Barren Island is located in the Andaman Sea and is the only confirmed active volcano in South Asia. The most recent eruption was in May 2008. Narcondam Narcondam is a small volcanic island located in the Andaman Sea. It is classified as a dormant volcano by the Geological Survey of India. Nyoma Nyoma is a town in Leh District, J&K. There is an Advanced Landing Ground (ALG) of the Indian Airforce very near to the Line of Actual Control. Similarly, Fukche is also a ALG. Havelock Island It is the largest of the islands of the Ritchies Archipelago in Andaman Islands. In May 2010, the first attack on human by a salt-water crocodile in the open sea was recorded there. Pattadakal The 8th century monuments in Pattadakal (Karnataka) were designated a World Heritage Site in 1987. The monuments are the culmination of the earliest experiments in the vesara style of Hindu temple architecture. Loktak Lake (Manipur) It is an important lake in Manipur which is surrounded by mountains on all sides. It is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India. Also called the only Floating Lake in the world due to floating masses of organic matter on it. It serves as a source for hydropower generation, irrigation and drinking water supply. Hambantota It is a coastal town in south Sri Lanka. India has opened a new consulate there. It has been recently in news for the giant port project built with the help of China. Artibonite river flows through Haiti. In 2010, Cholera epidemic spread in Haiti due to the contaminated water of this river. Ashgabhat is the capital of Turkmenistan. The intergovernmental agreement on TAPI project was signed here in December 2010.

Genetically Modified Crops(GMO)

BT Brinjal In 2006, Maharashtra Hybird Seeds Company submitted biosafety and efficacy data to the GEAC and applied for permission to conduct large-scale trials At the same time SC imposed a ban on the on-going field trials An expert committee was constituted by GEAC to look into the concerns raised by several civil society actors SC later lifted the ban on field trials After a series of reviews the environment ministry declared a moratorium on Bt Brinjal in Feb 2010 Risk assessment Civil society has demanded that the science of risk assessment be made rigourous, independent and peer-reviewed

Important Govt Schemes

Arrange by sector- Arrange by ministries Agriculture National Horticulture Mission National Food Security Mission <details in food-agriculture notes> Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana Education Sarva Siksha Abhiyan Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBY) Health, Nutrition Mid-day meal scheme Rajiv Gandhi Drinking Water Mission Total Sanitation Campaign National Rural Health Mission ICDS Employment/Labour NREGS Programmes for workers in unorganized sector Urban Development JNNURM Rural Development Bharat Nirman <various ministries> Social Assistance Social Justice and Tribal Welfare Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (Recognition of forest rights) Act, 2006 Major Plans during the 11th plan Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana Bharat Nirman Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme National Food Security Mission MNREGP NRHM SSA

Governments Plan Programme & Policies

Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana For BPL, unorganized sector. Oct 1, 2007. Smart card base Careless insurance cover. Rs 30,000/- per annum per family. Beneficiary would Pay Rs 30/- per annum as registration/renewal fee 75 : 25 Rest of Idia. 90 : 10 for N.E . & J.K Rajiv Gandhi Shramik Kalyan Yojana 1st April 2005 It is an unemployment allowance to the insured person for a period of max 12 month. Also entitled to medical care of his/her family for a period of 12 month. MNREGA Important by ministry of Rural Development. 2 Feb, 2006. It guarantee wage employment. 33% participation for women. Worker to obtain insurance under Jan Shree Bima Yojana of LIC. Pradhan Mantri Sadak Yojana On 25th December 2000. 500 person rural and 250 person Hilly, tribal and Desert area. Bharat Nirman Pop. mome than 1000 in the plain area. 500 or more in hilly and tribal area by 2009. Indra Awas Yojana Important by ministry of Rural Development, since 1985-86. Provide financial assistant for construction/upgradation of dwelling unit. 35,000/- in plain area, 38,500/- hilly area, 15,000/- upgradation of Kuchha house. 75 : 25 basis. Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana 1st April 1999. After restruction and merging of Integrated rural development programme. In 2009-2010, It was restructured as National Rural Livelihood mission. Indra Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme Started from 2009. Rs 200/- per month to BPL, widows in the age group of 40-64 years Indra Gandhi National Disability Pension Scheme Rs 200/- per month BPL person. B/W age group 18-64 years. National Rural Drinking Water Programme Implying by ministry of Rural Development National Drinking water mission introduced in 1986. 1991- renamed as Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission. Central Rural Sanitation Programme 1986 launched Total Sanitation by- 2012. UN sponsored date 2015. 1999- Total Sanitation Campaign was launched under restructured Central Rural Sanitation programme. It is a demand driven programme.

National Social Assistance Programme In 1995. To lay foundation for social assistance for the poor. Art 41. Indra Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme Launched in 2007. Rs 200/- per month per beneficiary provide by centre. 60 years and higher of BPL. State were urged to contribute and then Rs. 200. Annapurna Scheme Introduced in 2000 Provide 10 kg of food grain per month free of cost. Given to those person who could not could not cover under National old age pension scheme. National Family Benefit Scheme Rs 5000/- in case of natural death. Rs 10,000/- in case of accidental death. Provided to the family in case of death of primary bread winner of the family. Primary bread winner- 18 to 64 years of age. Back ward Regions Grant Fund Programme Launched in Barpeta (Assam) in 2007. To addressing persistent regional imbalances in development. It Sum summer the Rashtiya Sam Vikas Yojana (administrate by Planning Commission) Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Yojana Implemented by Ministry of Panchayati Raj. Implemented in the non Back ward Regions Grant Fund Programme districts. It provide Training and Capacity building of elected representatives and function of PRI. Jawahar Lal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission Launched 3rd December 2005. Fast track development of cities. Duration (5) year 2005-2006 to 2011-12. National Urban Information System Launched 2006. To develop GIS database for 137 towns/cities in the country. It has two components- Urban spatial Information System Scheme - National Urban Databank and Indicators.

JNNURM 2005 Rs 66000 crore To be implemented over a seven year period from 2005 to 2012 Focuses on 65 mission cities Two aspects: improved urban infrastructure and improved urban basic services The scheme walks on the twin legs of reforms and funds for projects Reform agenda covered four broad areas like governance, citizen-responsive and process oriented, land and property related, and financial Governance Reforms o Implementation of the 74th constitutional amendment o Transfer of city planning function to the local bodies o Administrative as well as structural reforms o Encouraging PPP Process-oriented and Citizen-responsive o Adoption of double entry system of accounting o Introduction of the system of e-governance o Enactment of public disclosure and community participation laws o Rationalisation of stamp duty to a uniform 5% across the country Land and property-related reforms o Reform of property tax at city level o Earmarking at least 20% to 25% of developed land for weaker sections at city level o Amendment of rent control o Introduction of property title certification Financial sustainability o Levy of reasonable user charges and city-wide property tax coverage and collection Evaluation o While moderate implementation of reforms has taken place, many states and cities lag behind in completing milestones o While WB, MP, Maha, UP and KL have made good progress, AP, Karnataka and Gujarat lag behind in rent control reforms. o Among reforms, community participation legislation, rent control amendment and transfer of city planning function appear as the most complicated ones for implementation to the states as 18, 15 and 14 states respectively have not been able to meet this reform milestone. o Out of the 537 infrastructure projects sanctioned so far for the 65 mission cities, only 81 have got completed so for Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBY) Background 2004 To set up upto 750 residential schools with boarding facilities at elementary level for girls belonging predominantly to the SC, ST, OBC and minorities in difficult areas. The scheme will be coordinated with the existing schemes like SSA, National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level (NPEGEL) and Mahila Samakhya (MS) Coverage Only in identified Educationally Backward Blocks (EEB) where, as per census data of 2001, the female literacy is below the national average and gender gap in literacy is more than the national average The criteria for eligible will be the same as in the NPEGEL scheme of SSA. Funding Centre: State 75:25 during the tenth plan and 50:50 thereafter. Objective Reduce gender disparities Ensure access and quality education to the girls of disadvantaged groups of society by setting up residential schools with boarding facilities at elementary level

Bharat Nirman Bharat Nirman, a programme to build rural infrastructure, was launched by the Government of India in 2005. Phase II of the programme is being implemented from 2009-10 to 2011-12. Objectives Drinking Water: Provide safe drinking water to all uncovered habitations by 2012. Implemented by Min of Rural Devt. Housing: Target of 60 lakh additional houses for the poor achieved till 2009. New target of 1.2 crore houses by 2014 adopted. Being implemented through the Indira Awas Yojana programme of Min of Rural Devt. Telecommunication and IT: Achieve 40 pc rural teledensity by the year 2014, ensure broadband coverage to all 2.5 lakh Panchayats and set up Bharat Nirman Seva Kendras at Panchayat level by 2012. Implementing: dept of telecomm., Min of Comm and IT. Roads: Connect all villages that have a population of 1000 (or 500 in hilly/tribal area) with an all weather road by 2012. Imple: Min of Rural Devt through PM Gram Sadak Yojana. Electricity: Reach electricity to all villages and offer electricity connection to 1.75 crore poor households by 2012. Imple: Min of Power through the Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana that was launched in 2005. Irrigation: Bring additional one crore hectare of land under assured irrigation by 2012. Imple: Ministry of Water Resources. National Horticulture Mission 2004, Centrally sponsored scheme. Horticulture sector includes fruit, vegetables, spices, medicinal and aromatic plants, flowers, mushroom and a variety of plantation crops like coconut, arecanut, cashewnut and cocoa. Objectives o Double the horticulture production, i.e. to achieve a production of 300 million tonnes by 2011-12 o To establish convergence and synergy among various on-going and planned programmes in the field of horticulture development o To promote the development and dissemination of technologies by blending traditional wisdom and frontier knowledge. It will focus in the areas of horticultural research, development, post harvest management, processing and marketing. Through improved technologies in crop production Post harvest management would include providing suitable infrastructure for handling, transport, storage and markets etc. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana 2007 Aims at achieving 4% annual growth in the agriculture sector during the XI plan period by ensuring a holistic development of agriculture and allied sectors.

Important Years & Places

1900 1911 1958 1963 1965 1966 1967 1971 1974 1977 1980 1985 1987 1989 1992 1995 1997 2002

Davis Cup started Indian Research Fund Association started. In 1949, it was re-designated as Indian Council of Medical Research Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar Prize instituted UNRISD UNDP Asian Development Bank ASEAN World Economic Forum Womens World Cup Hockey started International Fund for Agricultural Development (UN specialized agency) [as a result of 1974 World Food Conference] World Climate Research Programme SAARC Montreal Protocol UN Convention on the Rights of the Child [US and Somalia have signed but not ratified the convention] UN Conference on Environment and Development (aka Earth Summit or Rio Summit) o UN Commission Sustainable Development was established as a result of this

World Summit for Social Development, Copenhagen [adoption of Copenhagen declaration] Formation of WTO National Environment Appellate Authority Navratna PSUs identified

World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg [organized by the UN Commission on SD] Major Years of Celebration 2010 20 Years of Human Development Reports 2011 Centenary Year of Indian Council of Medical Research ICMR was setup in 1911 as Indian Research Fund Association and renamed as 1949 as Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). It is the apex body for the formulation, coordination and promotion of biomedical research in the country.

Environment 1992

UN Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) o Climate Change Convention (Kyoto Protocol) o Not to carry out any activities on the land of indigenous people that would cause environment degradation or would be culturally inappropriate o UNFCCC was established o Prototype for UN Forum on Forests agreed on

National
New Delhi National Institute of Immunology (Autonomous and supported by the Dept of Biotechnology, GoI) Hyderabad National Geophysical Research Institute (under CSIR) International Rome Food and Agricultural Organization FIDE (World Chess Federation)

Indian Geography
Location Q: Why is Indias north-south distance (3214 km) more than the east-west distance (2933), though both latitudinal and longitudinal extent of India is about 30 degree? A: This is because the distance between the longitudes decreases near the pole whereas the distances between latitudes remain the same everywhere. Time Zone There is a general convention to select the standard time zone meridian in multiples of 7o30 of longitude. There are 24 time zones on earth, each 15 degree apart. USA uses multiple time zone system (7 time zones) India has the longest international boundary with Bangladesh. Tropic of Cancer passes through the following 8 states Gujarat Rajasthan MP CG Jharkhand WB Tripura Mizoram Gujarat has the longest coast line. UP borders the maximum number of states: 8 HP Haryana Uttarakhand Rajasthan MP CG Bihar Jharkhand Population Highest: UP> Maha> Bihar > WB Lowest: Sikkim< Mizoram < Arunachal < Goa Area

Highest: Rajasthan>MP> Maha>>Andhra Lowest: Goa<Sikkim<Tripura<Nagaland<Mizoram

Landforms Three Geological divisions: 1. The peninsular block 2. The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains 3. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain Peninsualar block is made of gneisses (metamorphic) and granites (igneous). Six physiographic divisions: 1. The Northern and North-eastern Mountains 2. The Northern Plain 3. The Peninsular Plateau 4. The Indian Desert 5. The Coastal Plains 6. The Islands Northern and North-Eastern Mountains Approximate length of the Great Himalayan range: 2500 KM. Width: 160-400 KM

Impact of Himalayas on the climate of India? It can be divided into five sub-divisions: 1. Kashmir (or Northwestern) Himalayas 2. Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas 3. Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas 4. Arunachal Himalayas 5. Eastern Hills and Mountains Kashmir Himalayas Ranges: Karakoram, Ladhakh, Zaskar, Pir Pinjal Glaciers: Baltoro, Siachen Passes: Zoji La (Great Himalayas), Banihal (Pir Pinjal), Photu La (Zaskar) and Khardung La (Ladakh) Lakes: (freshwater) Dal and Wular; (saltwater) Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri Pilgrimage: Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar-e-Sharif They are also famous for Karewa formations which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran (a local variety of Saffron). Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraines. Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum river. Meanders is a typical feature associated with the rivers in this region. In South, there are longitudinal valleys called duns; Jammu dun and Pathankot dun Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas Lies between rivers Ravi and Kali Drained by two major river systems: Indus and Ganga Northernmost part is an extension of the Ladakh desert, lies in Spiti. Ranges: Great Himalayan Range, Lesser Himalayas (Dhaoladhar in HP and Nagtibha in Uttarakhand), Shivalik range Pilgrimage: Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Hemkund Sahib and the five famous prayags (Refer to Panch Prayag) Famous for hill stations: Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani; Cantt.: Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne, Ranikhet The important distinguishing features of this area are the Shivalik and Dun formations. Important duns: Chandigarh-Kalka, Nalagarh, Dehra, Harike, Kota Dehradun is the largest of all duns: Length 35-45 KM, Width: 22-25 KM Inhabited with the Bhotia tribe. They migrate to higher reaches (Bugyals) in summer and return to the valleys during winters. Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas Between Nepal Himalayas and Bhutan Himalayas. Fast flowing rivers such as Tista Peaks: Kanchenjunga Tribe: Lepcha Has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India. Importance: Due to the moderate slope, it is best suited for tea plantations. <India produces about 26 pc of tea in the world; second after China. Also, accounts for 12 pc of tea exports; fourth in the world.> Duar formations are peculiar to this region. Arunachal Himalayas From Bhutan Himalayas to Diphu pass in the east. Direction: Southwest to Northeast Peaks: Kangtu and Namya Barwa Rivers: Brahmaputra, Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit. These rivers are perennial and have the highest hydro-electric power potential in the country. Tribes: Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and Nagas These communities practice shifting cultivation known as Jhumming.

Eastern Hills and Mountains Direction: North to South Ranges: Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Manipur hills, Mizo or Lushai hills

These are low hills Tribes practice Jhum cultivation Rivers: Barak. Most of the Nagaland rivers form a tributary of Brahmaputra. Rivers in eastern Manipur are the tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of the Irrawady of Myanmar. Lake: Loktak Loktak Lake: is an important lake in Manipur which is surrounded by mountains on all sides. It is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India. Also called the only Floating Lake in the world due to floating masses of organic matter on it. It serves as a source for hydropower generation, irrigation and drinking water supply. Keibul Kamjao National Park located in the Bishnupur district of Manipur is the only floating park in the world and is an integral part of the Loktak Lake. Home to the endangered Manipur Elds Deer or Brow-antlered Deer or Sangai or Dancing Deer. Mizoram is also known as the Molassis basin which is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits. The Northern Plains Formed by the alluvial deposits of rivers Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra. Length: 3200 KM; Width: 150-300 KM Three main zones: 1. Bhabar 2. Tarai 3. Alluvial Plains (Khadar and Bangar) Bhabar Narrow belt. 8-10 KM wide. Paralllel to Shivalik at the break-up of the slope. Hence, streams and rivers deposit heavy rocks (and at times disappear) in this zone. Tarai South of Bhabar. 10-20 KM wide. Rivers re-emerge and create marshy and swampy conditions known as Tarai. Alluvial Belt South of Tarai. Features of mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositional landforms such as sand bars, meanders, ox-bow lakes and braided channels. Riverine islands in Brahmaputra. Brahmaputra takes a turn an almost 90 degree turn at Dhubri (Assam) before entering Bangladesh. Peninsular Plateau Bounded by the Delhi ridge, Rajmahal Hills, Gir range and Cardamom hills. Made up of a series of patland plateaus: Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Malwa, Coimbatore, Karnataka etc. One of the oldest and most stable landmass of India. Rivers? Physiographic Features: Tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, hummocky hills and quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage. Black soil in western and northwestern parts. Bhima fault in this region has frequent seismic activity (Lathur earthquake) NW part also has ravines and gorges: Chambal, Bhind and Morena. Three broad regions: 1. Deccan Plateau 2. Central Highlands 3. Northwestern Plateau Deccan Plateau Bordered by Eastern Ghats, Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills Important ranges: WG: Sahyadri, Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Caradamom hills; EG: Javadi hills, Palconda range, Nallamala Hills, Mahendragiri hills EG and WG meet at Nilgiri hills. Highest peak: Anaimudi (2695 m) on Anaimalai hills; Dodabetta (2637 m) on Nilgiri hills. Rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc. Central Highlands Bounded by the Aravali and Satpura range. Relic mountains, highly denuded and form discontinuous ranges.

Near Jaisalmer it is covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans. Elevation: 700-1000 m Banas, a tributary of Chambal, originates in the Aravalli. Other tributaries of Yamuna originate from the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges. Minerals in Chotanagpur plateau. Northeastern Plateau Extension of the main Peninsular plateau. Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau. Megahalaya plateau: Garo hills, Khasi hills and Jaintia hills (named after the tribals inhabiting the region) Rich in minerals like coal, iron, sillimanite, limestone and uranium. Receives maximum rainfall from SW monsoon. Hence, Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapuni and Myswarnam. Indian Desert Aka Marusthali Northwest of the Aravali hills Dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans. Low rainfall: >150 mm per year Low vegetation cover Evidence that this area was under the sea during the Mesozoic era. Features: mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis. Rivers are ephemeral: Luni. Brackish lakes. Inland drainage. Coastal Plains Two divisions: 1. Western coastal plains 2. Eastern Coastal Plains Western Coastal Plains Submerged coastal plain. Hence, a narrow belt. Narrow in middle and broader towards north and south. Ports: Provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours due to submergence. Kandla, Mazagaon (Mumbai), JLN port Navha Sheva, Maramagao, Mangalore, Cochin etc. Mumbai has the worlds largest natural harbour. May be divided into: Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast, Goan coast and Malabar coast. Rivers dont form delta. Kayals (Backwaters): Found in the Malabar coast. Used for fishing and inland navigation. Every year Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala. Eastern Coastal Plains Broader Emergent coast. Hence, less number of ports and harbours. Chennai, Vizag, Paradwip, Haldia. Delta formation The Islands Two major Divisions: 1. Andaman and Nicobar 2. Lakshwadeep & Minicoy Andaman and Nicobar Two major island groups: Ritchies archipelago and the Labrynth island. The group is divided into: Andaman in the North and Nicobar in the South. Andaman and Nicobar separated by the Ten Degree channel. Barren Island Peaks: Saddle Peak (N.Andaman 738 m), Mt. Diavolo (Middle Andaman 515 m), Mt. Koyob (S Andaman 460 m) and Mt. Thuiller (Great Nicobar 642 m) Coral deposits found Convectional rainfalls and equatorial type of vegetation.

Lakshadweep and Minicoy Entire group built of coral deposits. Total of 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited. Smallest UT Minicoy is the largest island Separated by the 9 Degree Channel, north of which is the Amini Island and to the south Canannore island. These islands have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders. Drainage System Drainage: Flow of water through well-defined channels. Network of such channels is called a drainage system . Drainage basin: An area drained by a river and its tributaries. Watershed: Boundary line separating one drainage basin from other. River basins are larger watersheds. Drainage pattern of an area depends on the geological time period, nature and structure of rocks, topography, rocks, slope, amount of water and periodicity of flow. Important drainage patterns: 1. Dendritic: Resembling the branches of a tree. Eg. Northern Plain rivers 2. Radial: Originate from a hill and flow in all directions. Eg. Rivers in Amarkantak 3. Trellis: Primary tributaries parallel to each other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles. 4. Centripetal: Rivers discharge waters from all directions in a lake or depression A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its catchment area. Nearly 77 pc of drainage is towards the Bay of Bengal while about 23 pc is towards the Arabian Sea. The Himalayan Drainage System Mainly includes the Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra river basins. Over the plains, rivers of this system change the course often. River Kosi is also known as the sorrow of Bihar due to flooding by its frequent change of course by deposition of sediments. Evolution Geologists believe that a mighty river called Shivalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire length of the Himalayas some 5-24 million years ago. Over time this got dismembered into the present three major river systems. The Indus System Indus river originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in Tibet in the Kailash Mountain range. Known as Singi Khamban (Lions mouth) in Tibet. It forms a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in J&K. Enters Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region. Flows only through the Leh distt of J&K. Smaller tributaries: Shyok, Gilgit, Zaskar, Nubra, Hunza, Shigar, Gasting, Dras. On right bank: Kabul river, Khurram, Tochi, Gomal, Viboa and hte Sangar. Major tributaries: Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum Jhelum Origin: Verinag at foot of Pir Pinjal. Flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake. Joins Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan Origin: Two streams (Chandra and Bhaga) which join at Tandi near Keylong in HP. Largest tributary of Indus. Aka Chandrabhaga. Flows for 1180 KM before entering Pakistan Origin: Kullu hills of HP near Rohtang Pass. Enters Pakistan and joins Chenab near Sarai Sidhu Origin: Beas Kund near Rohtang pass. Forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. Meets Satluj near Harike. Origin: Rakas lake near Mansarowar in Tibet. Known as Langchen Khambab in Tibet. Enters India at Ropar. Antecedent river. Bhakra Nangal Project is on this river.

Chenab

Ravi Beas

Satluj

The Ganga System It is the largest river system in India. Ganga rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district. Here it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda and is known as Ganga hereafter. Panchprayag Vishnu Ganga Joshimath Dhauli and Vishnu Ganga meet to form Alaknanda

Alaknanda Yamuna

Chambal

Gandak

Origin: Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. Consists of Dhauli and Vishnu Ganga. Origin: Yamnotri glacier on Banderpunch range. Joins Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). RBT: Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken LBT: Hindan, Rind, Sengar, Varuna. Agra canal Origin: Mhow in Malwa plateau. Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar dam. Famour for Chambal ravines. Origin: In Nepal between Dhaulgiri and Mt. Everest. Enters Ganga plain in Champaran and joins Ganga at Sonpur near Patna. Two streams: Kaliganfak and Trishulganga. Origin: Glaciers of Mapchachungo Tributaries: Tila, Seti and Beri Deep gorge at Shishpani Sarda (Kali) joint it and meet Ganga at Chhapra. Origin: North of Mt. Everest in Tibet. Tributaties: Son Kosi, Tamur Kosi, Arun Changes course often. Sorrow of Bihar.

Ghaghra

Kosi

Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar. Left Bank tributaries (LBT): Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and Mahananda. Right Bank tributaries (RBT): Son Discharges into Bay of Bengal near Sagar island.

Indias Freedom for Struggle India in the Eighteenth Century

Bahadur Shah 1 (1707-12) Muzam succeeded Aurungzeb after latters death in 1707 He acquired the title of Bahadur Shah. Though he was quite old (65) and his rule quite short there are many significant achievements he made He reversed the narrow minded and antagonistic policies of Aurungzeb Made agreements with Rajput states Granted sardeshmukhi to Marathas but not Chauth Released Shahuji (son of Sambhaji) from prison (who later fought with Tarabai) Tried to make peace with Guru Gobind Sahib by giving him a high Mansab. After Gurus death, Sikhs again revolted under the leadership of Banda Bahadur. This led to a prolonged war with the Sikhs. Made peace with Chhatarsal, the Bundela chief and Churaman, the Jat chief. State finances deteriorated Jahandar Shah (1712-13) Death of Bahadur Shah plunged the empire into a civil war A noted feature of this time was the prominence of the nobles Jahandar Shah, son of Bahadur Shah, ascended the throne in 1712 with help from Zulfikar Khan Was a weak ruler devoted only to pleasures Zulfikar Khan, his wazir, was virtually the head of the administration ZK abolished jizyah Peace with Rajputs: Jai Singh of Amber was made the Governor of Malwa. Ajit Singh of Marwar was made the Governor of Gujarat. Chauth and Sardeshmukh granted to Marathas. However, Mughals were to collect it and then hand it over to the Marathas. Continued the policy of suppression towards Banda Bahadur and Sikhs Ijarah: (revenue farming) the government began to contract with revenue farmers and middlemen to pay the government a fixed amount of money while they were left free to collect whatever they could from the peasants Jahandhar Shah defeated in January 1713 by his nephew Farrukh Siyar at Agra Farrukh Siyar (1713-19) Owed his victory to Saiyid Brothers: Hussain Ali Khan Barahow and Abdullah Khan Abdullah Khan: Wazir, Hussain Ali: Mir Bakshi FS was an incapable ruler. Saiyid brothers were the real rulers. Saiyid Brothers o Known the Indian History as King Makers o adopted the policy of religious tolerance. Abolished jizyah (again?). Pilgrim tax was abolished from a number of places o Marathas: Granted Shahuji swarajya and the right to collect chauth and sardeshmukhi of the six provinces of the Deccan o They failed in their effort to contain rebellion because they were faced with constant political rivalry, quarrels and conspiracies at the court. o Nobles headed by Nizam-ul-Mulk and Muhammad Amin Khan began to conspire against them o In 1719, the Saiyid Brothers killed and overthrew FS. o This was followed by placing, in quick succession, of two young princes who died of consumption o Murder of the emperor created a wave of revulsion against the SB. They were looked down as namak haram Now, they placed 18 year old Muhammad Shah as the emperor of India In 1720, the nobles assassinated Hussain Ali Khan, the younger of the SB. Abdullah Khan was also defeated at Agra Muhammad Shah Rangeela (1719-1748) Weak-minded, frivolous and over-fond of a life of ease

Neglected the affairs of the state Intrigued against his own ministers Naizam ul Mulk Qin Qulich Khan, the wazir, relinquished his office and founded the state of Hyderabad in 1724 o His departure was symbolic of the flight of loyalty and virtue from the Empire Heriditary nawabs arose in Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh and Punjab Marathas conquered Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand 1738: Invasion of Nadir Shah

Nadir Shahs Invasion (1738) Attracted to India by its fabulous wealth. Continual campaigns had made Persia bankrupt Also, the Mughal empire was weak. Didnt meet any resistance as the defense of the north-west frontier had been neglected for years The two armies met at Karnal on 13th Feb 1739. Mughal army was summarily defeated. MS taken prisoner Massacre in Delhi in response to the killing of some of his soldiers Plunder of about 70 crore rupees. Carried away the Peacock throne and Koh-i-noor MS ceded to him all the provinces of the Empire west of the river Indus Significance: Nadir Shahs invasion exposed the hidden weakness of the empire to the Maratha sardars and the foreign trading companies Ahmed Shah Abdali One of the generals of Nadir Shah Repeatedly invaded and plundered India right down to Delhi and Mathura between 1748 and 1761. He invaded India five times. 1761: Third battle of Panipat. Defeat of Marathas. As a result of invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah, the Mughal empire ceased to be an all-India empire. By 1761 it was reduced merely to the Kingdom of Delhi Shah Alam II (1759 Ahmed Bahadur (1748-54) succeeded Muhammad Shah Ahmed Bahadur was succeeded by Alamgir II (1754-59) o 1756: Abdali plundered Mathura Alamgir II was succeeded by Shah Jahan III Shah Jahan III succeeded by Shah Alam II in 1759 Shah Alam spent initial years wandering for he lived under the fear of his wazir In 1764, he joined forces with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh in declaring a war upon the British East India company. This resulted in the Battle of Buxar Pensioned at Allahabad Returned to Delhi in 1772 under the protection of Marathas Decline of the Mughal Empire After 1759, Mughal empire ceased to be a military power. It continued from 1759 till 1857 only due to the powerful hold that the Mughal dynasty had on the minds of the people of India as a symbol of the political unity of the country In 1803, the British occupied Delhi From 1803 to 1857, the Mughal emperors merely served as a political front of the British. The most important consequence of the fall of the Mughal empire was that it paved way for the British to conquer India as there was no other Indian power strong enough to unite and hold India. Succession States These states arose as a result of the assertion of autonomy by governors of Mughal provinces with the decay of the central power Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad Hyderabad and the Carnatic Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724 Tolerant policy towards Hindus

o A Hindu, Puran Chand, was his Dewan. Established an orderly administration in Deccan on the basis of the jagirdari system on the Mughal pattern He died in 1748 Nawab of Carnatic freed himself of the control of the Viceroy of the Deccan and made his office hereditary o Saadutullah Khan of Carnatic made his nephew Dost Ali his successor

Bengal 1700: Murshid Quli Khan made the Dewan of Bengal Freed himself of the central control Freed Bengal of major uprisings o Three major uprisings during his time: Sitaram Ray, Udai Narayan and Ghulam Muhammad, and then by Shujat Khan, and finally by Najat Khan Carried out fresh revenue settlement. Introduced the system of revenue-farming. Revenue farming led to the increased distress of the farmers Laid the foundations of the new landed aristocracy in Bengal MQK died in 1727. Succeeded by Shuja-ud-din. 1739: Alivardi Khan killed and deposed Shuja-ud-dins son, Sarfaraz Khan, and made himself the Nawab All three Nawabs encouraged merchants, both Indian and foreign. Safety of roads and rivers. Thanas and Chowkies at regular intervals. Maintained strict control over the foreign trading companies They, however, did not firmly put down the increasing tendency of the English East India Company to use military force, or to threaten its use, to get its demands accepted. They also neglected to build a strong army Awadh

1722: Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk Suppressed rebellions and disciplined the Zamindars Fresh revenue settlement in 1723 Did not discriminate between Hindus and Muslims. The highest post in his government was held by a Hindu, Maharaja Nawab Rai Died in 1739. Succeeded by Safdar Jung. SJs reign was an era of peace made an alliance with the Maratha sardars Carried out warfare against Rohelas and Bangash Pathans Organized an equitable system of justice Distinct culture of Lucknow developed during his period

Mysore Haidar Ali, in 1761, overthrew Nanjaraj and established his own authority over Mysore 1755: Established a modern arsenal at Dindigal with the help of French experts Conquered Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara and Malabar He conquered Malabar because he wanted access to the Indian Ocean First and Second Anglo-Mysore War 1782: Succeeded by Tipu Sultan TS was an innovator. Introduced a new calendar, a new system of coinage and new scales of weights and measures. Keen interest in French Revolution o Planted a tree of liberty at Srirangapatnam and became a member of the Jacobin Club Made efforts to build a modern navy Mysore flourished economically under Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan Sent missions to France, Turkey, Iran and Pegu Myanmar to develop foreign trade Some historians say that Tipu was a religious fanatic. But facts dont support this assertion.

Kerala Divided into large number of feudal chiefs in the 18th century

Four important states o Calicut (under Zamorin), Chirakkal, Cochin and Travancore In 1729, Travancore rose to prominence under King Martanda Varma Conquered Quilon and Elayadam, and defeated the Dutch From 1766 Haidar Ali invaded Kerala and annexed northern Kerala up to Cochin Revival of Malyalam literature o Trivandram became a famous centre of Sanskrit scholarship

Rajput States Rajputana states continued to be divided as before Raja Sawai Jai Singh of Amber was the most outstanding ruler of the era o Founded the city of Jaipur o Made Jaipur a great seat of science and art o Astronomer. Erected observatories at Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, and Mathura o Drew up a set of tables, entitled Zij Muhammadshahi, to enable people to make astronomical observations o Translated Euclids Elements of Geometry into Sanskrit o Social reformers. Reduce lavish marriage expenditures. Jats Jat peasants revolted in 1669 and 1688 Jat state of Bharatpur set up by Churaman and Badan Singh Reached its highest glory under Suraj Mal, who ruled from 1756 to 1763 Sikhs Sikhsim transformed into a militant religion during Guru Hargobind (1606-45), the sixth guru. Guru Gobind Singh waged constant war against the armies of Aurangzeb and the hill rajas After Guru Gobind Singhs death (1708), leadership passed to Banda Singh (Banda Bahadur) o He struggled with the Mughal army for 8 years o Put to death in 1715 Banda Bahadur failed because o Mughal centre was still strong o Upper classes and castes of Punjab joined forces against him o He could not integrate all the anti-Mughal forces because of his religious bigotry After the withdrawal of Abdali from Punjab, Sikhs were again resurgent Between 1765 and 1800 they brought the Punjab and Jammu under their control They were organized into 12 misls Ranjit Singh o Chief of the Sukerchakia Misl o Captured Lahore (1799) and Amritsar (1802) o Conquered Kashmir, Peshawar and Multan o Possessed the second best army in Asia o Tolerant and liberal o Fakir Azizuddin and Dewan Dina Nath were his important ministers o known to step down from his throne to wipe the dust off the feet of Muslim mendicants with his long grey beard o Negative point: He did not remove the threat of British. He only left it over to his successors. And so, after his death, when his kingdom was torn by intense internal struggle, English conquered it. Marathas Maratha Families o Peshwa Pune o Gaekwad Baroda o Bhosle Nagpur o Holkar Indore o Scindia - Gwalior The most powerful of the succession states Could not fill the political vacuum because o Maratha Sardars lacked unity

Lacked the outlook and programme which were necessary for founding an all-India empire

Shahuji o Son of Sambhaji o Imprisoned by Aurungzeb o Released in 1707 o Civil war between Shahu and his aunt Tarabai who ruled in the name of her infant son Shivaji II o The conflict gave rise to a new era of Maratha leadership, the era of Peshwa leadership Balaji Vishwnath o 1713: Peshwa of King Shahu o Induced Zulfikar Khan to grant the chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan o Helped the Saiyid brothers in overthrowing Farukh Siyar o Maratha sardars were becoming individually strong but collectively weak o Died in 1720. Succeeded by his son Baji Rao I Baji Rao I o the greatest extent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji o Vast areas ceded by the Mughals o Marathas won control over Malwa, Gujarat and parts of Bundelkhand o Rivalry with Nizam ul Mulk o Compelled the Nizam to grant chauth and sardeshmukhi of the Deccan provinces o 1733: Campaign against Sidis of Janjira and the Portuguese (Salsette and Bassein) o Died in 1740 o Captured territories but failed to lay the foundations of an empire o Succeeded by Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61) o Shahu died in 1749. Peshwas became the de facto rulers o Shifted the capital to Poona o Captured Orissa o Mysore forced to pay tributes o In 1752, helped Imad-ul-Mulk to become the wazir o Brought Punjab under their control and expelled the agent of Ahmad Shah Abdali This led AS Abdali to come to India to settle accounts with Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat o Third Battle of Panipat ASA formed an alliance with Najib-ud-daulah of Rohilkhand and Shuja-uddaulah of Awadh.

Saranjami system? Social and economic condition

Administrative Organization of the British

Army Army fulfilled four important functions: 1. Instrument to conquer Indian powers 2. Defended the British Empire in India against foreign rivals 3. Safe-guarded against internal revolt 4. Chief instrument for extending and defending the British Empire in Asia and Africa.

Bulk of the army consisted of Indians. In 1857, of the total strength of 311400, about 265900 were Indians. Highest Indian rank was that of Subedar. British could conquer and control India through a predominantly Indian army because: 1. There was absence of modern nationalism at that time 2. The company paid its soldiers regularly and well, as opposed to the Indian rulers and chieftains. Police Cornwallis was responsible for the creation of a modern police system in India. He established a system of Thanas (or circles) headed by a daroga. The police: 1. Prevented organization of a large-scale conspiracy against foreign control 2. Was used to suppress the national movement.

Judiciary Though started by Hastings, the system was stabilized by Cornwallis. Civil Cases District: Diwani Adalat (civil court) presided over by the District Judge Provincial Court: Appeal from civil court Sardar Diwani Adalat: Highest appeal There were also, below the District Court, Registrars Court (headed by Europeans) and subordinate courts headed by Indians known as munsifs or amins. Criminal Cases 4 divisions of Bengal presidency. Each had a Court of Circuit presided over by the civil servants. Appeals could be made to Sardar Nizamat Adalat. William Bentinck: Abolished the provincial courts of appeal and circuit Their work was assigned to District Collectors Raised the status and power of Indians in the Judicial service. In 1865, High Courts were established at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay. British brought about uniformity in the system of law. In 1833, the government appointed Law Commission headed by Macaulay to codify Indian Laws. This eventually resulted in the Indian Penal Code, Code of Civil and Criminal Procedures and other codes of laws. Spread of Modern Education 1781: Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasah for the study and teaching of Muslim law and related subjects 1791: Jonathan Duncan started a Sanskrit College at Varanasi for the study of Hindu law and philosophy. 1813: Charter of 1813 directed the Company to spend Rs. 1 lakh for promoting modern sciences in the country. This sum was however made available only in 1823. 1835: Macaulays minute. English was made the medium of instruction in schools. Education of masses was however neglected. British advocated the downward filtration theory for education. As per this theory, since the allocated funds could educate only a handful of Indians, it was decided to spend them in educating a few persons from the upper and middle classes who were expected to assume the task of educating the masses and spreading modern ideas among them. 1844: Compulsion for applicants for government employment to possess knowledge of English. This made the English medium schools more popular. 1854: Woods Dispatch asked the government of India to assume responsibility for the education of the masses. It thus repudiated the downward filtration theory. As a result, Departments of Education were instituted in all provinces and universities were setup in 1857 at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay. The main reason why British adopted some measures towards education in India was because: 1. They needed educated people to man their system of administration. It was not possible to get enough Englishmen to man all the posts. 2. Another important motive was the belief that educated Indians would help expand the market for British manufactures in India.

3.

Lastly, it was expected to reconcile the people of India to British rule.

Major drawbacks of the English education system: 1. Neglect of mass education. Mass literacy in India was hardly better in 1921 than in 1821. High fees in schools and colleges led to the education becoming a monopoly of the rich. 2. Almost total neglect of the education of girls. As late as 1921 only 2 percent Indian women could read and write. 3. Neglect of scientific and technical education. 4. The government was never willing to spend more than a scanty sum on education. Development of Education Charter act of 1813 o Sanctioned 1 lakh rupees annually for promoting education and modern sciences o Not made available till 1823 Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy Lord Macaulays minute (1835) Woods Despatch (1854) o Rejected the downward filtration theory o Asked the government of India to assume the responsibility of education of the masses o English as medium for higher studies and vernaculars at school level 1857: University of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Hunter Commission (1882-83) o State care required for promotion and spread of primary and secondary education o Transfer control of primary education to district and municipal boards Raleigh Commission, 1902 Universities Act 1904 Saddler Education Commission (1917-19) o School course should cover 12 years o Less rigidity in framing university regulations Hartog Committee (1929) o No hasty expansion or compulsion of education Wardha Scheme of basic education (1937) o Vocation based education

Social and Cultural Awakening Raja Rammohan Roy: RRM Roy was a social reformer and intellectual in the early nineteenth century Bengal. He is most widely known for founding the Brahmo Samaj and his relentless campaign against the practice of Sati and child marriage. Debendranath Tagore: Brahmo Samaj: BS was founded in 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy with the purpose of purifying Hinduism and to preach monotheism or belief in one God. Introduction Indian national movement: One of the biggest. Inspired many others. Gandhian Political Strategy very important. Elements of Gandhian Strategy can be seen in the Solidarity Movement in Poland by Lech Walesa WHY IS THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT UNIQUE In the Indian national movement, the Gramscian perspective of war of position was successfully practiced. It provides the only historical example of a semi-democratic or democratic type of political structure being successfully replaced or transformed. State power was not seized in a moment of revolution, but through prolonged popular struggle on moral, political and ideological reserves. It is also an example of how the constitutional space offered by the existing structure could be used without getting coopted by it. Diverse perspectives and ideologies WHY STUDY NATIONAL MOVEMENT? The path that India has followed since 1947 has deep roots in the struggle for independence. OUTSTANDING FEATURES OF THE FREEDOM STRUGGLE Values and modern ideals on which it was based Vision of the leaders: democratic, civil libertarian and secular India, based on a self-reliant, egalitarian social order and an independent foreign policy The movement popularized democratic ideas and institutions in India The strong civil libertarian and democratic tradition of the national movement was reflected in the constitution of independent India. Pro-poor orientation Secular A non-racist, anti-imperialist outlook which continues to characterize Indian foreign policy was the part of the legacy of the anti-imperialist struggle. Indias freedom struggle was basically the result of fundamental contradiction between the interests of the Indian people and that of British colonialism. Revolt of 1857 During the Governor-General Lord Canning May 11, 1857. The Meerut incident. Capture of Delhi. Proclaiming B S Jazar as the emperor. Almost half the Companys sepoy strength of 232224 opted out of their loyalty to their regimental colours. Kanpur: Nana Saheb; Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal; Bareilly: Khan Bahadur; Jagdishpur (Ara): Kunwar Singh; Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai Only the Madras army remained totally loyal. Sikh regiment as well remained largely loyal. Causes for the revolt The revolt was a result of the accumulated grievances of the people against Companys administration and a loathing for the character and policies of the colonial rule. The causes can be classified as social, economic, religious and military. <In class notes> WHY DID THE SEPOYS REVOLT?

The conditions of service in the Companys army and cantonments increasingly came into conflict with the religious beliefs and prejudices of the sepoys. The unhappiness of the sepoys first surfaced in 1824 when the 47th Regiment of Barrackpur was ordered to go to Burma. To the religious Hindu, crossing the sea meant loss of caste. The sepoys refused. The regiment was disbanded and those who led the opposition were hanged. The rumors about the Governments secret designs to promote conversions to Christianity further exasperated the sepoys. The greased cartridges They were also unhappy with the emoluments Discrimination and racism Misery brought to the peasants by the British rule. E.g. the land revenue system imposed in Oudh, where about 75000 sepoys came from, was very harsh. The civilians also participated After the capture of Delhi, a letter was issued to the neighboring states asking for support. A court of administrators was established in Delhi Ill-equipped, the rebels carried on the struggle for about a year The country as a whole was not behind them. The merchants, intelligentsia and Indian rulers not only kept aloof but actively supported the British. Almost half the Indian soldiers not only did not revolt but fought against their own countrymen. Apart from a commonly shared hatred for alien rule, the rebels had no political perspective or definite vision of the future Delhi fell on September 20, 1857. Rani of Jhansi died fighting on June 17, 1858 Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal hoping to revive the struggle. Kunwar Singh died on May 9, 1858 Tantia tope carried on guerrilla warfare until April 1859 after which he was betrayed by a zamindar, captured and put to death.

Important Persons relating to the Revolt Bahadur Shah Zafar: BSZ was the last Mughal emperor of India. Nana Saheb Rani Lakshmi Bai Kunwar Singh Nawab Wajid Ali Shah Birjis Qadr: The son of Wajid Ali Shah and the leader of the revolt in Lucknow. Shah Mal: He belonged to a clan of Jat cultivators in parganan Barout in UP. During the revolt, he mobilized the headmen and cultivators of chaurasee des (84 villages: his kinship area), moving at night from village to village, urging people to rebel against the British. Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah: Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah was one of the many maulvis who played an important part in the revolt of 1857. 1856, he was seen moving from village to village preaching jehad (religious war) against the British and urging people to rebel. he was elected by the mutinous 22nd Native Infantry as their leader. He fought in the famous Battle of Chinhat in which the British forces under Henry Lawrence were defeated. Begum Hazrat Mahal:

Chapter 2: Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings

The backbone of the rebellions, their mass base and striking power came from the rackrented peasants, ruined artisans and demobilized soldiers CAUSES The major cause of the civil rebellions was the rapid changes the British introduced in the economy, administration and land revenue system. The revenues were enhanced by increasing taxes. Thousands of zamindars and poligars lost control over their land and its revenue either due to the extinction of their rights by the colonial state or by the forced sale of their rights over land because of their inability to meet the exorbitant land revenue demanded. The economic decline of the peasantry was reflected in twelve major and numerous minor famines from 1770 to 1857 The new courts and legal system gave a further fillip to the dispossessors of land and encouraged the rich to oppress the poor. The police looted, oppressed and tortured the common people at will. The ruin of Indian handicraft industries pauperized millions of artisans The scholarly and priestly classes were also active in inciting hatred and rebellion against foreign rule. Very foreign character of the British rule REBELLIONS

From 1763 to 1856, there were more than forty major rebellions apart from hundreds of minor ones. Sanyasi Rebellion: (1763-1800) Chuar uprising (1766-1772 & 1795-1816); Rangpur and Dinajpur (1783); Bishnupur and Birbhum (1799); Orissa zamindars (1804-17) and Sambalpur (1827-40) and many others WHY FAILED?

These rebellions were local in their spread and were isolated from each other. They were the result of local causes and grievances, and were also localized in their effects. Socially, economically and politically, the semi-feudal leaders of these rebellions were backward looking and traditional in outlook. The suppression of the civil rebellions was a major reason why the revolt of 1857 did not spread to South India and most of Eastern and Western India. TRIBAL UPRISINGS: CAUSES

The colonial administrators ended their relative isolation and brought them fully within the ambit of colonialism. Introduced new system of land revenue and taxation of tribal products Influx of Christian missionaries into the tribal areas They could no longer practice shifting agriculture Oppression and extortion by police officials The complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal communities provided the common factor for all the tribal uprisings UPRISINGS Santhals Kols of Chhotanagpur (1820-37) Birsa Munda (1899-1900)

CHAPTER 3: Peasant Uprisings

Many dispossessed peasants took to robbery and dacoity. Indigo Revolt of 1859-60 By the end of 1860 indigo cultivation was virtually wiped out from the districts of Bengal A major reason for the success of the Indigo revolt was the tremendous initiative, cooperation, organization and discipline of the ryots. Another was the complete unity among Hindu and Muslim peasants Another significant feature was the role of intelligentsia of Bengal which organized a powerful campaign in support of the rebellious peasantry. The governments response to the revolt was rather restrained and not as harsh as in the case of civil rebellions and tribal uprisings. The government appointed the Indigo Commission to enquire into the problems of indigo cultivation. The report of the commission exposed the coercion and corruption in indigo cultivation The government issued a notification in November 1960 that ryots could not be compelled to sow indigo and all disputes were to be settled by legal means.

CHAPTER 4 & 5

Why did national movement arise? Indian nationalism rose to meet the challenges of foreign domination The British rule and its direct and indirect consequences provided the material and the moral and intellectual conditions for the development of a national movement in India. Clash of interest between the interests of the Indian people with British interests in India Increasingly, the British rule became the major cause of Indias economic backwardness Every class gradually discovered that their interests were suffering at the hands of the British o Peasant: Govt took a large part of produce away as land revenue. Laws favoured the Zamindars o Artisans: Foreign competition ruined the industry o Workers: The government sided with the capitalists o Intelligentsia: They found that the British policies were guided by the interests of British capitalists and were keeping the country economically backward. Politically, the British had no commitment of guiding India towards self-government. o Indian capitalists: the growth of Indian industries was constrained by the unfavourable trade, tariff, taxation and transport policies of the government. o Zamindars, landlords and princes were the only ones whose interests coincided with those of the British. Hence they remained loyal to them. Hence, it was the intrinsic nature of foreign imperialism and its harmful effect on the lives of the Indian people that led to the rise of the national movement. This movement could be called the national movement because it united people from different parts of the country as never before for a single cause. What factors strengthened and facilitated the national movement? Administration and Economic Unification of the country o Introduction of modern trade and industries on all-India scale had increasingly made Indias economic life a single whole and interlinked the economic fate of people living in different parts of the country. o Introduction of railways, telegraph and unified postal system brought together different parts of the country and promoted contact among people like never before. o This unification led to the emergence of the Indian nation Western Thought and Education o A large number of Indians imbibed a modern rational, secular, democratic and nationalist political outlook o They began to study, admire and emulate the contemporary nationalist movements of European nations o The western education per se did not create the national movement. It only enabled the educated Indians to imbibe western thought and thus to assume the leadership of the national movement and to give it a democratic and modern direction o Modern education created a certain uniformity and community of outlook and interests among the education Indians. Role of Press and Literature o Large number of nationalist newspapers appeared in the second half of the 19th century o They criticized the policies of the British government and put forth the Indian point of view o National literature in form of essays, novels and poetry also played an important role. Bamkin Chandra, Tagore: Bengali; Bhartendu Harishchandra: Hindi; Lakshmikanth Bezbarua: Assamese; Vishnu Shastri Chiplunkar: Marathi; Subramanya Bharti: Tamil; Altaf Husain Hali: Urdu Rediscovery of Indias past o The British had lowered the self confidence of the Indian through the propaganda that Indians are incapable of self-government o Nationalist leaders referred to the cultural heritage of India to counter this propaganda. They referred to political achievements of rulers like Ashoka, Chandragupta Vikramaditya and Akbar. o However, some nationalists went to the extent of glorifying the past uncritically. They emphasized on the achievements of ancient India and not medieval India. This encouraged the growth of communal sentiments. Racial arrogance of the rulers

o o o

Englishmen adopted a tone of racial superiority in their dealings with the Indians Failure of justice whenever an Englishman was involved in a dispute with an Indian. Indians kept out of European clubs and often were not permitted to travel in same compartment as Englishmen

Rise of Indian National Congress Predecessors of INC East India Association o By Dadabhai Naoroji in 1866 in London o To discuss the Indian question and to influence the British public men to discuss Indian welfare o Branches of the association in prominent Indian cities Indian Association o Surendranath Banerjee and Ananda Mohan Bose in 1876, Calcutta o The aim of creating strong public opinion in the country on political questions and the unification of the Indian people on a common political programme Poona Sarvajanik Sabha o Justice Ranade, 1870 Madras Mahajan Sabha o Viraraghavachari, Anand Charloo, G Subramanian Aiyer, 1884 Bombay Presidency Association o Pherozshah Mehta, K T Telang, Badruddin Tyabji, 1885 These organizations were narrow in their scope and functioning. They dealt mostly with local questions and their membership were confined to a few people belonging to a single city or province

Indian National Congress Indian National Congress was founded on 28 December 1885 by 72 political workers. A O Hume was the first secretary and was instrumental in establishing the Congress First session in Bombay. President: W C Bonnerjee With the formation of INC, the Indian National Movement was launched in a small but organized manner The Congress itself was to serve not as a party but as a movement Congress was democratic. The delegates to INC were elected by different local organizations and groups Sovereignty of the people In 1890, Kadambini Ganguli, the first woman graduate of Calcutta University addressed the Congress session Safety Valve Theory o The INC was started under the official direction, guidance and advice of Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy, to provide a safe, mild, peaceful and constitutional outlet or safety valve for the rising discontent among the masses, which was inevitably leading towards a popular and violent revolution. Does the safety valve theory explain the formation of Congress? The safety valve theory is inadequate and misleading INC represented the urge of the Indian educated class to set up a national organization to work for their political and economic development A number of organizations, as mentioned above, had already been started by the Indians towards that end Humes presence in Congress was used to allay official suspicions

Why was there a need for an All-India organization? Vernacular Press Act, 1878 Ilbert Bill (1883) which would allow Indian judges to try Europeans was opposed by the European community and was finally enacted in a highly compromised state in 1884. The Indians realized that they could not get the Ilbert bill passed because they were not united on all India level. Hence need for INC was felt.

In order to give birth to the national movement o Creation of national leadership was important o Collective identification was created

Aims of INC Promotion of friendly relations between nationalist political workers from different parts of the country Development and consolidation of the feeling of national unity irrespective of caste, religion or province Formulation of popular demands and their presentation before the government Training and organization of public opinion in the country The first major objective of the Indian national movement was to promote weld Indians into a nation, to create an Indian identity Fuller development and consolidation of sentiments of national unity o Efforts for unity: In an effort to reach all regions, it was decided to rotate the congress session among different parts of the country. The President was to belong to a region other than where the congress session was being held. o To reach out to the followers of all religions and to remove the fears of the minorities, a rule was made at the 1888 session that no resolution was to be passed to which an overwhelming majority of Hindu or Muslim delegates objected. o In 1889, a minority clause was adopted in the resolution demanding reform of legislative councils. According to the clause, wherever Parsis, Christians, Muslims or Hindus were a minority their number elected to the councils would not be less than their proportion in the population. o To build a secular nation, the congress itself had to be intensely secular The second major objective of the early congress was to create a common political platform or programme around which political workers in different parts of the country could gather and conduct their political activities. o Due to its focus solely on political issues congress did not take up the question of social reform. Since this form of political participation was new to India, the arousal, training, organization and consolidation of public opinion was seen as a major task by the congress leaders. o Going beyond the redressal of immediate grievances and organize sustained political activity.

Contribution of early nationalists Early nationalists believed that a direct struggle for the political emancipation of the country was not yet on the agenda of history. On agenda was: o Creation of public interest in political questions and the organization of public opinion o Popular demands had to be formulated on a country-wide basis o National unity had to be created. Indian nationhood had to be carefully promoted. Early national leaders did not organize mass movement against the British. But they did carry out an ideological struggle against them. (Important from a Gramscian perspective) Economic critique of imperialism o Economic critique of imperialism was the most important contribution of the early nationalists o They recognized that the essence of British economic imperialism lay in the subordination of the Indian economy to the British economy o They complained of Indias growing poverty and economic backwardness and the failure of modern industry and agriculture to grow o They wanted the government to promote modern industries through tariff protection and direct government aid o Popularized the idea of swadeshi and the boycott of British goods o They propounded the drain of wealth theory and demanded that this drain be stopped o Demanded reduction of taxes and land revenue o Condemned the high military expenditure Constitutional reforms

They were extremely cautious. From 1885 to 1892 they demanded the expansion and reform of the Legislative Councils o Due to their demands, the British passed the Indian Councils Act of 1892 o They failed to broaden the base of their democratic demands. Did not demand the right to vote for the masses or for women Administrative and other reforms o They demanded Indianisation of the higher grades of the administrative services. o They had economic political reasons for this. Economically, appointment of British only to ICS made Indian administration costly because they were paid very high. Politically, appointment of Indians would make the administration more responsive to Indian needs o Demanded separation of the judicial from executive powers so that the people might get some protection from the arbitrary acts of the police and the bureaucracy. o Urged the government to undertake and develop welfare activities and education Defense of Civil Rights o

Methods of work of early nationalists Dominated by moderates till 1905 Method of moderates: Constitutional agitation within the four walls of the law, and slow, orderly political progress. Their work had two pronged direction: o To build a strong public opinion in India to arouse the political consciousness and national spirit of the people, and to educate and unite them on political questions o They wanted to persuade the British government and British public opinion to introduce reforms along directions laid down by the nationalists. In 1889, a British Committee of the INC was founded. In 1890 this committee started a journal called India. What about the role of the masses? The basic weakness of the early national movement lay in its narrow social base. The leaders lacked political faith in the masses. Hence, masses were assigned a passive role in the early phase of the national movement. Evaluation The basic objectives of the early nationalist leaders were to lay the foundations of a secular and democratic national movement, to politicize and politically educate the people, to form the headquarters of the movement, that is, to form an all-India leadership group, and to develop and propagate an anti-colonial nationalist ideology. Very few of the reforms for which the nationalists agitated were introduced by the government It succeeded in creating a wide national awakening and arousing the feeling of nationhood. It made the people conscious of the bonds of common political, economic and social interests and the existence of a common enemy in imperialism They exposed the true character of the British rule through their economic critique. All this was to become a base for the national movement in the later period. WHY HUME? The leaders assumed that the rulers would be less suspicious and less likely to attack a potentially subversive organization if its chief organizer was a retired British civil servant. Gokhale himself stated explicitly in 1913 that if any Indian had started such a movement the officials wouldnt have let it happen.

CHAPTER 6: Socio-religious reforms The socio-religious reforms are also referred to as the Indian renaissance The socio-cultural regeneration in nineteenth century India was occasioned by the colonial presence, but not created by it. Formation of the Brahmo Samaj in 1828.

Paramhansa Mandali, Prathna Samaj, Arya Samaj, Kayasth Sabha: UP, Sarin Sabha: Punjab, Satya Sodhak Samaj: Maharashtra, Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalana Sabha: Kerala Ahmadiya and Aligarh Movements: Muslims, Singh Sabha: Sikhs, Rehnumai Mazdeyasan Sabha: Parsees Their attention was focused on worldly existence. The idea of otherworldliness and salvation were not a part of their agenda. At that time the influence of religion and superstition was overwhelming. Position of priests strong; that of women weak. Caste was another debilitating factor Neither a revival of the past nor a total break with tradition was contemplated. Rationalism and religious universalism influenced the reform movement. Development of universalistic perspective on religion Lex Loci Act propsed in 1845 and passed in 1850 provided the right to inherit ancestral property to Hindu converts to Christianity. The culture faced a threat from the colonial rule.

CHAPTER 7 First, the Indian intellectuals co-operated with the British in the hope that British would help modernize India. However, the reality of social development in India failed to conform to their hopes. Three people who carried out the economic analysis of British India: o Dadabhai Naoroji: the grand old man of India. Born in 1825, he became a successful businessman but devoted his entire life and wealth to the creation of national movement in India o Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade: He taught an entire generation of Indians the value of modern industrial development. o Romesh Chandra Dutt: a retired ICS officer, published The Economic History of India at the beginning of the 20th century in which he examined in minute detail the entire economic record of colonial rule since 1757. They concluded that colonialism was the main obstacle to Indias economic development. Three aspects of domination of British: trade, industry, finance The problem of poverty was seen as a problem of national development. This approach made poverty a broad national issue and helped to unite, instead of divide, different regions and sections of Indian society. The early nationalists accepted that the complete economic transformation of the country on the basis of modern technology and capitalist enterprise was the primary goal of their economic policies. Because their whole-ted devotion to the cause of industrialization, the early nationalists looked upon all other issues such as foreign trade, railways, tariffs, finance and labour legislations in relation to this paramount aspect. (and hence the obsession of Nehru with industrialization) However great the need of India for industrialization, it had to be based on Indian capital and not foreign capital. The early nationalists saw foreign capital as an unmitigated evil which did not develop a country but exploited and impoverished it. Expenditure on railways could be seen as Indian subsidy to British industries. A major obstacle in the process of industrial development was the policy of free trade High expenditure on the army Drain theory was the focal point of nationalist critique of colonialism. A large part of Indiaa capital and wealth was being transferred or drained to Britain in the form of salaries and pensions of British civil and military officials working in India, interest on loans taken by the Indian government, profits of British capitalists in India, and the Home Charges or expenses of the Indian Government in Britain. This drain amounted to one-half of government revenues, more than the entire land revenue collection, and over one-third of Indias total savings. The Drain theory was put forward by Dadabhai Naoroji. He declared that the drain was the basic cause of Indias poverty. Through the drain theory, the exploitative character of the British rule was made visible.

The drain theory possessed the merit of being easily grasped and understood by a nation of peasants. No idea could arouse people more than the thought that they were being taxed so that others in far off lands might live in comfort. This agitation on economic issues contributed to the undermining of the ideological hegemony of the alien rulers over Indian minds. The nationalist economic agitation undermined the moral foundations inculcated by the British that foreign rule is beneficial for India.

CHAPTER 8: Freedom of Press On 29th January 1780, the Hickeys Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta General Advertizer was published. It was the first English newspaper to be printed in the Indian sub-continent. The press was the chief instrument of forming a nationalist ideology The resolutions and proceedings of the Congress were propagated through press. Trivia: nearly one third of the founding fathers of congress in 1885 were journalists.

Main news papers and editors o o o o o o o o o o o The Hindu and Swadesamitran: G Subramaniya Iyer Kesari and Mahratta: BG Tilak Bengalee: S N Banerjea Amrita Bazar Patrika: Sisir Kumar Ghosh and Motilal Ghosh Sudharak: GK Gokhale Indian Mirror: N N Sen Voice of India: Dadabhai Naoroji Hindustani and Advocate: GP Varma Tribune and Akhbar-i-Am in Punjab Indu Prakash, Dnyan Prakahs, Kal and Gujarati in Bombay Som Prakash, Banganivasi and Sadharani in Bengal

Newspaper was not confined to the literates. It would reach the villages and would be read by a reader to tens of others. Reading and discussing newspaper became a form of political participation. Nearly all the major political controversies of the day were conducted through the Press. Oppose, oppose, oppose was the motto of the Indian press. The section 124A of the IPC was such as to punish a person who evoked feelings of disaffection to the government. The Indian journalists remained outside 124A by adopting methods such as quoting the socialist and anti-imperialist newspapers of England or letters from radical British citizens The increasing influence of the newspapers led the government to pass the Vernacular Press Act of 1978, directed only against Indian language newspapers. o It was passed very secretively o The act provided for the confiscation of the printing press, paper and other materials of a newspaper if the government believed that it was publishing seditious materials and had flouted an official warning. o Due to the agitations, it was repealed in 1881 by Lord Ripon. SN Banerjee was the first Indian to go to jail in performance of his duty as a journalist.

B G Tilak The man who is most frequently associated with the struggle for the freedom of Press during the nationalist movement is Bal Gangadhar Tilak. In 1881, along with G G Agarkar, he founded the newspapers Kesari and Mahratta. In 1893, he started the practice of using the traditional religious Ganapati festival to propagate nationalist ideas through patriotic songs and speeches. In 1896, he started the Shivaji festival to stimulate nationalism among young Maharashtrians. He brought peasants and farmers into the national movement. He organized a no-tax campaign in Maharashtra in 1896-97 Plague in Poona in 1897. Popular resentment against the official plague measures resulted in the assassination of Rand, the Chairman of the Plague Committee in Poona, and Lt. Ayerst by the Chaphekar brothers on 27 June 1898. Since 1894, anger had been rising against the government due to the tariff, currency and famine policy. Tilak was arrested and sentenced to 18 month rigorous imprisonment in 1897. This led to country wide protests and Tilak was given the title of Lokmanya. Tilak was again arrested and tried on 24 June 1908 on the charge of sedition under article 124A. He was sentenced to 6 years of transportation. This led to nationwide protests and closing down of markets for a week. Later, in 1922 Gandhi was tried on the same act and he said that he is proud to be associated with Tilaks name.

CHAPER 9 The Indian Councils Act of 1861 enlarged the Governor-Generals Executive Council for the purpose of making laws.

The GG could add 6-12 members to the Executive Council. This came to be known as the Imperial Legislative Council. It didnt have any powers. Despotism controlled from home was the fundamental feature of British rule in India. The Indians nominated to the council were not representative of the nationalist movement. Despite the early nationalists believing that India should eventually become self-governing, they moved very cautiously in putting forward political demands regarding the structure of the state, for they were afraid of the Government declaring their activities seditious and disloyal and suppressing them. Till 1892, they only demanded reforms in the council.

CHAPTER 10: The Swadeshi Movement: 1903-1908 Nationalist Movement 1905-1918 Reasons for the growth of militant nationalism (this is different from revolutionary terrorism) Disillusionment of the nationalists with moderate policies The moderates thought that the British could be reformed from within Politically conscious Indians were convinced that the purpose of the British rule was to exploit India economically

The nationalists realized that Indian industries could not flourish except under an Indian government Disastrous famines from 1896 to 1900 took a toll of over 90 lakh lives The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a disappointment The Natu brothers were deported in 1897 without trial In 1897 B G Tilak was sentenced to long term imprisonment for arousing the people against the government In 1904, the Indian Official Secrets Act was passed restricting the freedom of the Press Primary and technical education was not making any progress Thus, increasing number of Indians were getting convinced that self-government was essential for the sake of economic, political and cultural progress of the country

Growth of Self-respect and self-confidence Tilak, Aurobindo and Pal preached the message of self-respect They said to the people that remedy to their condition lay in their own hand and they should therefore become strong Swami Vivekanandas messages Growth of education and unemployment International Influences Rise of modern Japan after 1868 Defeat of the Italian army by the Ethiopians in 1896 and of Russia by Japan in 1905 exploded the myth of European superiority Existence of a Militant Nationalist School of Thought Partition of Bengal With the partition of Bengal, Indian National Movement entered its second stage On 20 July, 1905, Lord Curzon issued an order dividing the province of Bengal into two parts: Eastern Bengal and Assam with a population of 31 mn and the rest of Bengal with a population of 54 mn. Reason given: the existing province of Bengal was too big to be efficiently administered by a single provincial government The partition expected to weaken the nerve centre of Indian Nationalism, Bengal. The partition of the state intended to curb Bengali influence by not only placing Bengalis under two administrations but by reducing them to a minority in Bengal itself as in the new proposed Bengal proper was to have seventeen million Bengali and thirty seven million Oriya and Hindi speaking people. The partition was also meant to foster division on the basis of religion. Risley, Home Secretary to the GoI, said on December 6, 1904 one of our main objects is to split up and thereby weaken a solid body of opponents to our rule. the nationalists saw it as a deliberate attempt to divide the Bengalis territorially and on religious grounds

The Swadeshi Movement The Swadeshi movement had its genesis in the anti-partition movement which was started to oppose the British decision to partition Bengal. Mass protests were organized in opposition to the proposed partition. Despite the protests, the decision to partition Bengal was announced on July 19, 1905 It became obvious to the nationalists that their moderate methods were not working and that a different kind of strategy was needed. Several meetings were held in towns such as Dinajpur Pabna, Faridpur etc. It was in these meetings that the pledge to boycott foreign goods was first taken. The formal proclamation of the Swadeshi movement was made on 7 August 1905 in a meeting held in the Calcutta town hall. The famous boycott resolution was passed. The leaders like SN Banerjee toured the country urging the boycott of Manchester cloth and Liverpool salt. The value of British cloth sold in some of the districts fell by five to fifteen times between September 1904 and September 1905.

The day the partition took effect 16 October 1905 was declared a day of mourning throughout Bengal. The movement soon spread to the entire country. Militant nationalists o The extremists were in favor of extending the movement to the rest of India and carrying it beyond the programme of just Swadeshi and boycott to a full fledged political mass struggle. The moderates were not as willing to go that far. o The differences between the extremists and moderates came to had in 1907 Surat session where the party split with serious consequences for the Swadeshi Movement. o In Bengal, the extremists acquired a dominant influence over the Swadeshi movement. o They proposed the technique of extended boycott which included, apart from boycott of foreign goods, boycott of government schools and colleges, courts, titles and government services and even the organization of strikes. o Aurobindo Ghose: Political freedom is the lifebreath of a nation. o Boycott and public burning foreign cloth, picketing of shops selling foreign goods, became common in remote corners of Bengal as well as in many towns across the country. o The militant nationslists, however, failed to give a positive leadership to the people. They also failed to reach the real masses of the country, the peasants. The movement also innovated with considerable success different forms of mass mobilization such as public meetings, processions and corps of volunteers. The Swadesh Bandhab Samiti set up by Ashwini Kumar Dutt, a school teacher, in Barisal was the most well known volunteer organization. During the Swadeshi period, traditional festivals were used to reach out to the masses. The Ganapati and Shivaji festivals were popularized by Tilak. Traditional folk theatres such as jatras were also used. Another important aspect was the great emphasis given to self-reliance or Atmasakti as a necessary part of the struggle against the government. Self-reliance was the keyword. Campaigns for social reforms were carried out. In 1906, the National Council for Education was setup to organize the education system. Self-reliance also meant an effort to set up Swadeshi or indigenous enterprises. Marked impact in the cultural sphere o The songs composed by Rabindranath Tago, Mukunda Das and others became the moving spirit for nationalists. o Rabindranaths Amar Sonar Bangla, written at that time, was to later inspire the liberation struggle of Bangladesh and was adopted as the national anthem of the country in 1971. o Nandalal Bose, who left a major imprint on Indian art, was the first recipient of a scholarship offered by the Indian Society of Oriental Art founded in 1907. The social base of the national movement was now extened to include certain zamindari section, lower middle class and school and college students. Women also participated in large numbers. Drawback: Was not able to garner the support of the mass of Muslims, especially the muslim peasantry. The British policy of communalism responsible for this. By mid-1908, the movement was almost over. The main reasons were: o The government, seeing the revolutionary potential of the movement, came down with a heavy hand. o The split of the congress in 1907 had weakened the movement. o The movement lacked an effective organization and party structure. o The movement decline dpartially because of the logic of the mass movements itself they cannot be endlessly sustained at the same pitch of militancy and self-sacrifice. The anti-partition movement, however, marked a great revolutionary leap forward for Indian nationalism. The decline of Swadeshi engendered the rise of revolutionary terrorism. Assessing the movement o Cultural impact o Social Impact o Economic impact o Role of students and Women

o o

All India aspect of the movement From passive protest to active boycott

Revolutionary Terrorism Revolutionary young men did not try to generate a mass revolution. Instead they followed the strategy of assassinating unpopular officials 1904: VD Savarkar organized Abhinav Bharat Newspapers like The Sandhya and Yugaantar in Bengal and the Kal in Maharashtra advocated revolutionary ideology Kingsford Incident: In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki threw bomb at a carriage they believed was carrying Kingsford, the unpopular judge of Muzaffarpur. Anushilan Samiti threw a bomb at the Viceroy Lord Hardinge Centres abroad o In London: led by VD Savarkar, Shyamaji Krishnavarma and Har Dayal o In Europe: Madam Cama and Ajit Singh They gradually petered out. It did not have any base among the people

CHAPTER 11: The Split in the Congress Moderates were successful to some extent. Moderates failed in many aspects. Why? o They could not acquire any roots among common people. o They believed that they could persuade the rulers to change their policies. However, their achievement in this regard was meager. o They could not keep pace with the events. They failed to meet the demands of the new stage of the national movement. The British were keen on finishing the Congress because: o However moderate the leaders were, they were still nationalists and propagators of anti-colonialist ideas.

The British felt that moderates led congress could be finished off easily because it did not have a popular base In the swadeshi movement, all sections of INC united in opposing the Partition o However, there was much difference between the moderates and the extremists about the methods and scope of the movement o The extremists wanted to extend the Swadeshi and Boycott movement from Bengal to the rest of the country and to boycott every form of association with the colonial government o The moderates wanted to confine the boycott movement to Bengal and even there to limit it to the boycott of foreign goods After the Swadeshi movement the British adopted a three pronged approach to deal with congress. Repression-conciliation-suppression. o The extremists were reppressed o The moderates were conciliated thus giving them an impression that their further demands would be met if they disassociated from the extremists. The idea was to isolate the extremists. o Once the moderates and extremists were separate the extremists could be suppressed through the use of state force while the moderates could later be ignored. The congress session was held on December 26, 1907 at Surat, on the banks of the river Tapti. o The extremists wanted a guarantee that the four Calcutta resolutions will be passed. o They objected to the duly elected president of the year, Rash Behari Ghose. o There was a confrontation with hurling of chairs and shoes. The government launched a massive attack on the extremists. Newspapers were suppressed. Tilak was sent to Mandalay jail for six years. The extremists were not able to organize an effective alternative party or to sustain the movement. After 1908 the national movement as a whole declined. The moderates and the country as a whole were disappointed by the 1909 Minto-Morley reforms o The number of indirectly elected members of the Imperial and provincial legislative councils was increased. o Separate electorates for Muslims were introduced. With the split of Congress revolutionary terrorism rose. In 1904 V D Savarkar organized Abhinav Bharat as a secret society of revolutionaries In April 1908, Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose threw a bomb at a carriage which they believed was occupied by Kingsford the unpopular judge at Muzzafarpur. Anushilan Samity and Jugantar were two most important revolutionary groups. o An assessment of the split o The split did not prove useful to either party o The British played the game of divide and rule o To placate the moderates they announced the Morley-Minto reforms which did not satisfy the demands of the nationalists. They also annulled the partition of Bengal in 1911.

Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909 Increased the number of elected members in the Imperial Legislative Council and the provincial council However, most of the elected members were elected indirectly The reformed councils still enjoyed no real power, being merely advisory bodies. Introduced separate electorates under which all Muslims were grouped in separate constituencies from which Muslims alone could be elected. This was aimed at dividing the Hindus and Muslims. It was based on the notion that the political and economic interests of Hindus and Muslims were separate. o This later became a potent factor in the growth of communalism o It isolated the Muslims from the Nationalist Movement and encouraged separatist tendencies

The real purpose of the reforms was to confuse the moderate nationalists, to divide nationalist ranks and to check the growth of unity among Indians Response of Moderates o They realized that the reforms had not granted much o However, they decided to cooperate with the government in working the reforms o This led to their loss of respect among the nationalists and masses

Growth of Communalism Definition o Communalism is the belief that because a group of people follow a particular religion they have, as a result, common secular, that is, social, political and economic interests. o Second stage: Secular interests of followers of one religion are dissimilar and divergent from the interests of the followers of another religion o Third stage: The interests of the followers of different religions or of different religious communities are seen to be mutually incompatible, antagonistic and hostile. Communalism is not a remnant of the medieval period. It has its roots in the modern colonial socio-economic political structure. Divide and Rule o After 1857, British initially suppressed Indian muslims. However, after the publishing of Hunters book The Indian Mussalman they actively followed the policy of divide and rule and hence started supporting the Muslims. o They promoted provincialism by talking of Bengal domination o Tired to use the caste structure to turn the non-brahmins against Brahmins and the lower caste against the higher castes. o It readily accepted communal leaders as authentic representatives of all their coreligionists. Reasons for growth of communal tendencies in Muslims o Relative backwardness: educationally and economically <incomplete>

Muslim League 1906 by Aga Khan, the Nawab of Dhaka, and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk It made no critique of colonialism, supported the partition of Bengal and demanded special safeguards for the Muslims in government services. MLs political activities were directed not against the foreign rulers but against the Hindus and the INC. Their activities were not supported by all Muslims o Arhar movement was founded at this time under the leadership of Maulana Mohamed Ali, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Hasan Imam, Maulana Zafar Ali Khan, and Mazhar-ul-Haq. They advocated participation in the militant nationalist movement. Muslim Nationalists The war between Ottoman Empire and Italy created a wave of sympathy for Turkey During the war between Ottoman empire and Italy, India sent a medical mission headed by MA Ansari to help Turkey. As the British were not sympathetic to Turkey, the pro-Caliph sentiments in India became anti-British However, the militant nationalists among muslims did not accept an entirely secular approach to politics The most important issue they took up was not political independence but protection of the Turkish empire. This approach did not immediately clash with Indian nationalism. However, in the long run it proved harmful as it encouraged the habit of looking at political questions from a religious view point. Hindu Communalism

Some Hindus accepted the colonial view of Indian history and talked about the tyrannical Muslim rule in the medieval period Over language they said that Hindi was the language of Hindus and Urdu that of Muslims. Punjab Hindu Sabha was founded in 1909. Its leaders attached the INC for trying to unite Indians into a single nation. The first session of the All India Hindu Mahasabha was held in April 1915 under the presidentship of the Maharaja of Kasim Bazar. It however remained a weak organization because the colonial government gave it few concessions and little support.

CHAPTER 12: World War I and Indian Nationalism Increasing number of Indians from Punjab were emigrating to North America. The British government thought that these emigrants would be affected by the idea of liberty. Hence, they tried to restrict emigration. Tarak Nath Das, an Indian student in Canada, started a paper called Free Hindustan. The Hindi Association was setup in Portland in May 1913. Under the leadership of Lala Har Dayal, a weekly paper, The Ghadar was started and a headquarters called Yugantar Ashram was set up in San Fransisco. On November 1, 1913, the first issue of Ghadar was published in Urdu and on December 9, the Gurumukhi edition. In 1914, three events influenced the course of the Ghadar movement: o The arrest and escape of Har Dayal

o The Komagata Maru incident o Outbreak of the first world war Gharadites came to India and made several attempts to instill the Indian population to revolt. However, this was of no avail. The Ghadar movement was very secular in nature. Ghadar militants were distinguished by their secular, egalitarian, democratic and nonchauvinistic internationalist outlook. The major weakness of the Ghadar leaders was that they completely under-estimated the extent and amount of preparation at every level organizational, ideological, strategic, tactical, financial that was necessary before an attempt at an armed revolt could be organized. It also failed to generate an effective and sustained leadership that was capable of integrating the various aspects of the movement. Another weakness was its almost non-existent organizational structure. Some important leaders: Baba Gurmukh Singh, Kartar Singh Saraba, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Rahmat Ali Shah, Bhai Parmanand and Mohammad Barkatullah. Inspired by the Ghadar Party, 700 soldiers at Singapore revolted under the leadership of Jamadar Chisti Khan and Subedar Dundey Khan. The rebellion was crushed. Other revolutionaries: Jatin Mukharjee, Rash Bihari Bose, Raja Mahendra Pratab, Lala Hardayal, Abdul Rahim, Maulana Obaidullah Sindhi, Champakaraman Pillai, Sardar Singh Rana and Madame Cama

CHAPTER 13: The Home Rule Movement After being released in 1914, Tilak sought re-entry into Congress. Annie Besant and Gokhale supported. But finally Pherozshah Mehta won and Tilak was not admitted. Tilak and Besant decided to start the home rule movement on their own. In early 1915, Annie Besant (and S Subramaniya Iyer) launched a campaign through her two newspapers, New India and Commonweal, and organized public meetings and conferences to demand that India be granted self-government on the lines of the White colonies after the War. From April 1915, her tone became more peremptory and her stance more aggressive. At the annual session of the Congress in December 1915 it was decided that the extremists be allowed to rejoin the Congress. The opposition from the Bombay group has been greatly weakened by the death of Pherozshah Mehta. Tilak and Annie Besant set up two different home rule leagues.

Tilaks league was to work in Maharashtra (excluding Bombay city), Karnataka, the central provinces and Berar and Annie Besants league was given the charged of the rest of India. Tilak was totally secular in nature. There was no trace of religious appeal. The demand for Home Rule was made on a wholly secular basis. o Home rule is my birthright, and I will have it The British were aliens not because they belonged to another religion but because they did not act in the Indian interest Tilaks league was organized into six branches, one each in Central Maharashtrra, Bombay city, Karnataka, and Central Provinces, and two in Berar. On 23rd July 1916, on Tilaks sixtieth birthday the government sent a notice asking him to show cause why he should not be bound over for good behavior for a period of one year and demanding securities of Rs 60000 Tilak was defended by a team of lawyers led by Mohammad Ali Jinnah. He won. Tilak used the opportunity to further the Home Rule movement. In Besants league, the main thrust of activity was directed towards building up an agitation around the demand for Home Rule. This was to be achieved by promoting political education and discussion. Lucknow Pact: 1916 in the Congress Session at Lucknow. Also known as Congress League Pact. Extremists were accepted back in congress. An agreement was reached between Muslim League and Congress. The turning point in the movement came with the arrest of Annie Besant in June 1917 There was wide agitation and many leaders joined the league. The government agreed to grant self rule but the timing for such a change was to be decided by the government alone. After the great advance in 1917, the movement gradually dissolved. o The moderates were pacified by the governments assurance of reforms after Besants release. o The publication of scheme of government reforms in July 1918 further created divisions. Many rejected it while others were for giving it a trial. o Later, Tilak went to England to fight a case. With Besant unable to give a firm lead, and Tilak away in England, the movement was left leaderless. Achievements of the movement o The achievement of the Home Rule movement was that it created a generation of ardent nationalists who formed the backbone of the national movement in the coming years. o The Home rule leagues also created organizational links between town and country which were to prove invaluable in later years. o By popularizing the idea of self-government, it generated a widespread pro-nationalist atmosphere in the country. o The movement set the right mood for the entry of Mahatma Gandhi and take the leadership. Lucknow Pact (1916) Nationalists saw that their disunity was affecting their cause Two important developments at the Lucknow Session of Congress o The two wings of the Congress were again united o The Congress and the Muslim League sank their old differences and put up common political demands before the government. INC and ML passed the same resolutions at their sessions, put forward a joint scheme of political reforms based on separate electorates, and demanded that the British Government should make a declaration that it would confer self-government on India at an early date. The pact accepted the principle of separate electorates Main clauses of the pact o There shall be self-government in India. o Muslims should be given one-third representation in the central government. o There should be separate electorates for all the communities until a community demanded joint electorates. o A system of weightage should be adopted.

o o o o o o o o o o o o

The number of the members of Central Legislative Council should be increased to 150. At the provincial level, four-fifth of the members of the Legislative Councils should be elected and one-fifth should be nominated. The size of provincial legislatures should not be less than 125 in the major provinces and from 50 to 75 in the minor provinces. All members, except those nominated, should be elected directly on the basis of adult franchise. No bill concerning a community should be passed if the bill is opposed by three-fourth of the members of that community in the Legislative Council. The term of the Legislative Council should be five years. Members of Legislative Council should themselves elect their president. Half of the members of Imperial Legislative Council should be Indians. The Indian Council must be abolished. The salaries of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs should be paid by the British government and not from Indian funds. Of the two Under Secretaries, one should be Indian. The Executive should be separated from the Judiciary.

Evaluation o As an immediate effect, the unity between the two factions of the congress and between INC and ML aroused great political enthusiasm in the country o However, it did not involve Hindu and Muslim masses and was based on the notion of bringing together the educated Hindus and Muslims as separate political entities without secularization of their political outlook o The pact therefore left the way open to the future resurgence of communalism in Indian politics.

Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms o Provincial LC enlarged. More elected members o Dyarchy Some subjects were reserved and remained under the direct control of the Governor; others such as education, public health and local self-government were called transferred subjects and were to be controlled by the ministers responsible to the legislature. o At the centre, there were two houses of legislature. o Response of nationalists INC condemned the reforms as disappointing and unsatisfactory

Some others , led by Surendranath Banerjea, were in favour of accepting the government proposals. They left the Congress at this time and founded the Indian Liberal Federation Evaluation The governor could overrule the ministers on any grounds that he considered special The legislature had virtually no control over the Governor-General and his Executive Council. The central government had unrestricted control over the provincial governments

Rowlatt Act March 1919 It authorized the Government to imprison any person without trial and conviction in a court of law.

CHAPTER 14: Gandhis early career and activism Gandhi was the first Indian barrister to have come to South Africa. He was faced with various racial discriminations within days of his arrival in SA. He led the Indian struggle in SA. The first phase of Gandhis political activities from 1894-1906 may be classified as the moderate phase. He set up the Natal Indian Congress and started a paper called Indian Opinion. By 1906, Gandhiji, having fully tried the Moderate methods of struggle, was becoming convinced that these would not lead anywhere.

The second phase, begun in 1906, was characterized by the use of passive resistance, Satyagraha. There was no fear of jails. South Africa prepared Gandhiji for leadership of the Indian national struggle: o He had the invaluable experience of leading poor Indian labourers. o SA built up his faith in the capacity of the Indian masses to participate in and sacrifice for a cause that moved them. o Gandhiji also had the opportunity of leading Indians belonging to different religions. South Africa provided Gandhiji with an opportunity for evolving his own style of politics and leadership. Gandhi returned to India on January 9, 1915 He founded the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad in 1916 Initially he was politically idle. He spent his time studying the situation of the country. He was deeply convinced that the only viable method of political struggle was satyagraha. During the course of 1917 and early 1918, he was involved in three significant struggles in Champaran in Bihar, in Ahmedabad and in Kheda in Gujarat. The common feature of these struggles was that they related to specific local issues and that they were fought for the economic demands of the masses. Champaran Satyagraha (1917) o Peasantry on the indigo plantations in Champaran, Bihar was excessively oppressed by the Eurpoean planters. o On the invitation of the peasants he went to Champaran and began to conduct a detailed inquiry into the condition of the peasantry o The government was forced to set up a committee with Gandhi as one of the members. The sufferings of the peasants was reduced. o Others in this movement: Rajendra Prasad, Mazhar-ul-Haq, J B Kriplani, Narhari Parekh and Mahadev Desai. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) o Dispute between workers and mill owners o Gandhi advised workers to go on a non-violent strike. He himself took to fast o Owners yielded and gave a 35 percent increase in wages to the workers Kheda Satyagraha (1918) o Despite crop failure in Kheda the government insisted on full land revenue o Gandhi advised the peasants to withhold payment. o Govt issued instructions that revenue should be collected from only those farmers who could afford to pay o Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel played a major role in this satyagraha. Impact of these early experiences o Brought Gandhiji in close contact with the masses o He identified his life and manner of living with the life of the common people He had three main aims o Hindu-Muslim Unity o Fight against untouchability o Raising the social status of the women Gandhijis first major nation-wide protest was against the Rowlatt Bills in 1919. He formed the Satyagraha Sabha whose members took a pledge to disobey the Act and thus to court arrest and imprisonment. Satyagraha was launched. The form of protest finally decided was the observance of a nation-wide hartal accompanied by fasting and prayer. However, protests were generally accompanied by violence and disorder. In Punjab, the situation was particularly violent. Genral Dyer was called to control the situation. On 13 April, Baisakhi Day, General Dyer ordered to open fire on unarmed crowd in Jallianwala Bagh. The government estimate was 379 dead, other estimates were considerably higher. Gandhiji, overwhelmed by the total atmosphere of violence, withdrew the movement on 18 April. Difference between earlier methods of struggle and satyagraha

o o o o

Earlier, the movement had confined its struggle to agitation. They used to hold meetings, demonstrate, boycott etc Through Satyagraha they could act now. The new movement relied increasingly on the political support of the peasants, artisans and urban poor. Gandhiji increasingly turned the face of nationalism towards the common man

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre o On April 13, 1919 a large crowd had gathered in Amritsar to protest against the arrest of their leaders, Dr. Saifudding Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal o General Dyer opened fire o Widespread criticism. Tagore returned his knighthood.

CHAPTER 15: Non Co-operation Movement Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms 1919: Dyarchy In a system called "dyarchy," the nation-building departments of government agriculture, education, public works, and the like were placed under ministers who were individually responsible to the legislature. The departments that made up the "steel frame" of British rule finance, revenue, and home affairs were retained by executive councillors who were nominated by the Governor. The Hunter Committee report praised the actions of general Dyer. Khilafat Movement o For support of Turkey o Khilafat Committee formed under the leadership of Ali Brothers, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani

The promises made to the Khilafat Committee were not kept after the World War. The All-India Khilafat Conference held at Delhi in November 1919 decided to withdraw all cooperation from the government if their demands were not met. o On June 9 1920, the Khilafat Committee at Allahabad unanimously accepted the suggestion of non-cooperation and asked Gandhiji to lead the movement. Khilafat movement cemented Hindu-Muslim unity o Gandhiji looked upon the Khilafat agitation as an opportunity of uniting Hindus and Mohammedans as would not arise in a hundred years The non-cooperation movement was launched on August 1, 1920. Lokmanya Tilak passed away on the same day. People countrywide observed hartal and took out processions. The congress met in September at Calcutta and accepted non-co-operation as its own. o o The programme of non-cooperation included: o Surrender of titles and honors o Boycott of government affiliated schools and colleges, law courts, foreign cloth and could be extended to resignation from government services. o Mass civil disobedience including the non-payment of taxes. o National schools and colleges were to be set up o Panchayats were to be established to settle disputes o Hand-spinning and weaving was encouraged o People were asked to maintain Hindu-Muslim unity, give up untouchability and observe strict non-violence. Changes in Congress to attain the new objective: o At the Nagpur session in 1920 changes in the Constitution of Congress were made. o The goal of congress was changed from the attainment of self-government by constitutional and legal means to the attainment of Swaraj by peaceful and legitimate means. o The Congress now had a Working Committee of fifteen members to look after its day to day affairs. o Provincial congress committees were now organized on a linguistic basis. o Mahalla and ward committees were formed. o The membership fee was reduced to 4 annas a years to enable poor to become members. o This was not without opposition however. Some members still believed in the traditional methods. Leaders like Jinnah, GS Khaparde, Bipin Chandra Pal and Annie Besant left congress during this time. Gandhiji, along with the Ali brother, undertook a nationwide tour to address people. Thousands of students left government schools and joined national schools. The most successful item of the programme was the boycott of foreign cloth. Picketing of toddy shops was also very popular. Students let government schools and colleges. IT was during this time that Jamia Milia Islamia of Aligarh, the Bihar Vidyapith, the Kashi Vidyapith and the Gujarat Vidyapith came into existence. Lawyers such as Deshbandhu CR Das, Motilal Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, Saifudiin Kitchlew, C Rajagopalachari, Sardar Patel, T Prakasam and Asaf Ali gave up their legal practice. Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to finance the NCM. In 1921, Khilafat Committee issued a resolution that no muslim should serve in the British Indian army. The visit of the Prince of Wales on 17th November 1921 was observed as a day of hartal all over the country. The Congress Volunteer Corps emerged as a powerful parallel police. By December 1921, the government felt that things were going too far and announced a change of policy by declaring the volunteer corps illegal and arresting all those who claimed to be its members. Thousands of peasants and tenants participated in the movement. In Punjab, the Akali movement to remove corrupt mahants from the Gurudwaras was started.

Assam: Tea plantation workers went on strike. Midnapore: peasants refused to pay Union Board taxes. Guntur (Chirala): Agitation led by Duggirala Gopalakrishayya Malabar: Mohlahs (muslim peasants) created a powerful anti-zamindari movement. As the government refused to yield, Gandhiji announced that mass civil disobedience would begin in Bardoli taluqa of Surat. However, in Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur on 5 February 1922 crowd set fire on a police station and killed some policemen. On hearing this, Gandhiji decided to withdraw the movement. The congress working committee ratified his decision. Thus, on February 12, 1922, the non-cooperation movement came to an end. Assessing the Withdrawal: o Some scholars say that Gandhiji withdrew the movement because he wanted to protect the interests of the propertied class. o Some argue that there was no logic why a small incident should lead to withdrawal of the movement itself. o However, government could use Chauri Chaura to justify its repression of the movement. o If movement was started at that time, it would have been defeated due to the repression of the government. o Gandhiji was protecting the movement from likely repression, and the people from demoralization. o Mass movements tend to ebb in some time. Hence, withdrawal is a part of the strategy of mass movements. Gandhiji was tried in 1922 and sentenced to six years imprisonment. o He invited the court to award him the highest penalty that can be inflicted upon me for what in law is a deliberate crime, and what appears to be the highest duty of a citizen. Positives outcomes of the non-cooperation movement: o Congress started commanding the support and sympathy of vast sections of the Indian people. o Millions of Indians became politically involved. Women were drawn into the movement. o Muslims participated heavily and communal unity was maintained. o Strengthened the national movement. Nationalist sentiments and the national movement had reached the remotest corners of the land. o People gained tremendous self-confidence and self-esteem.

CHAPTER 16: Peasant Movements Three important peasant movements of the early twentieth century: o Kisan Sabha and Eka movements in Avadh in UP o Mappila rebellion in Malabar o Bardoli Satyagrah in Gujarat The UP Kisan Sabha was set up in February 1918 through the efforts of Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narain Dwivedi with the support of Madan Mohan Malviya. By June 1919, it had established about 450 branches in 173 tehsils of the province. In August 1921, Mappila (Muslim) tenants rebelled. Their grievances related to lack of any security of tenure, renewal fees, high rents and other oppressive labndlord exactions. The no-tax movement was launched in Bardoli taluq of Surat district in Gujarat in 1928.

CHAPTER 17: The Working Class Movements There were some working class movements in second half of 19th century. However, they were impulsive and not very well organized. The early nationalists had a lukewarm attitude towards the question of workers. This war because initially Congress wanted to focus on issues which were of common concern to all the people of India. There was a difference in attitude of the nationalists towards workers in indigenous and European enterprises. The most important feature of the labour movement during the Swadeshi days was the shift from agitation and struggles on purely economic questions to the involvement of the worker with the wider political issues of the day. The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was founded in 1920. IN 1918 Gandhi founded the Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association. The AITUC in November 1927 took a decision to boycott the Simon Commission and many workers participated in the massive Simon boycott demonstrations. Alarmed by workers movement, the government enacted repressive laws like the Public Safety Act and Trade Disputes Acts and arrested the entire radical leadership of the labour movement and launched the Meerut Conspiracy Case against them. The labour movement suffered a major setback partially due to this government offensive and partially due to a shift in stance of the communist led wing of the movement. From the end of 1928, the communists stopped aligning them with the national movement. Communists got isolated within the AITUC and were thrown out in the split of 1931. BY 1934, the communists re-entered the mainstream nationalist politics. The working class of Bombay held an anti-war strike on 2 October, 1939. With the Nazi attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, the communists changed their policy and asked the people to support the allied forces instead of holding anti-war strikes. The communists dissociated themselves from the Quit India movement launched in 1942. The last years of colonial rule also saw a remarkably sharp increase in strikes on economic issues all over the country the all India strike of the post and telegraph department employees being the most well known among them.

CHAPTER 18: Struggles for Gurudwara Reform and Temple Entry The Akali movement The movement arose with the objective of freeing the Gurudwaras from the control of ignorant and corrupt priests (mahants). Apart from the mahants, after the British annexation of Punjab in 1849, some control over the Gurudwaras was exercised by Government-nominated managers and custodians, who often collaborated with mahants. The government gave full support to the mahants. It used them to preach loyalism to the Sikhs and to keep them away from the rising nationalist movement. The agitation for the reform of Gurudwaras developed during 1920 when the reformers organized groups of volunteers known as jathas to compel the mahants and the government appointed managers to hand over control of the Gurudwaras to the local devotees. Tens of Gurudwaras were liberated within an year. To manage the control of Golden Temple and othe rGurudwaras the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee was formed in November 1920. Feeling the need to give the reform movement a structure, the Shiromani Akali Dal was established in December 1920. The SGPC and Akali Dal accepted complete non-violence as their creed. There was a clash between the mahant and the Akalis over surrendering the gurudwara at Nanakana. This led to killing of about 100 akalis. The Nankana tragedy led to the involvement of Sikhs on a large scale in the national movement. Keys Affair: In October 1921, the government refused to surrender the possession fo the keys of the Toshakhana of the golden temple of the Akalis. This led to protests. Leaders like Baba Kharak Singh and Master Tara Singh were arrested. Later, the government surrendered the keys to keep the Sikhs from revolting.

Guru ka Bagh gurudwara in Ghokewala was under dispute as the mahant there claimed that the land attached to it was his personal possession. When few akalis cut down a tree on that land they were arrested on the complain of the mahant. Seeing this thousands of akalis came and started cutting down the trees. About 4000 akalis were arrested. Later, the government didnt arrest but started beating them up severly. But the alakis kept turning up. Ultimately the government had to surrender. The akali movement made a huge contribution to the national awakening of Punjab. However, the movement encouraged a certain religiosity which would be later utilized by communalism. In 1923, the Congress decided to take active steps towards the eradication of untouchability. The basic strategy it adopted was to educate and mobilize opinion among caste hindus. Immediately after the Kakinada session, the Kerala Provincial Congress Committee (KPCC) took up the eradication of untouchability as an urgent issue. KPCC adeiced to organize an procession on the temple roads in Vaikom, a village in Travancore, on 30 March 1924. During the processions, the satyagrahis were arrested and sentenced to imprisonment. On the death of Maharaja in August 1924, the Maharani released the Satyagrahis. Gandhiji visited Kerala to discuss the opening of temple with Maharani. A compromise was reached whereby all roads except for the ones in the Sankethan of the temple were opened to the harijans. In his Kerala tour, Gandhi didnt visit a single temple because avarnas were kept out of them. The weakness of the anti-caste movement was that through it aroused people against untouchability it lacked a strategy of ending the caste system itself.

CHAPTER 19: The years of Stagnation Gandhiji was arrested in 1922 and sentenced to 6 years of imprisonment. The result was the spread of disintegration, disorganization and demoralization in the nationalist ranks. After a defeat of their resolution of either mending or ending in the Congress, CR Das and Motilal Nehru resigned and formed the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party in December 1922. o It was to function as a group within the congress How to carry on political work in the movements non-active phases. The swarajists said that work in the council was necessary to fill the temporary political void. The no-changers believed otherwise. Major no-changers: Sardar Patel, Dr Ansari, Rajendra Prasad The no-changers opposed council-entry mainly on the ground that parliamentary work would lead to the neglect of constructive and other work among the masses , the loss of revolutionary zeal and political corruption. Despite the differences, he two groups had a lot in common. o The need for unity was very strongly felt by all the Congressmen after the 1907 debacle. o Both realized that the real sanctions which would compel the government to accept the national demands would be forged only by a mass movement. o Both groups fully accepted the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. In the session held in 1923, the congressmen were permitted to stand as candidates and exercise their franchise in the forthcoming elections. Gandhiji was released on February 5, 1924. He did not agree with the Swarajists. However, slowly he moved towards an accommodation with the swarajists. On 6 November 1924, Gandhiji brought the strife between the Swarajists and no-changers to an end, by signing a joint statement with Das and Motilal that the Swarajists Party would carry on work in the legislatures on behalf of the Congress and as an integral part of the Congress. This decision was endorsed in Belgaum. The Swarajists did well in the elections and won 42 out of 101 seats in the Central Legislative Assembly. In March 1925, Vithalbhai J Patel was elected as he President (speaker) of the Central Legislative Assembly. The achievement of the Swarajists lay in filling the political void at a time when the national movement was recouping its strength. o They also exposed the hollowness of the reforms of 1919 After the petering out of the NCM communalism took stronghold

Even within the Congress, a group known as responsivists, including Madan Mohan Malviya, Lala Lajpat Rai and NC Kelkar, offered cooperation to the government so that the so-called Hindu interests might be safeguarded.

CHAPTER 20: Bhagat Singh The sudden suspension of the non-cooperation movement led many young people to question the very basis strategy of non-violence and began to look for alternatives. All the major new revolutionary leaders had been enthusiastic participants in the non-violent non-cooperation movement. Two separate strands of revolutionary terrorism developed one in Punjab, UP and Bihar and the other in Bengal. Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chatterjea and Sachindranath Sanyal met in Kanpur in October 1924 and founded the Hindustan Republican Association to organize armed revolution. In order to carry out their activities the HRA required funding. The most important action of the HRA was the Kakori Robbery. On August 9, 1925, ten men held up the 8-Down train from Shahjahanpur to Lucknow at Kakori and looted its official railway cash. The government arrested a large number of young men and tried them in the Kakori Conspiracy Case. Ashfaqulla Khan, Ramprasadn Bismil, Roshan Singh and Rajendra Lahiri were hanged, four others were sent to Andaman while seventeen others were sentenced to long term imprisonment. New revolutionaries joined the HRA. They met at Ferozshah Kotla Ground at Delhi on 9 and 10 September 1928, created a new collective leadership, adopted socialism as their official goal and changed the name of the party to the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. Lala Lajpat Rai dies in a lathi-charge when he was laeding an anti-Simon Commission demonstration at Lahore on 30 October 1928. On 17 December 1928, Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru assassinated, at Lahore, Saunders, a police official involved in the lathi-charge on Lala Lajpat Rai. In order to let the people know about HSRAs changed objectives Bhagat Singh and BK Dutt were asked to throw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 against the passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill. He aim was not to kill but to let people know of their objectives through the leaflet they threw. They were later arrested and tried. The country was also stirred by the hunger strike the revolutionaries took as a protest against the horrible conditions in jails. On 13th September, the 64th day of the epic fast, Jatin Das died. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were sentenced to be hanged. He sentence was carried out on 23 March, 1931. Bhagat Singh was fully secular. o The Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha organized by him acted on secular lines. In Bengal, after the death of C R Das, the Congress leadership in Bengal got divided into two wings: one led by S C Bose and the other by J M Sengupta. The Yugantar group joined forces with the first while the Anushilan with the second. Surya Sen had actively participated in the non-cooperation movement. He gathered around him a large band of revolutionary youth including Anant Singh, Ganesh Ghosh and Lokenath Baul. Chittagong Armoury Raid

NCERT Chapter 13 Emergence of socialism in the 1920s in the nationalist ranks o JL Nehru and SC Bose o Raised the question of internal class oppression by capitalists and landlords o MN Roy became the first Indian to be elected to the leadership of the Communist International o Muzaffer Ahmed and SA Dange were tried in the Kanpur Conspiracy Case o 1925: Communist Party of India was formed o All India Trade Union Congress o Various Strikes: Bombay textile mills, Jamshedpur, Kharagpur Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) o Peasants under the leadership of Sardar Patel organized no tax campaign Indian Youth were becoming active o First All Bengal Conference of Students held in 1928 presided by JL Nehru Hindustan Republican Association: 1924 o Kakori Conspiracy Case (1925)

o Four, including Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqulla Khan were hanged. Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (1928) o On 17th December 1928, Bhagat Singh, Azad and Rajguru assassinated Saunders o Bhagat Singh and BK Dutt threw bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 to let the people know of their changed political objectives Chittagong Armoury Raid: 1030, Surya Sen o Participation of young women

Simon Commission (1927) Indian Statutory Commission chaired by Simon to go into the question of further constitutional reform All its seven members were Englishmen. Clement Attlee was one of the members. Lord Birkinhead was the secretary of state at that time At its Madras session in 1927 INC decided to boycott the commission at every stage and in every form o ML and Hindu Mahasabha supported Congress Nehru Report, 1928 o Dominion status o Contained Bill of Rights o No state religion o Federal form o Linguistically determined provinces o No separate electorates o All Party Convention, held at Calcutta in 1928, failed to pass the report o Muslim league rejected the proposals of the report o Jinnah drafted his fourteen points o Hindu Mahasabha and Sikh League also objected Poorna Swaraj o Resolution passed at the Lahore session in 1929 o On 31 December 1929, the tri-color was hoisted o On 26 January 1930, Independence Day was celebrated

Civil Disobedience Movement Started by Gandhi on 12th March 1930 with the Dandi March. Reached Dandi on April 6. Defiance of forest laws in Maharashtra, Central Province and Karnataka. Refusal to pay chaukidari tax in Eastern India. Wide participation of women Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan organized Khudai Khidmatgars (aka Red Shirts) Nagaland: Rani Gaidilieu First RTC, 1930 o Congress boycotted Gandhi-Irwin Pact, 1931 o Government agreed to release the political prisoners who had remained non-violent o Right to make salt for consumption o Right to peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops o Congress suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement o Agreed to take part in the second RTC August Offer (1940) After the WWII began, British sought cooperation from India. August Offer offered three proposals. Firstly, it called for an immediate expansion of Viceroys Executive Council with the inclusion of India representatives; secondly, an advisory body with the members from British India and Indian princely states which were supposed to meet at consequent intervals was established and thirdly, two practical steps were decided to be taken in which it was to come at an agreement with the Indians on the form of the post representatives body should take and the methods by which it should come to a conclusion. It further planned to draw out the principles and outlines of the Constitution itself. Congress did not accept the offer.

CR Formula C. Rajagopalachari's formula (or C. R. formula or Rajaji formula) was a proposal formulated by Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari to solve the political deadlock between the All India Muslim League and Indian National Congress on independence of India from the British. C. Rajagopalachari, a Congress leader from Madras, devised a proposal for the Congress to offer the League the Muslim Pakistan based onplebiscite of all the peoples in the regions where Muslims made a majority. Although the formula was opposed even within the Congress party,Gandhi used it as his proposal in his talks with Jinnah in 1944. However, Jinnah rejected the proposal and the talks failed. The CR formula entailed[43][44] i. The League was to endorse the Indian demand for independence and to co-operate with the Congress in formation of Provisional Interim Government for a transitional period. ii. At the end of the War, a commission would be appointed to demarcate the districts having a Muslim population in absolute majority and in those areas plebiscite to be conducted on all inhabitants (including the non-Muslims) on basis of adult suffrage. iii. All parties would be allowed to express their stance on the partition and their views before the plebiscite. iv. In the event of separation, a mutual agreement would be entered into for safeguarding essential matters such as defence, communication and commerce and for other essential services. v. The transfer of population, if any would be absolutely on a voluntary basis. vi. The terms of the binding will be applicable only in case of full transfer of power by Britain to Government of India. Wavell Plan & Shimla Conference In May 1945, Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, went to London and discussed his ideas about the future of India with the British administration. The talks resulted in the formulation of a plan of action that was made public in June 1945. The plan is known as Wavell Plan. The Plan suggested reconstitution of the Viceroy's Executive Council in which the Viceroy was to select persons nominated by the political parties. Different communities were also to get their due share in the Council and parity was reserved for Cast-Hindus and Muslims. While declaring the plan, the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs made it clear that the British Government wanted to listen to the ideas of all major Indian communities. Yet he said that it was only possible if the leadership of the leading Indian political parties agreed with the suggestions of the British Government. To discuss these proposals with the leadership of major Indian parties, Wavell called for a conference at Simla on June 25, 1945. Leaders of both the Congress and the Muslim League attended the conference, which is known as the Simla Conference. However, differences arose between the leadership of the two parties on the issue of representation of the Muslim community. The Muslim League claimed that it was the only representative party of the Muslims in India and thus all the Muslim representatives in the Viceroy's Executive Council should be the nominees of the party. Congress, which had sent Maulana Azad as the leader of their delegation, tried to prove that their party represented all the communities living in India and thus should be allowed to nominate Muslim representative as well. Congress also opposed the idea of parity between the Cast-Hindus and the Muslims. All this resulted in a deadlock. Finally, Wavell announced the failure of his efforts on July 14. Thus the Simla Conference couldn't provide any hope of proceeding further.

Infrastructure
Ports in India Major ports There are 12 major ports: Kolkata-Haldia <riverine port> Paradip <exports raw iron to Japan> Vishakhapatnam <deepest major port> Chennai <oldest and artificial> Tuticorin <southernmost> Cochin <natural> New Mangalore Port <exports Kudremukh Iron Ore> Maragao <naval base also> Mumbai <biggest and busiest> Ennore <corporate Port. Private?> Kandla <child of partition> Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (Nhava Sheva, Maharashtra) <fastest growing> Gangavaram Port in AP is the deepest port.

Judiciary
Judicial Overreach SIT on Black Money: Central Govt filed a review petition in SC citing that this is a case of judicial over-reach Constitutional Provision? In August 2011, SC cautioned courts against passing orders that would hamper the State in its routine administrative functions Certain matters by their very nature should be left to administrative authorities rather than courts seeking to substitute their own views and perceptions of what is the best solution to the problem.

In matters of policy, the courts have a limited role and they should interfere only if it is clearly illegal

Judicial Review in India

The Judiciary plays a very important role as a protector of the constitutional values that the founding fathers have given us. They try to undo the harm that is being done by the legislature and the executive and also they try to provide every citizen what has been promised by the Constitution under the Directive Principles of State Policy. All this is possible thanks to the power of judicial review. All this is not achieved in a day it took 50 long years for where we are right now, if one thinks that it is has been a roller coaster ride without any hindrances they are wrong judiciary has been facing the brunt of many politicians, technocrats, academicians, lawyers etc. Few of them being genuine concerns, and among one of them is the aspect of corruption and power of criminal contempt. In this paper I would try to highlight the ups and downs of this greatest institution in India. The rule of law is the bedrock of democracy, and the primary responsibility for implementation of the rule of law lies with the judiciary.1 This is now a basic feature of every constitution, which cannot be altered even by the exercise of new powers from parliament. It is the significance of judicial review, to ensure that democracy is inclusive and that there is accountability of everyone who wields or exercises public power. As Edmund Burke said: "all persons in positions of power ought to be strongly and lawfully impressed with an idea that "they act in trust," and must account for their conduct to one great master, to those in whom the political sovereignty rests, the people".2 India opted for parliamentary form of democracy, where every section is involved in policy-making, and decision taking, so that every point of view is reflected and there is a fair representation of every section of the people in every such body. In this kind of inclusive democracy, the judiciary has a very important role to play. That is the concept of accountability in any republican democracy, and this basic theme has to be remembered by everybody exercising public power, irrespective of the extra expressed expositions in the constitution.3 The principle of judicial review became an essential feature of written Constitutions of many countries. Seervai in his book Constitutional Law of India noted that the principle of judicial review is a familiar feature of the Constitutions of Canada, Australia and India, though the doctrine of Separation of Powers has no place in strict sense in Indian Constitution, but the functions of different organs of the Government have been sufficiently differentiated, so that one organ of the Government could not usurp the functions of another.4 The power of judicial review has in itself the concept of separation of powers an essential component of the rule of law, which is a basic feature of the Indian Constitution. Every State action has to be tested on the anvil of rule of law and that exercise is performed, when occasion arises by the reason of a doubt raised in that behalf, by the courts. The power of Judicial Review is incorporated in Articles 226 and 227 of the Constitution insofar as the High Courts are concerned. In regard to the Supreme Court Articles 32 and 136 of the Constitution, the judiciary in India has come to control by judicial review every aspect of governmental and public functions.5 Extent of Judicial Review in India: The initial years of the Supreme Court of India saw the adoption of an approach characterised by caution and circumspection. Being steeped in the British tradition of limited judicial review, the Court generally adopted a pro-legislature stance. This is evident form the rulings such as A.K. Gopalan,

but however it did not take long for judges to break their shackles and this led to a series of right to property cases in which the judiciary was loggerhead with the parliament. The nation witnessed a series of events where a decision of the Supreme Court was followed by a legislation nullifying its effect, followed by another decision reaffirming the earlier position, and so on. The struggle between the two wings of government continued on other issues such as the power of amending the Constitution.6 During this era, the Legislature sought to bring forth people-oriented socialist measures which when in conflict with fundamental rights were frustrated on the upholding of the fundamental rights of individuals by the Supreme Court. At the time, an effort was made to project the Supreme Court as being concerned only with the interests of propertied classes and being insensitive to the needs of the masses. Between 1950 and 1975, the Indian Supreme Court had held a mere one hundred Union and State laws, in whole or in part, to be unconstitutional. After the period of emergency the judiciary was on the receiving end for having delivered a series of judgments which were perceived by many as being violative of the basic human rights of Indian citizens 7and changed the way it looked at the constitution. The Supreme Court said that any legislation is amenable to judicial review, be it momentous amendments8 to the Constitution or drawing up of schemes and bye-laws of municipal bodies which affect the life of a citizen9. Judicial review extends to every governmental or executive action - from high policy matters like the President's power to issue a proclamation on failure of constitutional machinery in the States like in Bommai case, to the highly discretionary exercise of the prerogative of pardon like in Kehar Singh case or the right to go abroad as in Satwant Singh case.Judicial review knows no bounds except the restraint of the judges themselves regarding justifiability of an issue in a particular case. Judicial Review of Political Questions: In the initial stages of the judicial adjudication Courts have said that where there is a political question involved it is not amenable to judicial review but slowly this changed, in Keshavananda Bharathis case,10 the Court held that, "it is difficult to see how the power of judicial review makes the judiciary supreme in any sense of the word. This power is of paramount importance in a federal constitution. Judicial Review of constitutional amendments may seem involving the Court in political question, but it is the Court alone which can decide such an issue. The function of Interpretation of a Constitution being thus assigned to the judicial power the State, the question whether the subject of law is within the ambit of one or more powers of the legislature conferred by the constitution would always be a question of interpretation of the Constitution." Than it was in Special Courts Bill, 1978, In re, case where the majority opined that, "The policy of the Bill and the motive of the mover to ensure a speedy trial of persons holding high public or political office who are alleged to have committed certain crimes during the period of emergency may be political, but the question whether the bill or any provisions are constitutionally invalid is a not a question of a political nature and the court should not refrain from answering it." What this meant was that though there are political questions involved the validity of any action or legislation can be challenged if it would violate the constitution. This position has been reiterated in many other cases11 and in S.R. Bommais case the Court held, "though subjective satisfaction of the President cannot be reviewed but the material on which satisfaction is based open to review" the court further went on to say that, "The opinion which the President would form on the basis of Governors report or otherwise would be based on his political judgment and it is difficult to evolve judicially manageable norms for scrutinizing such political decisions. Therefore, by the very nature of things which would govern the decision-making under Article 356, it is difficult to hold that the decision of the president is justiciable. To do so would be entering the political thicker and questioning the political wisdom which the courts of law must avoid. The temptation to delve into the Presidents satisfaction may be great but the courts would be well advised to resist the temptation for want of judicially manageable standards. Therefore, the Court cannot interdict the use of the constitutional power conferred on the President under Article 356 unless the same is shown to be male fide." As Soli Sorabjee points out, "there is genuine concern about misuse by the Centre of Article 356 on the pretext that the State Government is acting in defiance of the essential features of the Constitution. The real safeguard will be full judicial review extending to an inquiry into the truth and correctness of the basic facts relied upon in support of the action under Article 356 as indicated by Justices Sawant and Kuldip Singh. If in certain cases that entails evaluating the sufficiency of the material, so be it." What this meant was the judiciary was being cautious about the role it has to play while adjudicating matters of such importance and it is showing a path of restraint that has to be used while deciding such matters so that it does not usurp the powers given by the Constitution by way of the power of review at the same it is also minimizing the misusing of the power given under Article 356 to the President.

Judicial Review as a part of the Basic Structure: In the celebrated case of Keshavanda Bharathi v. State of Kerela, the Supreme Court of India the propounded the basic structure doctrine according to which it said the legislature can amend the Constitution, but it should not change the basic structure of the Constitution, The Judges made no attempt to define the basic structure of the Constitution in clear terms. S.M. Sikri, C.J mentioned five basic features: 1. Supremacy of the Constitution. 2. Republican and democratic form of Government. 3. Secular character of the Constitution. 4. Separation of powers between the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. 5. Federal character of the Constitution. He observed that these basic features are easily discernible not only from the Preamble but also from the whole scheme of the Constitution. He added that the structure was built on the basic foundation of dignity and freedom of the individual which could not by any form of amendment be destroyed. It was also observed in that case that the above are only illustrative and not exhaustive of all the limitations on the power of amendment of the Constitution. The Constitutional bench in Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975 Supp SCC 1.) held that Judicial Review in election disputes was not a compulsion as it is not a part of basic structure. In S.P. Sampath Kumar v. Union of India((1987) 1 SCC 124 at 128.), P.N. Bhagwati, C.J., relying on Minerva Mills Ltd. ((1980) 3 SCC 625.) declared that it was well settled that judicial review was a basic and essential feature of the Constitution. If the power of judicial review was absolutely taken away, the Constitution would cease to be what it was. In Sampath Kumar the Court further declared that if a law made under Article 323-A(1) were to exclude the jurisdiction of the High Court under Articles 226 and 227 without setting up an effective alternative institutional mechanism or arrangement for judicial review, it would be violative of the basic structure and hence outside the constituent power of Parliament. In Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhur (1992 Supp (2) SCC 651, 715, para 120) another Constitution Bench, while examining the validity of para 7 of the Tenth Schedule to the Constitution which excluded judicial review of the decision of the Speaker/Chairman on the question of disqualification of MLAs and MPs, observed that it was unnecessary to pronounce on the contention whether judicial review is a basic feature of the Constitution and para 7 of the Tenth Schedule violated such basic structure. Subsequently, in L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India ((1997) 3 SCC 261) a larger Bench of seven Judges unequivocally declared: "that the power of judicial review over legislative action vested in the High Courts under Article 226 and in the Supreme Court under Article 32 of the Constitution is an integral and essential feature of the Constitution, constituting part of its basic structure". Though one does not deny that power to review is very important, at the same time one cannot also give an absolute power to review and by recognizing judicial review as a part of basic feature of the constitution Courts in India have given a different meaning to the theory of Checks and Balances this also meant that it has buried the concept of separation of powers, where the judiciary will give itself an unfettered jurisdiction to review any thing every thing that is done by the legislature. Expansion of Judicial Review through Judicial Activism: After the draconian exposition of power by the Executive and the Legislature during Emergency the expectations of the public soared high and the demands on the courts to improve the administration by giving appropriate directions for ensuring compliance with statutory and constitutional prescriptions. Likewise the judiciary has taken an activist view the Beginning with the Ratlam Municipality case 12the sweep of Social Action Litigation13 had encompassed a variety of causes14. With the interpretation given by it in Menaka Gandhi case the Supreme Court brought the ambit of constitutional provisions to enforce the human rights of citizens and sought to bring the Indian law in conformity with the global trends in human-rights-jurisprudence. This was made possible in India, because of the procedural innovations with a view to making itself more accessible to disadvantaged sections of society giving rise to the phenomenon of Social Action Litigation/Public Interest Litigation15. During the Eighties and the first half of the Nineties, the Court have broken there shackles and moved much ahead from being a mere legal institution, its decisions have tremendous social, political and economic ramifications. Time and again, it has sought to interpret constitutional provisions and the objectives sought to be achieved by it and directed the executive to comply with its orders. SAL, a manifestation of judicial activism, has introduced a new dimension regarding judiciary's involvement in public administration16. The sanctity of locus standi and the procedural complexities are totally side-tracked in the causes brought before the courts through SAL. In the beginning, the

application of SAL was confined only to improving the lot of the disadvantaged sections of the society who by reason of their poverty and ignorance were not in a position to seek justice from the courts and, therefore, any member of the public was permitted to maintain an application for appropriate directions17. The new role of the Supreme Court has been criticised in some quarters as being violative of the doctrine of separation of powers; it is claimed that the Apex Court has, by formulating policy and issuing directions in respect of various aspects of the country's administration, transgressed into the domain of the executive and the legislature. As Justice Cardozo puts it, "A Constitution states or ought to state not rules for the passing hour but principles for an expanding future."18 It is with this view that innovations in the rules of standing have come into existence. Limitation on the power of review: The expansion of the horizon of judicial review is seen both with reverence and suspicion; reverence in as much as the judicial review is a creative element of interpretation, which serves as an omnipresent and potentially omnipotent check on the legislative and executive branches of government. But at the same time there is a danger that they may trespass into the powers given to the legislature and the executive. One many say that if there is any limitation on judicial review other than constitutional and procedural19 that is a product of judicial self-restraint. As justice Dwivedi empathically observed, "Structural socio-political value choices involve a complex and complicated political process. This court is hardly fitted for performing that function. In the absence of any explicit Constitutional norms and for want of complete evidence, the courts structural value choices will be largely subjective. Our personal predilections will unavoidably enter into the scale and give colour to our judgment. Subjectivism is calculated to undermine legal certainty, an essential element of rule of law."20 The above observations also reveal another assumption to support an attitude of self-restraint, viz., the element subjectiveness in judicial decision on issues having socio-political significance. When one looks at the decisions of the Supreme Court on certain questions of fundamental issues of constitutional law one can see that there is a sharp division among the judges of the apex court on such basic questions of power of the Parliament to amend the Constitution, federal relations, powers of the President etc. This aptly demonstrates the observation of the judge. This would mean that though there has been expansion of powers of judicial review one cannot also say that this cannot be overturned. Judicial self-restrain in relation to legislative power manifests itself in the form the there is a presumption of constitutionality when the validity of the statute is challenged. In the words of Fazl Ali, "the presumption is always in favour of the constitutionality of an enactment, and the burden is upon him who attacks it to show that there has been a clear transgression of the constitutional principles"21 In applying the presumption of constitutionality the Courts sometimes apply an interpretational device called reading down. The essence of the device is that "if certain provisions of law construed in one way would make them consistent with the constitution, and another interpretation would render them unconstitutional, the court would lean in favour of the former construction."22 But all this depends on the outlook and values of the judge.23 When it come judicial review of administrative action though the presumption of validity is not so strong in the case of administrative action as in the case of statutes. Still, when the legislature expressly leaves a matter to the discretion of an administrative authority the courts have adopted an attitude of restraint. They have said we cannot the question the legality of the exercise of discretionary power unless and until it is an abuse of discretionary power (which includes mala fide exercise of power, exercising the power for an improper motive, decision based on irrelevant considerations or in disregard of relevant consideration, and in some cases unreasonable exercise of power) and nonexercise of discretion ( which come when power is exercised without proper delegation and when it is acted under dictation). The relevant considerations which should make the judicial choice in favour of activism or restraint are the policy and scheme of the statute, the object of conferring discretionary powers, the nature and scope of the discretion, and finally, the nature of the right and interests affected by the decision. Any impulsive move to activism without a serious consideration of these factors may only be viewed as undesirable. Judicial activism, being an exception, not the general rule, in relation to the control of discretionary power, needs strong reasons to justify it. In the absence of such strong support of reasons the interventionist strategy may provoke the other branches of Government may retaliate and impose further limitations on the scope of judicial review.

Conclusion: Accountability is an essential part of the rule of law. It is essential for another reason, as in the earlier editions of Dicey,24 of course modified in later editions, referring to John Wilkes's case,25 that "conferment of any discretion tends to arbitrariness and therefore there is something inconsistent with the rule of law." But then, as time passed, it was realized that conferment of some discretion for the purpose of application to the facts of a given case is something you cannot do away with. The area of discretion should be the minimum possible, and set norms, standards or guidelines should regulate it, so that it does not tend to become arbitrary. Therefore, the rule of non-arbitrariness is something to be tested by the judiciary whenever the occasion arises.26 The growth of judicial review is the inevitable response of the judiciary to ensure proper check on the exercise of public power. Growing awareness of the rights in the people; the trend of judicial scrutiny of every significant governmental action and the readiness even of the executive to seek judicial determination of debatable or controversial issues, at times, may be, to avoid its accountability for the decision, have all resulted in the increasing significance of the role of the judiciary. There is a general perception that the judiciary in this country has been active in expansion of the field of judicial review into non-traditional areas, which earlier were considered beyond judicial purview. The Judges have a duty to perform, which is even more onerous to keep the judicial ship afloat on even keel. It must avoid making any ad hoc decision without the foundation of a juristic principle, particularly, when the decision appears to break new grounds. The judgments must be logical, precise, clear, and sober, rendered with restraint in speech avoiding saying more than that, which is necessary in the case.27 It must always be remembered that a step taken in a new direction is fraught with the danger of being a likely step in a wrong direction. In order to be a path-breaking trend it must be a sure step in the right direction. Any step satisfying these requirements and setting a new trend to achieve justice can alone be a New Dimension of Justice and a true contribution to the growth and development of law meant to achieve the ideal of justice.

Public Interest Litigation

Social Change and Public Interest Litigation in India Social change is the necessity of any society. In India it is done through Public Interest Litigation. In this article an attempt was made to assess the impact of PIL over Indian Society. The jurisprudence of PIL is necessary to understand the nature of PIL in India. Such is the disillusionment with the state formal legal system that it is no longer demanded by law to do justice, if justice perchance is done, we congratulate ourselves for being fortunate. In these circumstances one of the best things that have happened in the country in recent years is the process of social reform through Public Interest Litigation or Social Action Litigation. Late 1970s marked discernible shift from legal centralism. Legal pluralism was very apparent now. It was realized that social conduct was regulated by the interaction of normative orders, notion of popular justice, community justice, and distributive justice were sought to be institutionalised, though outside the sphere of the formal legal system and in opposition to it. Necessity of informal justice Necessity of informal justice, whether as an alternative to state law or as to its agent to find its identity in opposition to state law stems from the nature of Anglo-Saxon law prescribing legal formalism and due to the failure of formal legal system to deliver justice that forced informal justice to take on a separate identity from state law. The British rule bequeathed to India a colonial legal heritage. The Anglo-Saxon model of adjudication insisted upon observance of procedural technicalities such as locus standi and adherence to adversarial system of litigation. The result was that the courts were accessible only to the rich and the influential people. The marginalized and disadvantaged groups continued to be exploited and denied basic human rights. Public Interest Litigation as exists today PIL today offers such a paradigm which locates the content of informal justice without the formal legal system. Non Anglo-Saxon jurisdiction directs courts to transcend the traditional judicial function of adjudication and provide remedies for social wrongs. PIL had already molded the state in to the instrument of socio-economic change. Social justice is the byproduct of this transcends from the formal legal system. Evolution of Public Interest Litigation The Indian PIL is the improved version of PIL of U.S.A. According to Ford Foundation of U.S.A., Public interest law is the name that has recently been given to efforts that provide legal representation to previously unrepresented groups and interests. Such efforts have been undertaken in the recognition that ordinary marketplace for legal services fails to provide such services to significant segments of the population and to significant interests. Such groups and interests include the proper environmentalists, consumers, racial and ethnic minorities and others. The emergency period (1975-1977) witnessed colonial nature of the Indian legal system. During emergency state repression and governmental lawlessness was widespread. Thousands of innocent people including political opponents were sent to jails and there was complete deprivation of civil and political rights. The post emergency period provided an occasion for the judges of the Supreme Court to openly disregard the impediments of Anglo-Saxon procedure in providing access to justice to the poor. Notably two justices of the Supreme Court, Justice V. R. Krishna Iyer and P. N. Bhagwati recognised the possibility of providing access to justice to the poor and the exploited people by relaxing the rules of standing. In the post-emergency period when the political situations had changed, investigative journalism also began to expose gory scenes of governmental lawlessness, repression, custodial violence, drawing attention of lawyers, judges, and social activists. PIL emerged as a result of an informal nexus of pro-active judges, media persons and social activists. This trend shows starke difference between the traditional justice delivery system and the modern informal justice system where the judiciary is performing administrative judicial role. PIL is necessary rejection of laissez faire notions of traditional jurisprudence. The first reported case of PIL in 1979 focused on the inhuman conditions of prisons and under trial prisoners. In Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar, AIR 1979 SC 1360, the PIL was filed by an advocate on the basis of the news item published in the Indian Express, highlighting the plight of thousands of undertrial prisoners languishing in various jails in Bihar. These proceeding led to the release of more than 40, 000 undertrial prisoners. Right to speedy justice emerged as a basic

fundamental right which had been denied to these prisoners. The same set pattern was adopted in subsequent cases. In 1981 the case of Anil Yadav v. State of Bihar, AIR 1982 SC 1008, exposed the brutalities of the Police. News paper report revealed that about 33 suspected criminals were blinded by the police in Bihar by putting the acid into their eyes. Through interim orders S. C. directed the State government to bring the blinded men to Delhi for medical treatment. It also ordered speedy prosecution of the guilty policemen. The court also read right to free legal aid as a fundamental right of every accused. Anil Yadav signalled the growth of social activism and investigative litigation. In (Citizen for Democracy v. State of Assam, (1995) 3SCC 743), the S. C. declared that the handcuffs and other fetters shall not be forced upon a prisoner while lodged in jail or while in transport or transit from one jail to another or to the court or back. Concept of PIL According to the jurisprudence of Article 32 of the Constitution of India, The right to move the Supreme Court by appropriate proceedings for the enforcement of the rights conferred by this part is guaranteed. Ordinarily, only the aggrieved party has the right to seek redress under Article 32. In 1981 Justice P. N. Bhagwati in .S. P. Gupta v. Union of India, 1981 (Supp) SCC 87, articulated the concept of PIL as follows, Where a legal wrong or a legal injury is caused to a person or to a determinate class of persons by reason of violation of any constitutional or legal right or any burden is imposed in contravention of any constitutional or legal provision or without authority of law or any such legal wrong or legal injury or illegal burden is threatened and such person or determinate class of persons by reasons of poverty, helplessness or disability or socially or economically disadvantaged position unable to approach the court for relief, any member of public can maintain an application for an appropriate direction, order or writ in the High Court under Article 226 and in case any breach of fundamental rights of such persons or determinate class of persons, in this court under Article 32 seeking judicial redress for the legal wrong or legal injury caused to such person or determinate class of persons. The rule of locus standi have been relaxed and a person acting bonafide and having sufficient interest in the proceeding of Public Interest Litigation will alone have a locus standi and can approach the court to wipe out violation of fundamental rights and genuine infraction of statutory provisions, but not for personal gain or private profit or political motive or any oblique consideration (Ashok Kumar Pandey v. State of W. B., (2004) 3 SCC 349). Supreme Court in Indian Banks Association, Bombay and ors v. M/s Devkala Consultancy Service and Ors., J. T. 2004 (4) SC 587, held that In an appropriate case, where the petitioner might have moved a court in her private interest and for redressal of the personal grievance, the court in furtherance of Public Interest may treat it a necessity to enquire into the state of affairs of the subject of litigation in the interest of justice. Thus a private interest case can also be treated as public interest case. In Guruvayur Devaswom Managing Commit. And Anr. Vs. C.K. Rajan and Ors, J.T. 2003 (7) S.C. 312, S.C. held, The Courts exercising their power of judicial review found to its dismay that the poorest of the poor, depraved, the illiterate, the urban and rural unorganized labour sector, women, children, handicapped by 'ignorance, indigence and illiteracy' and other down trodden have either no access to justice or had been denied justice. A new branch of proceedings known as 'Social Interest Litigation' or 'Public Interest Litigation' was evolved with a view to render complete justice to the aforementioned classes of persona. It expanded its wings in course of time. The Courts in pro bono publico granted relief to the inmates of the prisons, provided legal aid, directed speedy trial, maintenance of human dignity and covered several other areas. Representative actions, pro bono publico and test litigations were entertained in keeping with the current accent on justice to the common man and a necessary disincentive to those who wish to by pass the, real issues on the merits by suspect reliance on peripheral procedural shortcomings Pro bono publico constituted a significant state in the present day judicial system. They, however, provided the dockets with much greater responsibility for rendering the concept of justice available to the disadvantaged sections of the society. Public interest litigation has come to stay and its necessity cannot be overemphasized. The courts evolved a jurisprudence of compassion. Procedural propriety was to move over giving place to substantive concerns of the deprivation of rights. The rule of locus standi was diluted. The Court in place of disinterested and dispassionate adjudicator became active participant in the dispensation of justice.

Aspects of PIL (a) Remedial in Nature Remedial nature of PIL departs from traditional locus standi rules. It indirectly incorporated the principles enshrined in the part IV of the Constitution of India into part III of the Constitution. By riding the aspirations of part IV into part III of the Constitution had changeth the procedural nature of the Indian law into dynamic welfare one. Bandhu Mukti Morcha v. Union of India, Unnikrishnan v. State of A.P., etc were the obvious examples of this change in nature of judiciary. (b) Representative Standing Representative standing can be seen as a creative expansion of the well-accepted standing exception which allows a third party to file a habeas corpus petition on the ground that the injured party cannot approach the court himself. And in this regard the Indian concept of PIL is much broader in relation to the American. PIL is a modified form of class action. (c) Citizen standing The doctrine of citizen standing thus marks a significant expansion of the courts rule, from protector of individual rights to guardian of the rule of law wherever threatened by official lawlessness. (d) Non-adversarial Litigation In the words of S. C. in Peoples Union for Democratic Rights v. Union of India, AIR 1982 S.C. 1473, We wish to point out with all the emphasis at our command that public interest litigationis a totally different kind of litigation from the ordinary traditional litigation which is essentially of an adversary character where there is a dispute between two litigating parties, one making claim or seeking relief against the other and that other opposing such claim or resisting such relief. Non-adversarial litigation has two aspects. 1. Collaborative litigation; and 2. Investigative Litigation Collaborative Litigation: In collaborative litigation the effort is from all the sides. The claimant, the court and the Government or the public official, all are in collaboration here to see that basic human rights become meaningful for the large masses of the people. PIL helps executive to discharge its constitutional obligations. Court assumes three different functions other than that from traditional determination and issuance of a decree. (i). Ombudsman- The court receives citizen complaints and brings the most important ones to the attention of responsible government officials. (ii) Forum The court provides a forum or place to discuss the public issues at length and providing emergency relief through interim orders. (iii) Mediator The court comes up with possible compromises. Investigative Litigation: It is investigative litigation because it works on the reports of the Registrar, District Magistrate, comments of experts, newspapers etc. (e) Crucial Aspects The flexibility introduced in the adherence to procedural laws. In Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra v. State of U.P.,(1985) 2 SCC 431, court rejected the defense of Res Judicta. Court refused to withdraw the PIL and ordered compensation too. In R.C. Narain v. State of Bihar, court legislated the rules for the welfare of the persons living in the mental asylum. To curtail custodial violence, Supreme Court in Sheela Barse v. State of Maharashtra, issued certain guidelines. Supreme Court has broadened the meaning of Right to live with human dignity available under the Article 21 of the Constitution of India to a greatest extent possible. (f) Relaxation of strict rule of Locus Standi The strict rule of locus standi has been relaxed by way of (a) Representative standing, and (b) Citizen standing. In D.C.Wadhwa v. State of Bihar, AIR 1987 SC 579, S.C. held that a petitioner, a professor of political science who had done substantial research and deeply interested in ensuring proper implementation of the constitutional provisions, challenged the practice followed by the state of Bihar in repromulgating a number of ordinances without getting the approval of the legislature. The court held that the petitioner as a member of public has sufficient interest to maintain a petition under Article 32.

The rule of locus standi have been relaxed and a person acting bonafide and having sufficient interest in the proceeding of Public Interest Litigation will alone have a locus standi and can approach the court to wipe out violation of fundamental rights and genuine infraction of statutory provisions, but not for personal gain or private profit or political motive or any oblique considerationcourt has to strike balance between two conflicting interests: (i) nobody should be allowed to indulge in wild and reckless allegations besmirching the character of others; and (ii) avoidance of public mischief and to avoid mischievous petitions seeking to assail, for oblique motives, justifiable executive and the legislature (Ashok Kumar Pandey v. State of W. B., (2004) 3 SCC 349). It is depressing to note that on account of trumpery proceedings initiated before the courts, innumerable days are wasted, which time otherwise could have been spent for the disposal of cases of genuine litigants. Though the Supreme Court spares no efforts in fostering and developing the laudable concept of PIL and extending its ling arm of sympathy to the poor, ignorant, the oppressed and the needy whose fundamental rights are infringed and violated and whose grievances go unnoticed, unrepresented and unheard (Ashok Kumar Pandey v. State of W. B., (2004) 3 SCC 349). (g) Epistolary Jurisdiction The judicial activism gets its highest bonus when its orders wipe some tears from some eyes. This jurisdiction is somehow different from collective action. Number of PIL cells was open all over India for providing the footing or at least platform to the needy class of the society. Features of PIL Through the mechanism of PIL, the courts seek to protect human rights in the following ways: 1) By creating a new regime of human rights by expanding the meaning of fundamental right to equality, life and personal liberty. In this process, the right to speedy trial, free legal aid, dignity, means and livelihood, education, housing, medical care, clean environment, right against torture, sexual harassment, solitary confinement, bondage and servitude, exploitation and so on emerge as human rights. These new reconceptualised rights provide legal resources to activate the courts for their enforcement through PIL. 2) By democratization of access to justice. This is done by relaxing the traditional rule of locus standi. Any public spirited citizen or social action group can approach the court on behalf of the oppressed classes. Courts attention can be drawn even by writing a letter or sending a telegram. This has been called epistolary jurisdiction. 3) By fashioning new kinds of reliefs under the courts writ jurisdiction. For example, the court can award interim compensation to the victims of governmental lawlessness. This stands in sharp contrast to the Anglo-Saxon model of adjudication where interim relief is limited to preserving the status quo pending final decision. The grant of compensation in PIL matters does not preclude the aggrieved person from bringing a civil suit for damages. In PIL cases the court can fashion any relief to the victims. 4) By judicial monitoring of State institutions such as jails, womens protective homes, juvenile homes, mental asylums, and the like. Through judicial invigilation, the court seeks gradual improvement in their management and administration. This has been characterized as creeping jurisdiction in which the court takes over the administration of these institutions for protecting human rights. 5) By devising new techniques of fact-finding. In most of the cases the court has appointed its own socio-legal commissions of inquiry or has deputed its own official for investigation. Sometimes it has taken the help of National Human Rights Commission or Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) or experts to inquire into human rights violations. This may be called investigative litigation. PIL as an Instrument of Social Change PIL is working as an important instrument of social change. It is working for the welfare of every section of society. Its the sword of every one used only for taking the justice. The innovation of this legitimate instrument proved beneficial for the developing country like India. PIL has been used as a strategy to combat the atrocities prevailing in society. Its an institutional initiative towards the welfare of the needy class of the society. In Bandhu Mukti Morcha v. Union of India, S.C. ordered for the release of bonded labourers. In Murli S. Dogra v. Union of India, court banned smoking in public places. In a landmark judgement of Delhi Domestic Working Womens Forum v. Union of India, (1995) 1 SCC 14, Supreme Court issued guidelines for rehabilitation and compensation for the rape on working women. In Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan Supreme court has laid down exhaustive guidelines for preventing sexual harassment of working women in place of their work.

Conclusion It would be appropriate to conclude by quoting Cunningham, Indian PIL might rather be a Phoenix: a whole new creative arising out of the ashes of the old order. PIL represents the first attempt by a developing common law country to break away from legal imperialism perpetuated for centuries. It contests the assumption that the most western the law, the better it must work for economic and social development such law produced in developing states, including India, was the development of under develop men. The shift from legal centralism to legal pluralism was prompted by the disillusionment with formal legal system. In India, however instead of seeking to evolve justice- dispensing mechanism ousted the formal legal system itself through PIL. The change as we have seen, are both substantial and structural. It has radically altered the traditional judicial role so as to enable the court to bring justice within the reach of the common man. Further, it is humbly submitted that PIL is still is in experimental stage. Many deficiencies in handling the kind of litigation are likely to come on the front. But these deficiencies can be removed by innovating better techniques. In essence, the PIL develops a new jurisprudence of the accountability of the state for constitutional and legal violations adversely affecting the interests of the weaker elements in the community. We may end with the hope once expressed by Justice Krishna Iyer, The judicial activism gets its highest bonus when its orders wipe some tears from some eyes. Activism or Over-reach? Justice is the bread of the nation- it is always hungry for it. And, it is well known that justice delayed is justice denied. The role of judicial activism in India has been to provide a safeguard to the common man and indigent against an insensitive system. This noble task, taken upon itself by the courts, has provided succour, relief and requisite legal remedies to the needy and deprived, over the past few years of judicial intervention and cementing. However, recently in a surprising censure of itself in recent times, the Supreme Court, has observed that judicial activism has disturbed the delicate balance of powers enshrined in the Constitution. Judges must know their limits and must not try to run the Government. They must have modesty and humility, and not behave like Emperors. There is broad separation of powers under the Constitution and each organ of the State i.e. the legislature, the executive and the judiciary must have respect for the others and not encroach into each others domain, observed a bench comprising Justices A K Mathur and Markandeya Katju. The Honble Bench also observed that these were matters pertaining exclusively to the executive or legislative domain and if there was a law, judges could certainly enforce it but judges could not create a law and seek to enforce it. The court was unwilling to accept the justification given for judicial encroachment that the other two organs are not doing their jobs properly. It said that even assuming if this was so, the same allegation could be made against the judiciary too because there were cases pending in courts for half a century. Judicial activism is not an unguided missile and failure to bear this in mind would lead to chaos. With a view to see that judicial activism does not become judicial adventurism, the courts must act with caution and proper restraint. While observing that the courts have apparently, if not clearly, strayed into the executive domain or in matters of policy, it questioned several orders of the Delhi High Court on the legality of constructions in Delhi, identifying buildings to be demolished, age and other criterion for nursery admissions, unauthorised schools, criterion for free seats in hospitals on public land, use and misuse of ambulances, requirements for establishing a world class burns ward in a hospital, the air delhiites breathe , begging in public , use of subways ,nature of buses we board ,size of speedbreakers on Delhi roads , autorickshaws overcharging and accidents and enhancing fines. Due to the confusion following the carping comments of the Supreme Court on judicial activism, on the tendency of judiciary to encroach into the powers of the Legislature and the Executive, a two judge bench of the apex court declined further hearing of a matter relating to rehabilitation of victims of flesh trade and referred the 2004 PIL to a larger bench in view of the observations made by the bench comprising of Honble Justices A K Mathur and Markandeya Katju. However, this temporary flux was resolved by a three judge bench of the Supreme Court, headed by Chief Justice K G

Balakrishnan, which took the sting out of the earlier apex court order decrying judicial activism. 'We are not bound by the two-judge bench order,' the three-judge bench headed by the chief justice said, while issuing notices to the central and UP governments in a suit relating to the plight widows in Vrindavan and Mathura. The Supreme Court has now asked the High Courts to follow guidelines it had laid down 14 years ago to ruthlessly weed out motivated PILs by imposters and busybodies and reject petitions attacking justifiable executive actions for oblique motives under the guise of redressing a public grievance. It is a great relief to the common man that the record has been set right by the bench headed by the Chief justice of India because the courts are the last ray of hope for the oppressed, bewildered and politically powerless. Every democracy has to have a watch dog to check and balance the untrammeled powers of the state in order to ensure that, in the garb of public interest, the discretionary powers are not exercised arbitrarily to rough ride the fundamental rights of the citizen. While it is imperative to exercise justifiable restraint and caution to ensure that judicial activism does not become judicial adventurism or tyranny, this power should be exercised only in exceptional circumstances and that too, only in public interest. Truly, judicial activism is the oxygen of the rule of law. The constitutional revolution, which was the vision of the Founding Fathers, was entrusted to the judiciary, giving it powers to enforce, through writ power, the socio economic liberation implicit in the fundamental rights and other avant-garde provisions of the Indian Constitution- the oasis of our democracy. "It is the courts, which have stood the test of time and served the cause of socialeconomic justice only to preserve the fundamental rights and duties of the citizen. When the executive violates these rights, the court cannot abdicate its responsibility or jurisdiction, oath bound as it is, to uphold the Constitution." It is, therefore, fair and just that the Chief Justice of India has assured the country that the confusion likely to flow from the two judge bench ruling, will be set at rest by a larger bench laying down parameters governing PIL jurisdiction and judicial activism without trespassing into the realm of judicial overreach. Judicial Reforms in India In the comity of nations, Indias justice system is appreciated and well received. Despite the problem of numbers, we have not compromised on the quality of justice delivered. We have enlarged the scope of fundamental freedoms and increased the space for democracy. We do have shortcomings and are rightly criticized for it. No institution in a democracy is above criticism. What is important is that criticisms are based on facts and performance. It is my responsibility as head of the judicial system to answer the criticisms, clarify the facts and defend the institution for enabling it to serve the litigant public better. On the occasion of another Law Day, the 58th of the Republic, I am addressing you with an air of expectation and a sense of fulfillment the expectation at the steady unfolding of results of judicial reforms set in motion during the last few years and fulfillment on accomplishments which the system has achieved since I addressed you on the State of Justice last year. Law Day is significant not only to celebrate our journey on the path of Constitutional democracy and rule of law, but also to take stock of the promises which WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, have given unto ourselves almost six decades ago. In the comity of nations, Indias justice system is appreciated and well received. Despite the problem of numbers, we have not compromised on the quality of justice delivered. We have enlarged the scope of fundamental freedoms and increased the space for democracy. We do have shortcomings and are rightly criticized for it. No institution in a democracy is above criticism. What is important is that criticisms are based on facts and performance. It is my responsibility as head of the judicial system to answer the criticisms, clarify the facts and defend the institution for enabling it to serve the litigant public better. Let me reiterate on this occasion the commitment of every member of our judicial establishment to uphold the purity of justice and ensure its timely delivery to the millions who knock at our doors. I see it as a sign of our commitment to rule of law and of our convictions on the ability of courts to give fair and impartial justice. Yes, it might create congestion in courts and cause delay in the delivery of justice. But that is no ground to dissuade people having legitimate claims and grievances from seeking judicial time.

The answer lies in improving the efficiency of the court system and expanding the infra-structure to cope with the situation. I am glad to report that efforts in this regard are yielding results which may acquire speed in the days ahead. Let me explain few of the steps taken up in this regard so that you may appreciate the facts and continue to support the judiciary in the performance of its onerous tasks in difficult times. The problem of Arrears and Delay: Increasingly productivity through improved infrastructure, employment of alternative methods of settlement and adoption of better strategies of management and training have been the key elements of the drive against delay and pendency during the last few years. For any organization, efficiency and productivity are directly linked to the infra-structure it commands. Infrastructure in terms of judiciary includes both human and physical infra-structure. On both fronts, the situation of the subordinate courts which handle 90 percent of litigation continues to be far from satisfactory. This is the responsibility of the State Governments even when the subordinate courts do devote considerable time in adjudicating cases under central laws as well. A committee appointed by the Government of India to study the impact of new legislation on the workload of the courts has recommended that the Union Government has Constitutional obligation under Entry 11 A of the Concurrent List read with Article 247 to provide adequate financial provision for implementation of Central laws through State Courts. The State Governments under the same principle are likewise obliged to meet expenditure of Courts for implementing laws on subjects in the State and Concurrent List. Hopefully the above recommendations will receive favourable consideration of the Central and State Governments and the infra-structural needs of subordinate courts will be met in the near future. Meanwhile the continuation of the Fast Track Courts which have reduced pendency of nearly 20 lakh criminal cases will accelerate the process to the advantage of litigant public. The Central Government was approached to create more special courts for disposal of corruption cases and family disputes which cannot brook delay without causing greater damage to public interest. In several States at the instance of the respective High Courts, evening courts have been established to clear pending cases requiring priority attention. In Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat, such courts have been proved to be quite effective in disposal of cases involving minor offences which are clogging our criminal justice system. Delhi has recently started evening courts initially for cases under Section 138 of Negotiable Instruments Act, involving small amounts. I am confident that other States will follow soon by establishing evening or morning courts to deal with cases involving petty offences. If these efforts of the judiciary are supported by Governments by providing better infra-structural facilities, productivity can be further improved to bring down pendency and delay in the near future. I do not want to burden you with the statistics of cases filed, disposed and pending at each level of the judicial structure. All I want to convey on this occasion is that while the number of fresh cases instituted has been steadily increasing year after year, the number of cases disposed of has also increased ubstantially as compared to previous years. It indicates that our judges, overworked as they are, have been making every effort to steadily improve productivity even in adverse circumstances. I want to assure the public that judges are conscious of the problem of arrears and are making every effort to contain the rise of pendency of cases at all levels of the judicial system. Timely justice is the right of every litigant and speedy justice is the obligation of every functionary of the judicial system. Judicial Education and Training: I may in this context reflect briefly two significant initiatives undertaken by the Judiciary. Judges, like any other professionals, need continuing education and training to improve professional competence to deal with new challenges thrown up by changes in society, economy, polity and technology. Taking this into account, the Supreme Court had set up the National Judicial Academy five year ago which is now offering regular courses of training designed to cater to the needs of superior court judges. Simultaneously, each High Court has set up judicial academies to train judges newly inducted in the subordinate Courts and to provide continuing education to judges in service. The National Judicial Academy has devised yearlong training plans in consultation with State Academies to ensure that every judge throughout the country has opportunity once in every year to learn and improve court and case management capabilities with support of technology and professionalism. Simultaneously an E-Committee directly under the Supreme Court was set up to devise and implement a National Policy on computerization of judicial administration in order to expedite delivery

of justice in civil and criminal cases. The project is being implemented in three phases over a period of five years. At the end of the first phase, reports indicate that a cost and time effective procedure is under way providing greater transparency, expedition and accountability to the system. Alternative Methods of Delivery of Justice: Litigation is time consuming and relatively expensive. In a country with a vast population of poor people, justice has to be necessarily cheap and expeditious. For this, alternatives to litigation must be produced by the justice system. Parliament has provided the statutory basis for it by the recent amendments to the Civil Procedure Code and the Criminal Procedure Code. Taking advantage of these, the judiciary has prepared a National Plan for Mediated Settlement of disputes which included training of mediators, development of mediation manuals, setting up of mediation Centres in Court Complexes and spreading awareness about it among litigants through the legal aid services. Other modes of settlement are also being encouraged and judicial officers are instructed to promote ADR as a movement especially at the first level of courts where the bulk of poor litigants seek justice. As standards of quality of justice delivered cannot be compromised, the ADR process cannot be accelerated without preparation and without demand from litigants themselves. It is hoped that in the next few years, like other jurisdictions outside India, litigants here would also prefer settlements outside litigation through negotiated arrangements. And proportionately it would reduce the problem of delay and pendency in litigation as well. At the end of the day what I want to report on the issue of arrears is that we are on the right track with a multidimensional, well-planned national programme which has started giving rich dividends. With support from the Central and State Governments and co-operation of the bar and litigant public, I am hopeful that in the next couple of years substantial reduction in the number of cases pending in courts and in the time taken for disposal of cases will happen even if the fresh filings are going to increase continuously. Judicial Corruption to be rooted out mercilessly: Let me now turn to another subject which is worrying the public as media reports indicate. This is about judicial corruption, a subject which was not an issue in public discourse till recently. Let me admit traightaway that corruption and impartiality cannot co-exist. Under no circumstances can judiciary tolerate corruption even in its administrative staff. For an organization which is nearly a million strong including 16,000 odd judges, five to six lakh lawyers and another 3 to 5 lakh ministerial staff to be free from corruption is a tall order, however desirable it be. The legal profession is independent and its discipline is the responsibility of the elected Bar Councils. The public perception of judicial corruption includes corruption by the lawyers and their staff. Similarly, a substantial section of people who consider judiciary to be corrupt attribute it to the ministerial staff of courts and related offices. It is unfortunate that judiciary has to be bear the burden for corruption of people on whom the judiciary has no or little control. So far as the 16,000 and odd judges who constitute the Indian judiciary I am responsible for their conduct as head of the system though I do not personally have legal and administrative control over them. Nonetheless, I have a duty to explain how the judiciary is enforcing discipline among the judges to ensure that people who approach the Courts will get fair and impartial justice. I would therefore inform you the steps I have taken as head of the judiciary to ensure a corruption-free judicial system (i) Declaration of Assets by Judges: The Supreme Court adopted a resolution as early as 1997 to declare assets voluntarily. I have requested Chief Justices of all High Courts to adopt similar Resolutions for declaration of assets by the judges of High Courts as well. (ii) Restatement of Values of Judicial Life: Again the Supreme Court in 1997 unanimously adopted a Resolution restating certain time-honoured best practices for judges to follow while they hold the high office. They form a code of ethics for judges to comply in public and private lives. I felt it necessary for High Court justices also to follow similar guidelines and therefore sent it to the High Courts requesting the respective Chief Justices to circulate it among the judges of the High Courts for compliance. (iii) Model Code of Conduct for Subordinate Judiciary: It was observed that the conduct of certain subordinate court judges particularly during visits of High Court judges to their places of work have not been of the standard expected of them. I have therefore

formulated certain norms of conduct on their part which I requested the High Courts to consider and adopt for action by subordinate judges. (iv) Strengthening and Streamlining Vigilance Cells in High Courts: The Vigilance Cells in High Courts is the primary mechanism available to deal with complaints against subordinate judges. The Chief Justices Conference discussed the strategies to strengthen the cells to instill confidence and to expedite inquiries in appropriate cases, so that dishonest judges are eliminated and honest ones are protected. (v) In-House Inquiry Procedure invoked against High Court Judges: On receipt of allegations, inquiry through a Committee of Senior Judges was initiated against two sitting High Court Justices, of whom one was recommended to be removed through impeachment proceedings. The finding of the inquiry committee in the other case is awaited. (vi) Periodical Performance Evaluation and Removal of Judges and officers of Doubtful Integrity: I have written to the Chief Justices of High Courts to utilize their authority to review the work of all judicial officers firstly on attaining the age of 50 years and then when they attain the age of 55 years and to prematurely retire those found unfit, ineffective or having doubtful integrity. I have reminded them that this is expected under the Fundamental Rules and the Service Rules can be accordingly amended so that deviant behaviour can be effectively prevented. Such review of officers and employees of the Supreme Court is being carried out when they reach the age of 50, 55, 56, 57, 58 and 59 years. Experience has proved it to be an effective remedy particularly against ministerial corruption. Several judges of doubtful integrity are being retired under this provision. (vii) Tightening the Selection Procedure of Superior Court Justices: A more detailed check-list to gather adequate information on suitability of prospective candidates for judgeship has now been evolved and sent to all High Courts. The Chief Justice who initiates the recommendations for his High Court has been asked to gather the details including personal antecedents on the new Questionnaire from Advocates and judicial officers being considered for appointment and get them verified. These data with supporting documents have to be forwarded along with recommendations. This is to avoid discovering a black sheep at a later stage when very little can be done, except resorting to the impeachment process. There are several more steps being undertaken to rid the judiciary of corrupt elements spoiling the fair name of the justice system. All that I can do is to assure the public that the judiciary will not tolerate corruption and everything will be done, whatever be the cost, to uphold the purity of justice. In doing so, we have to ensure that the independence of judiciary is not compromised and the reputation of honest judges not harmed.

Legal Aid and Access to Justice: Another issue which concerns a vast section of people seeking justice is the ability to access equal justice under law. The Government has accorded a crucial role to the judiciary to administer the Legal Services Authority Act which has multiple objectives. Rules have been framed under the Act and appropriate bodies have been set up at various levels to reach out the message of rule of law and equality in access to justice to every nook and corner of this vast country. The Supreme Court Legal Services Committee grants legal aid to litigants in the Supreme Court which has over 200 advocates including Senior Advocates to render aid to deserving litigants. It maintains its own website and e-mail through which assistance can be obtained from anywhere. For middle income group the Committee renders assistance at subsidized rates through eminent lawyers. Similar arrangements are in place at the High Courts and subordinate courts. Apart from giving litigational aid including the services of lawyers to represent in court, the Legal Services Authority organizes Lok Adalats to facilitate negotiated or mediated settlement of disputes. The programmes and policies are evolved and supervised by the National Legal Services Authority presided over by a Senior Supreme Court judge. It has undertaken a series of programmes to assist different sections of needy people particularly from the weaker sections. As part of the legal literacy mission and social justice goals, NALSA has launched several campaigns for the successful implementation of the National Rural Employment programme, Protection of rights of women, Children, Dalits and the disabled persons. Legal aid is conceived as a social movement

for the legal empowerment of all sections of people for equal justice under law. In this effort a national network of legal aid centres and civil society groups is being set up which can mobilize social action for good governance under law. This is a silent revolution under way to make a success of our democracy. In a small way the judiciary is extending a helping hand in this social empowerment mission though it is outside their usual function of adjudication and settlement of disputes. I must on this occasion record my profound gratitude to my brother judges in the Supreme Court, High Courts and Subordinate Courts for the valuable efforts they are making to render timely justice to all litigants. Their sacrifices and commitment to justice have made rule of law an abiding principle of Constitutional democracy in our Republic. Let us all take a pledge on this Law Day that we will do everything possible to uphold the values of the Constitution and render justice to the people without fear, favour or ill will.

Kashmiri, NE & other

Starting June 2010, there were a series of protests in Kashmir over the killing of a youth. Clash between CRPF and mob further escalated the violence and many people have been killed since then. People have defied the curfew and protests have become a major law and order problem. By August 2010, 69 civilians were killed in such protests There has been a demand, hence, for the withdrawal of the controversial AFSPA from Kashmir. Armed Forces Special Powers Act, 1958 It conferred special powers upon the armed forces in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and Nagaland. Extended to J&K in 1990 Provisions. In the disturbed area; o AF can use force, even to the causing of death, against any person acting in the contravention of the law, against any assembly of five or more persons, or possession of deadly weapons o Arrest without warrant only on the basis of suspicion o Enter any premises and conduct search Gives the armed forces immunity for their actions. Proceedings against personnels under this act can be made only after the permission of the central government. Central and state governments have the power to declare an area as disturbed. Their decision cannot be challenged in the court of law. Th. Manorama was arrested in Manipur under AFSPA. She was later raped and killed. Irom Sharmila has been fasting for last 10 years for the repeal of AFSPA from Manipur. Justice Jeevan Reddy Committee had recommended the repeal of AFSPA from the North-East Central govt has a stand that it will withdraw AFSPA from Kashmir when the state govt withdraws the Disturbed Areas Act Table 1 Argument Army contends that the situation across LOC need a robust military presence Without the AFSPA, the Army will not be able to stage counter terrorism operations in an emergency

Some argue that AFSPA free enclaves will be magnets for terrorists

Counterargument Mr Abdullah proposes only to lift AFSPA from two areas where the Army in any case has no security responsibilities AFSPA did not have to be imposed to allow the Army to assist in the defence of Parliament House when it came under attack in 2001 and that Army staged many successful counterterrorism operations in Jammu province before AFSPA was imposed there in 2001 This too makes little sense, since the Army is not present in the enclaves anyway and it is improbable that terrorists have not established themselves there for fear of a mere law

Labour Problems

Labour Welfare Bills August 9, 2010: The Union Cabinet today approved the implementation of the Swavalamban Scheme to cover workers in the unorganised sector and to provide old age security to all sections of society, particularly the vulnerable sections. A majority of India's 30 crore informal sector workers are highly vulnerable to old age poverty because they have traditionally been excluded from formal pension provisions and are unable to access regulated retirement savings products at an affordable transaction cost. The old age income security system in the country covers only the organized sector comprising the public sector (including the civil service) and the establishments covered under the Employees' Provident Fund Organisation (EPFO) or other statutory Funds. National Level Social Secuirty Fund for Unorganized Sector Proposed scheme Will have an initial corpus of Rs 1000 crore and will benefit 43.3 crore workers in the unorganised sector

Use of Child Labor and Trade Restrictions Thereupon August 9, 2010 The United States, Department of Labour maintains a list of products produced using child labour and forced child labour under the Trafficking Victims Protection Re-authorisation Act (TVPRA) and Executive Order 13126. In July, 2010 United States, Department of Labour has published final determination of the list of products, under Executive Order 13126, which the Department believes might have been mined, produced or manufactured by forced or indentured child labour. US Government contractors who supply products that appear on this list are required to certify that forced or indentured child labour was not used to make the product. Following products fromIndia have been included in the EO list Bricks, Cottonseed (hybrid), Embroidered Textiles (zari), Garments, Rice and Stones. The Government of Indias stand is that,labour standards should not be linked with Trade as it becomes non tariff barrier. During the adoption of ILO Declaration on Social Justice for a Fair Globalization in the 97thSession of International Labour Conference of ILO in June, 2008, the Government of India took a stand on the issue of Labour Standards and consequently a provision was inserted in the Declaration which states that the violation of fundamental principles and rights at work cannot be invoked or otherwise used as a legitimate comparative advantage and that labour standards should not be used for protectionist trade purposes. Further, Government alerted all Boards/Export Promotion Councils/Apex Trade Organisationsabout the action of the USA requesting them to effectively respond to the list. The matter was also taken up with the US side under the India-US Trade Policy Forum. Besides, consistent with our Constitutional provisions, the Child Labour(Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 1986 has already been enacted which seeks to prohibit employment of children below 14 years in hazardous occupations and processes. It has strict penal provisions for those employing child labour in these areas. Our National ChildLabour Policy addresses the complex issue of child labour in a comprehensive, holistic and integrated manner. The action plan under this policy is multi-pronged and mainly consists of: i. A legislative action plan. ii. Focus on general convergence of developmental programmes for the benefit of the families of the children in the areas of high Child Labour concentration. iii. Project-based action plan in areas of high concentration of Child Labour for example National Child Labour Project.

Editorials from The Hindu June 9 In 2004, National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector (NCEUS) chaired by Arjun Sengupta was setup to review the status of unorganized sector in India where more than 93% of our workforce is engaged. The commission in its reports considers lack of adequate employment at a fair wage as the major problem looming in the informal sector. The plight of the informal sector can be summed as: lack of job security, income security and social security. The commission had identified that 77 percent of the population lives below Rs 20 a day. Though the official poverty line is Rs 12 a day, the commission said that it was too low and needs to be revised. The informal sector workers have largely not benefitted from the economic reforms. It recommends that prime objective should be that work provided will not be compromised by less than decent employment standards. A basic needs approach could be adopted for few years. Reliance on market forces to maximize economic growth will lead to divergent dynamics and deprivation for the segments lower down the economic ladder.

Land Acquisition
Table 1 What is there? What is needed? 1. Effective resettlement and rehabilitation policy 2. Clear definition of public purpose. How does one evaluate the amount of public purpose in a private project?

Land Acquisition and Resettlement and Rehabilitation Bill 2011

Table 2 Acquisition of Agricultural Land Avoiding or minimizing displacement Compensation Acquisition by the state for private companies Positives Rules out the acquisition of multicropped irrigated agricultural land Number of good provisions related to displacement (SIA, review of SIA, public hearing etc) Increases the compensation amount significantly The bill provides for partial acquisition by the state. The 2007 bill clearly stated that state can acquire 30% if the company has already bought 70pc. There is an asymmetry of power between sellers and the buyers. The bill provides no mechanism to reduce this asymmetry (this is a major issue in the debate of land acquisition) Defines public purpose very broadly and leaves it to the bureaucracy to decide each case. Not clear whether the sellers of goods and services to the people in the project area, who will lose their livelihoods when the people whom they serve move away will be regarded as project affected persons Leaves SIA to be prepared by the appropriate government Negatives

The principles of no forced displacement and free, informed prior consent are not mentioned.

Private purchases

Extends R&R provisions to private negotiated purchases of land (but provides no safeguard against unfair negotiation)

Change of land use (from agricultural purpose) Definition of public purpose

Coverage of project affected persons

Social Impact Assessment

On SIA this bill is an improvement on the 2007 bill. SIA will be reviewed by an independent multi-disciplinary expert body

Rehabilitation package

Principle of land for land has been abandoned. It is applicable only in the case of irrigation projects

Others

The idea of National Rehabilitation Commission has been abandoned

The Land Acquisition draft was further amended The draft circulated for public discussion recommended increasing the registered value of a property six fold in rural areas and two fold in urban areas o Unfortunately, the bill tabled in Parliament has reduced it by one-third in rural areas, leaving the compensation amount unchanged in urban areas The bill introduced in Parliament restricts the benefits to those who have been living or working in the place for more than three years prior to acquisition. o Such a cut-off date is arbitrary and may keep a substantial number of people out The draft was particular about protecting fertile, irrigated multi-crop lands and prohibited their acquisition but the bill allows for that.

Law-Violence
The challenges confronted by Supreme Court in 2010 J. Venkatesan New Delhi: The Supreme Court faced a stiff challenge in 2010 in dealing with allegations of corruption against judges of the higher judiciary. It took a bold decision not to elevate the then Karnataka High Court Chief Justice, P.D. Dinakaran (who is at present Chief Justice of Sikkim High Court), as a judge of the Supreme Court following a controversy over alleged land grab. Even as Justice Dinakaran was shifted out of the Karnataka High Court, Parliament initiated removal proceedings against him in respect of certain allegations and the probe is pending before a committee headed by Justice Aftab Alam, Judge of the Supreme Court, who succeeded Justice V.S. Sirpurkar, who resigned. The second removal proceedings against a judge ended with a panel headed by Justice B. Sudershan Reddy, Supreme Court Judge, recommending removal of Justice Soumitra Sen, Judge of the Calcutta High Court, for proven misconduct. In a big relief to the Tamil Nadu government, the court granted protection for the continuance, for one more year, of the law that provides the Backward Classes, the Most Backward Classes and the Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes 69 per cent reservation in jobs and education. It asked the State Backward Classes Commission to revisit the reservation issue on the basis of the quantifiable data in respect of the communities in question. If the Commission wanted to exceed the 50 per cent ceiling while re-fixing the quota, it could take into consideration the parameters laid down by the Supreme Court in the Mandal case judgment: compelling circumstances based on local conditions. To deal with the problem of foodgrains rotting in godowns, the Court asked the Centre to consider distributing them at very low cost or no cost as a short-term measure. When Union Agriculture Minister Sharad Pawar confronted the court by saying that no order was passed but only a suggestion was made, the court again reiterated that is its direction on supply of rotting foodgrains was only an order and not a suggestion. The court referred to media reports on Mr. Pawar's statement and said, It was not a suggestion. It is there in our order. Efforts of the former Tamil Nadu Chief Minister, Jayalalithaa, to get the disproportionate case against her and four others pending in a Bangalore court stayed on two occasions during the year did not fructify as the court was firm that the trial must proceed. However, the Supreme Court permitted the trial court to appoint an expert translator to assist in the trial. The court agreed to reopen the Bhopal gas tragedy case by admitting a curative petition filed by the Centre for restoration of the stringent charge of culpable homicide not amounting to murder, which attracts the maximum punishment of 10year jail term, against the accused. A trial court in Bhopal had convicted the accused to undergo twoyear imprisonment. Subsequently, coinciding with the anniversary of the 1984 Bhopal gas tragedy, the Centre filed a curative petition seeking enhancement of the compensation of $470 million determined by the Supreme Court in 1989 on the ground that this settlement was arrived at on the basis of assumptions of truth unrelated to realities. Both the matters are still pending. While determining the question as to which parent the care and control of a child should be given, the paramount consideration remains the welfare and interest of the child and not the rights of the parents under the statute, the court said. In a big relief to the Mayawati government in Uttar Pradesh, the Court held that the Noida park area would not come under the ambit of forest' and hence permitted the erection of statues and other structures in the park. The court decided to examine industrialist Ratan Tata's petition, which alleged that the publication of the tapes of his private conversations with corporate lobbyist Niira Radia had infringed his right to privacy. Mr. Tata has raised an important question relating to the interpretation of the Article 21 of the Constitution concerning right to life, which also includes the right to privacy. The court came to the rescue of the press and whistle-blowers when it said, If a speech or article, editorial contains something which appears to be contemptuous and this Court or the High Court is called upon to initiate proceedings under the Contempt of Court Act, the truth should ordinarily be allowed as a defence unless the court finds that it is only a camouflage to escape the consequences of deliberate or malicious attempt to scandalise the court or is an interference with the administration of justice. It also decided to examine, by a Constitution Bench, the conflict between the right of citizens to obtain information under the Right to Information (RTI) Act and the right to immunity enjoyed by the judiciary not to disclose information pertaining to appointment of judges.

In the Sethusamudram case, the court ruled out giving any direction relating to the project or vacating the stay on the project till the final report of the expert committee examining the feasibility of carrying it through Dhanuskodi instead of Rama Setu, submitted its report in February 2011. On the whole, the Supreme Court stood up to the expectations and reaffirmed the faith people continued to have in the judiciary when other institutions fail to perform their duty satisfactorily. Printer friendly page A memorable year for Supreme Court [2010] J. Venkatesan New Delhi: The year 2010 was a memorable one for the Supreme Court and Chief Justice of India S.H. Kapadia as it asserted its supremacy, particularly in protecting human rights and in exposing corruption at high levels by ordering a thorough probe into the 2G spectrum scam. Justice Kapadia, first Parsi to become the CJI, believes in silent action. He is reticent about meeting the media. Concerned at poor infrastructure in the subordinate judiciary, the CJI has taken upon himself the task of providing basic facilities to the judiciary at all levels. Taking a serious view of irregularities and lapses in the telecom sector over the past decade, the court has taken charge of the 2G spectrum scam probe, being conducted by the Central Bureau of Investigation, and widened its scope. It asked the CBI to register a first information report and investigate the grant of licence from 2001 to 2006-07, with emphasis on the loss caused to the exchequer and corresponding gain made by the licensees and service providers. The court asked Income Tax authorities to analyse the transcripts made from corporate lobbyist Niira Radia's phone taps and hand these over to the CBI to facilitate further investigation into the FIR already registered or which may be registered hereinafter. In the area of human rights, the court declared illegal use of narco-analysis, brain-mapping and polygraph tests on suspects and held that these tests could not be conducted on any person, whether he or she is an accused or suspect, without his or her consent. Expanding the scope of Article 21 of the Constitution (right to life and liberty) the court expressed concern over lacunae in implementation of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act. It said: The legislative scheme of the Act clearly places the right to livelihood' on a higher pedestal than a mere legal right. It asked the Centre and the Orissa government to show cause why the CBI should not be directed to investigate this matter in accordance with law. In a rare instance, the Supreme Court proved that it was not infallible but rectified its mistake at once. In this case, a trial court in Madhya Pradesh awarded life imprisonment to eight persons in a murder case. On appeal, the High Court acquitted all of them. However, the State preferred an appeal only against the four main accused. The Supreme Court, while setting aside the High Court judgment, restored the trial court order though the remaining four respondents were not heard or made parties in the appeal. On a curative petition, the court, correcting its mistake, said: We see that there is a serious violation of the principles of natural justice as the acquittal of all the accused has been set aside even though only four of them were made respondents before this court and the others were not heard. We are, therefore, constrained to recall the judgment passed by this court. Consequently, the four accused [who were not heard] if they are in custody, are directed to be released forthwith. In another instance, the court admitted that its earlier judgment upholding the death sentence awarded by the trial court and confirmed by the High Court was a mistake and violation of the human rights of the accused. The court, in a second review, upheld the Assam Governor's order commuting the punishment to life sentence. The court held: Instances of this court's judgment violating the human rights of the citizens may be extremely rare but it cannot be said that such a situation can never happen. On a review of the reasoning in the petition, we find that the finding in the judgment is vitiated by errors apparent on the face of the record. Observing that great ignominy attached to the arrest of a person, the court held that it would not be proper for the trial court or the High Court to grant anticipatory bail for a limited duration and thereafter ask the accused to surrender and seek regular bail. Removal of Governor The court held that a Governor could not be removed on the ground that he/she was out of sync with the policies and ideologies of the Union government or the party in power at the Centre. Nor could he/ she be removed on the ground that the Union government lost confidence in him/her.

It held that a change in government at the Centre was not a ground for removal of Governors to make way for others favoured by the new regime. In the biggest corporate legal battle between the Ambani brothers, the court held that gas is a national asset and that the Centre's pricing policy would prevail over any private agreement. It directed Reliance Industries Ltd (RIL) of the Mukesh group to initiate renegotiations with Reliance Natural Resources Ltd. (RNRL) of the Anil group for fixing the price of gas to be supplied to RNRL. This judgment paved the way for a fruitful settlement of the dispute between the brothers.

National Litigation Policy

Launched in 2010 under the National Legal Mission, its aim is to reduce government litigation and transform it into an efficient and responsible litigant. Salient Features 1. Litigation will not be resorted to for the sake of litigating 2. False pleas and technical points will not be taken 3. Focusing on the core issues involved in the litigation and addressing them squarely 4. Government must cease to be a compulsive litigant 5. The purpose is to reduce Government litigation in courts so as to achieve the goal in the National Legal Mission to reduce average pendency time from 15 years to 3 years. 6. Appointment of well-trained nodal officers with adequate legal background and expertise by every department and agency for a proactive management of their cases. 7. Challenges to tribunal orders would be an exception rather than a routine. Judicial Standards and Accountability Bill Sets judicial standards and makes judges accountable for their lapses Mandates judges of the HCs and SC to declare their assets and liabilities, including those of their spouses and dependents and to file an annual return in this regards Contemplates setting up a national oversight committee, to be headed by a former CJI, with which the public can lodge complaints against erring judges, including the CJI and CJ of HCs. The Bill will replace the Judges Inquiry Act Judicial Accountability Bill introduced in Lok Sabha (Dec 2, 2010) J. Venkatesan NEW DELHI: The Judicial Standards and Accountability Bill providing for a mechanism to deal with complaints against judges of High Courts and the Supreme Court was tabled in the Lok Sabha on Wednesday by Law Minister Veerappa Moily even as Opposition MPs were demanding a JPC probe into the 2G spectrum scam. The Bill sets judicial standards and makes judges accountable for their lapses and mandates judges of the High Courts and the Supreme Court to declare their assets and liabilities, including those of their spouses and dependents and to file an annual return in this regard. This will be displayed on the website of the Supreme Court and the High Courts concerned. The Bill to replace the Judges Inquiry Act retains its basic features, contemplates setting up of a national oversight committee, to be headed by a former Chief Justice of India, with which the public can lodge complaints against erring judges, including the Chief Justice of India and the Chief Justices of the High Courts. At present, there is no legal mechanism for dealing with complaints against judges, who are governed by Restatement of Values of Judicial Life,' adopted by the judiciary as a code of conduct without any statutory sanction. The five-member committee to be appointed by the President will have a serving judge of the Supreme Court and a serving High Court judge, both nominated by the Chief Justice of India; the Attorney-General; and an eminent person nominated by the President. Scrutiny panels On receiving a complaint, the committee will forward it to a system of scrutiny panels. In the case of a complaint against a Supreme Court judge, the scrutiny panel will consist of a former Chief Justice of India and two sitting Supreme Court judges, and in the case of a complaint against a High Court judge, the panel will have a former Chief Justice of the High Court and two of its sitting judges. The

members of the Supreme Court panel will be nominated by the Chief Justice of India, and that of the High Court panels by the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned. The scrutiny panels will have the powers of a civil court. For instance, they can call for witnesses and evidence. They will be required to give their report within three months to the oversight committee. In the case of a complaint against a Chief Justice, the oversight committee itself will conduct the scrutiny. On receiving the report from the scrutiny panels, the oversight committee will set up a committee to further investigate the case. Like the scrutiny panels, the investigation committee will have the powers of a civil court; it will have the power to frame definite charges. If the charges are not proved, the investigation committee can dismiss the case. Otherwise, it will give a report to the oversight committee, which can issue an advisory or warning or recommend minor punishment if the charges are not too serious. If the charges are serious, the committee can request the judge concerned to resign. If the judge does not do so, the oversight committee will forward the case to the President with an advisory for his removal. The Bill mandates that judges should not have close association with individual members of the Bar and not allow any member of their immediate family to appear before them in courts. Judges should not contest any election to any office of club, society or other association, except those associated with the law or any court. Further, they should not have any bias in judicial work or judgments on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.

Suggestions for speedy disposal of cases Speed and efficiency are vital not only to the credibility of any justice delivery system but also to the very well-being of any democratic society Judicial infrastructure should be developed o Government has earmarked Rs 20000 crores for judicial infrastructure E-courts Cases involving public servants get delayed a lot: SC has said, while delivering the judgement in the Idamalayar Dam corruption case involving former Kerala minister R Balakrishna, that HCs should properly monitor cases against public servants and even call for a quarterly report from the court concerned for speedy disposal. E courts is a mission mode project under NeGP National Litigation Policy being implemented Coordinated action on multiple fronts is needed Increase the judge-population ratio: at least 50 per million is recommended by the SC in

2002
Land Acquisition Act, 1894 It has been proposed that the act be amended. The act was last amended in 1984. The definition of public purpose that justifies acquisition is ambiguous. The compensation offered is low Provisions lack clarity, often requiring the courts to intervene Enemy Property Act Enemy Property Act 1968 had come into being in the wake of the 1965 India-Pakistan war. It relates to properties that were left behind by those who migrated to Pakistan at the time of Independence and after. The act gave the government control over these properties, numbering over 2000, mostly in Uttar Pradesh. It barred Indian Muslim citizens who claimed to be the legal and rightful heirs of the original owners from inheriting those properties. Recently, the government approved amendments that would be introduced in the winter session of the parliament in 2010 entitling the legal heirs to inherit the properties provided they are Indian citizens and their suits were settled in court before July 2, 2010. o Mohammad Amir Khar, son of the Raja of Mahmudabad, will be the single biggest beneficiary The cut-off date (of July 2) however leaves out those whose suits are pending in the courts. It also leaves our those who did not have the means for lengthy legal battles.

MDP Goals

MDGs

2000. 189 nations. 8 goals. 21 targets Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger 1. Halve the proportion of people living on less than $1 a day 2. Achieve decent employment for women, men and young people 3. Halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education By 2015, all children can complete a full course of primary schooling, girls and boys Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015 Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rates Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate Goal 5: Improve maternal health 1. Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio 2. Achieve by 2015 universal access to reproductive health Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases 1. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS 2. Achieve by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it 3. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major diseases Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability 1. Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs; reverse loss of environmental resources 2. Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss 3. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation 4. By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development 6 targets under this India and MDGs <refer your essay> The review of the MDGs held in New York in September 2010 presented stark realities in many countries. the review suggests some success and much failure. Most rich nations failed to meet the target of promised aid. In India, programmes such as SSA, ICDS, NREGA, National Drinking Water Mission and Total Sanitation Campaign address crucial MDGs. However, much more needs to be done in India. There have been criticisms of BPL measure in India with the Sengupta commission putting the number of BPL families as high as 77 percent of the total population. Similarly, the existing rate of malnutrition are very high. About 42 percent of the total undernourished children in the world live in India. Most of the targets of poverty reduction, maternal mortality and child malnutrition seem unlikely to achieved by 2015.

the stagnation in many social indicators show that the impressive growth and the creation of wealth with economic liberalization have not resulted in social development. most of the reports in India, say NHRM reports, document increased infrastructure and not the actual outcome related to these infrastructure. We need more direct measures of outcomes. India's vast geography and its diversity are major reasons for significant variations across regions. they mandate the need for separate targets, governance, a focus on public health and changes in social structures. Specialized targets for regions and populations. Periodic audits to measure impact. good governance is necessary. it is an effect multiplier and will have a much greater impact on the country's MDGs than just finance and infrastructure.

India has seen a gradual reduction in maternal mortality and in under 5 child mortality rate over the past few decades. The 11th five year plan sets out the objective of reducing maternal mortality ratio to 1 per 1000 live births, reducing infant mortality rate to 28 per 1000 live births and reducing Total Fertility Rate to 2.1,all this to be achieved by 2012 the last year of the current plan. Indias commitment to achieving the MDG goals 4 and 5 would require us to meet these targets by the year 2015. While reviewing the midterm report on progress in reaching the MDGs states: MDG 5, MMR has taken a quick down turn during 2003-2006 from 301 per 100000 live births in 2001-2003 to 254 per 100000 live births in 2004-06 according to SRS estimates. The MDG target for India is from 447 in 1990-91 to 109 by 2015.At the historical pace of decrease India will reach 135 by 2015. As per this report the rate of increase in institutional deliveries is slow from 26% in 1992-93 to 47% in 2007-08.Skilled birth attendance at deliveries has increased from 33% to 52% in the same period. By 2015 India can expect only 62% deliveries to be attended by skilled personnel. The rural urban gap in coverage by skilled birth attendants in 2005-06 was 36%.However the projections in institutional delivery have since been greatly accelerated with the introduction of the Janini Suraksha Yojna. Indias Infant mortality rate declined from 129 deaths per 1000 live births in 1971 to 53 in 2008.The rate of decline has been slowing from 19 points in the 1970s to 16 points in current decade. Currently the urban IMR is 36 as compared to the rural IMR of 58. Total Fertility Rate had reduced from 5.2 in 1971 to 2.6 in 2008.In all but six states at current rates of decline India would be able to achieve replacement levels by 2015.However these six states account for much of the population and there is much to be done before these modest goals are achieved.

Media

Paid News Phenomenon

The role of Private Treaties The companies often enter into private treaties with media houses by offering shares in return for media coverage. This may lead to biased reporting by the media. In order to check this SEBI has suggested that it be made compulsory for media houses to make public regarding their stakes in a company. Further, it must also be disclosed if any nominee of the media group is on the board of directors of the company. Indian media in a challenging environment Hamid Ansari We have been witness in recent years to rapid, and unprecedented, changes in our society, economy, and polity. These have also transformed the Indian mass media system. The growth in its scale, reach and influence, however, has not been matched by corresponding sensitivity towards noncommercial and non-market dimensions. This aspect is of relevance because the media is the fourth estate in a democracy. It plays a major role in informing the public and thereby shape perceptions and through it the national agenda. Its centrality is enhanced manifold by increased literacy levels and by the technological revolution of the last two decades and its impact on the generation, processing, dissemination, and consumption of news. Two other consequences of the change need to be noted: Media platforms and devices for consumption today vary between traditional, non-conventional, and the experimental. They span traditional print, audio-visual, and digital modes. Convergence between news media, entertainment and telecom has meant that the demarcation between journalism, public relations, advertising and entertainment has been eroded. Increases in per capita income, discretionary spending capability, attractiveness of India as a market and as a destination of foreign investment, have all reinforced the centrality of the Indian mass media system. As a result, media outlets assume importance not only for marketing and advertisement but also for the soft power' aspects of businesses, organisations, and even nations. Media entrepreneurship today is a necessary condition for any growing business enterprise, a political party, and even individuals seeking to leverage public influence for private gain. Furthermore, the trend towards globalisation has empowered individual citizens through increased movement of goods, capital, services and ideas. Economic liberalisation and spread of digital technologies have aided it. New media have brought forth new means of individual empowerment, allowing the expression of individual ideas, opinions and identities. I would like to explore today the implications of these changes. The necessity for media to function effectively as the watchdog of public interest was recognised in the freedom struggle. The founding fathers of the Republic realised the need to balance the freedom of expression of the press with a sense of responsibility while such freedom is exercised. Adherence to accepted norms of journalistic ethics and maintenance of high standards of professional conduct was deemed to be a natural corollary. Gandhi ji, a journalist himself, cautioned that an uncontrolled pen serves but to destroy. Jawaharlal Nehru warned: If there is no responsibility and no obligation attached to it, freedom gradually withers away. This is true of a nation's freedom and it applies as much to the Press as to any other group, organisation or individual. Issue of regulation It is no exaggeration to say that media represent the sector of the economy that is the envy of others because of the extremely buoyant growth rates witnessed over the last two decades, in an environment characterised by minimal or no regulation. The sole statutory, quasi-judicial body set up for media regulation in the country is the Press Council of India. While it aims to preserve the freedom of the press and maintain and improve the standards of press in India, it has no way of imposing punishments or enforcing its directions for professional or ethical violations. In the absence of any other government regulator, the focus has shifted to self-regulation by the media organisations, individually or collectively. Collective self-regulation has failed because it is neither universal nor enforceable. Individual self-regulation has also failed due to personal predilections and the prevailing of personal interest over public interest.

It is relevant to note that, to an extent, the most effective de facto media regulator happens to be the advertisers and sponsors who determine the bulk of the revenue stream of our media industry. Their aims and desired outcomes, however, might not align with public policy goals of the government or markers of public interests and may, instead, stand in opposition to them. The common citizen, who is a consumer of media products, is thus faced with a piquant situation. While economic deregulation has been the dominant trend of the recent past, it is premised on a dynamic market place with a system of independent regulation, especially competition regulation, to prevent cartelisation, abusive behaviour by dominant firms, and corporate transactions that derail the competitive processes in the market. When the government, the polity, the market and the industry are unable to provide for full-spectrum systemic regulation that protects consumer welfare and public interest, who will step in to address the gap? As we debate the issue of media regulation, the following aspects need closer scrutiny: First, the objective of regulation in democratic societies such as the USA, France and others is to enhance diversity, competition, and localism among media outlets and to promote public interest with a focus on upholding constitutional values, protecting minors, and limiting advertising. Intrusive content regulation is minimised because those who are aggrieved can resort to legal means in the knowledge that the justice delivery system will address their grievances in a reasonable time period. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said about our justice delivery system. The time taken to settle court cases deters individual citizens, and even corporate entities, from seeking legal options and forcing the search for alternative tools of administrative justice and facilitation for grievance redressal. Second, we have not had an informed debate in the country on the issue of multiple ownership and cross-ownership nor a cogent national media policy that covers print, radio, television, cable, DTH platforms, video and film industry, internet, and mobile telephony. In most developed countries, rules on cross-ownership and multiple-ownership are intended to prevent the emergence of monopolies and cartels and promote competition. Many States in India have a few media groups dominating both the print and electronic media. At the national level, we have seen the emergence of a handful of media conglomerates spanning the entire media spectrum. Its impact on moulding public opinion, generating political debate, and safeguarding consumer and public interest is a moot question. Third, India is among the few democracies without active media watch groups engaged in objective analyses of the media, discerning prejudices and latent biases, and subjecting the media to a dose of their own medicine. For an industry that has over fifty thousand newspapers and hundreds of television channels, systematic media criticism is non-existent. What this means is that in the absence of government and industry regulation, even civil society has been unable to provide an effective de facto media regulatory mechanism. Fourth, no discussion of media regulation can ignore the recent controversy over paid news.' The last speech of Prabhash Joshi dwelt on this at some length. We need to introspect whether the strategy of relying on advertisement rather than subscription as the main revenue source for media outlets has created a difficult set of ethical problems for the media industry as a whole. Once content ceased to be the revenue driver for a media outlet, the effort to leverage it as a direct revenue source began. The inability of the industry and the Press Council to go public with its report on paid news is also another pointer to the problems of self regulation and the culture of silence' in the entire industry when it comes to self criticism. Fifth, the structural biases of the development process have favoured urban areas over rural ones, metropolitan areas over other urban areas, English-speaking over those speaking other Indian languages, the middle and upper classes over the others who constitute the vast majority of our citizens, and the service sectors over other areas such as agriculture. These biases have prompted the media industry to resort to sunshine journalism where the focus is on the glass that is quarter-full rather than that which is three-quarters empty! When media portrayal is of a life that is always good, optimistic, going with the tide of those with discretionary spending power and their causes and pet themes, the role of the media as a defender and upholder of public interest is relegated to the background and its commercial persona takes over, replete with its allegiances to the market and the shareholders. Sixth, no discussion of media regulation can ignore the slow erosion of the institution of the editor in Indian media organisations. When media space is treated as real estate or as airline seats for purpose of revenue maximisation strategies, and when media products are sold as jeans or soaps for marketing purposes, editors end up giving way to marketing departments. One might ask, if the situation is so stark, what can be the way forward?

A good starting point would be for all stakeholders of the media industry to realise that the ethical underpinning of professional journalism in the country has weakened and that the corrosion of public life in our country has impacted journalism. It is for the journalistic community to take the initiative and seek to address the various concerns regarding the profession. At the same time, all categories of regulation or binding guide lines must be strengthened with a view to securing and defending the public good by the government, the media organisations and the industry, civil society, advertisers and sponsors, and the audience and readership of the media. We should not forget that vibrant journalism in a democracy is watchdog journalism that monitors the exercise of power in the state, stands for the rights and freedoms of citizens, and informs and empowers citizens rather than entertains and titillates them. Vibrant journalism always springs from the bedrock of professional ethics. Our media, and democracy, are fortunate that we have shining examples of journalists who not only embody the ethical dimension, but sadly, also laid down their life for the same. Allow me to recall in conclusion a remark of the eminent American journalist of yesteryears, Walter Lippmann. The real danger to the press, he said, springs not so much from the pressures and intimidation to which it may be subject but from the sad fact that media persons can be captured and captivated by the company they keep, their constant exposure to the subtleties of power.

Medivial India

Traveller/Historian Al-Masudi Sulaiman Marco Polo Ralph Fitch Medieval India AD 750 onwards

In times of Pratiharas Palas Chola 16th century

Remarks Mid 9th century. Writes about the Pala empire

Eighth to 10th Century (Age of three empires in North India) Pala East Pratihara West and Upper Gangetic Valley Rashtrakuta Deccan Rashtrakutas lasted the longest For a long time, Kanauj was considered the symbol of political unity of India (like Delhi was later) Palas Founder: Gopala Gopala Dharmapala - Devpala Dhramapala o defeated by Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva o revived Nalanda Univ o founded Vikramsila Univ o Buddhism developed relations with Tibet and SE Asia Pratiharas Founder: Bhoja Bhoja Mahendrapala I - Mahipala Bhoja (aka Adivaraha) o Capital at Kanauj Mahipala o Sankrit poet and dramatist Rajashekhar lived at his court Hostility with Arab and Sindh Rashtrakutas Founder: Dantidurga Dantidurga - Govinda III Amoghvarsha (Jain) - - Indra III Vallabhraja Krishna III Capital: Malkhed near Sholapur Amoghvarsha o Wrote the first Kannada book on Poetics o Capital: Manyakhet Indra III most powerful ruler of his time Krishna I built Shiva temple at Ellora Apbhransha poet: Svayambhu Princess Chandrobalabbe (daughter of Amoghavarsha) administered Raichur Chola Empire (9th-12th Century) Founder: Vijayalaya (feudatory of Pallavas) Greatest rulers: Rajaraja Rajendra I Capital: Tanjaur Built temples: Brihadeshwara temple (Shiva): 1010 AD Rajaraja Rajendra I o Gangaikondachola o Capital: Gangaikondacholapuram (near Kaveri mouth) o Naval expedition against Sri Vijaya empire (Malay peninsula) Fought constantly with Chalukyas of Kalyani Dravida style of architecture developed (garbhagriha vimana mandap)

 Chalukyan style: Hoysalesvara temple (shiva) Sculpture: Gomteshwara at Sravana Belgola Tirumurai aka fifth Veda are the collection of writings of Alvar and Nayanar saints Age of Kamban (late 11th- early 12th century) golden period of Tamil Nadu Kamban lived at court of Chola king. Wrote Ramayana. Kannada: Pampa, Ponna, Ranna three gems of Kannada poetry Naniah began telugu version of Mahabharata. Completed by Tikkanna. Trade with west declined but with South-East Asia and China increased. Feudalism grew Buddhism Declined Became indistinguishable from Hinduism Because of rise of Mahayana Buddhism Palas were patrons but after them it declined Jainism Chalukyas of Gujarat & Paramaras of Malwa patronised. Dilwara temples built by Chalukyas o Use of marbles. Has 5 temples. Ganga rulers of Karnataka o Gomteshwar statue built during this time Bhakti Movement Led by Nayanars and Alvar saints in the South Originated in Tamil Nadu Major saints: Ravidas, Surdas etc Lingayat Movement Aka Vir Shaiva movement Founder: Basava and Channabasava o Lived at the court of Kalachuri kings of Karnatak Worshippers of Shiva Established after bitter disputes with Jains Foreign Invasions Mahmud of Ghazni Hindushahi ruler Jayapala invaded Ghazni with help the son of a former Ghazni governor. He was however defeated. In retaliation, Mahmud Ghazni (998-1030 AD) made 17 raids on India 1001 AD: Mahmud defeated Jayapala and took him prisoner but released. He committed suicide. 1008-09: Battle between Mahmud and Anandpala (Jayapalas son). Anandapala defeated. Reason for subsequent raids: to get funds to continue his struggle in Central Asia Important raids o 1018: Kanauj o 1025: Somnath Seljuk empire came into being after Mahmud. Rajputs Major states o Gahadavalas Kanauj o Paramara Malwa [Ujjain. Dhara] o Chauhans Ajmer o Kalachuris Jabalpur o Chandella Bundelkhand o Chalukya Gujarat o Tomars Delhi Nagara architecture of temples

Vastupala : Chalukyan minister built Jain Temples at Mt Abu Ujjain and Dhara: Sanskrit learning Hemachandra: Jain scholar wrote in Sanskrit and Apabhramsha Revival of Sanskrit: used by higher classes again

Mohammad of Ghori Shahabuddin Muhammad (aka Muizzuddin Muhammad) 1191: First battle of Tarain Ghazni defeated 1192: Second battle of Tarain Prithviraj defeated. Mohammad left: appointed Qutub-i-din Aibek 1194: Battle of Chandawar: Muhammad Ghori vs Jaichandra of Kanauj. Jaichander lost. Battles of Tarain and Chandawar laid the foundations of the Turkish rule in India. Bakhtiyar Khilji: Muhammads Governor of Bengal Delhi Sultanate 1206-1527

Slave Dyansty After death of Muhammad Ghori o Yalduz succeeded him at Ghori o Qutubbdin Aibek succeeded him at Ghazni (1206-1210)

Aibak o died after falling from his horse while playing polo o two slaves: Iltutmish (son-in-law) and Qubacha Iltutmish (1210-36) o Real consolidator of Turkish conquests in India o Aibaks slave Qubacha declared independence of Multan o Ousted Qubacha from Multan and Uchch Razia (1236-39) o Defeated her wazir Nizam ul Mulk Junaidi o Salve: Yakut Khan Balban (1265-86) Aka Ulugh Khan Father in law of the sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246-1266) Authoritarian and despot. Administered justice with impartiality Started sijada and paibos (prostration and kissing monarchs feet) Bughra Khan was his son who preferred to rule over Bengal

Khalji Dyansty (1290-1320)

Jalaluddin Khalji (1290-96) o Mitigated the harsh aspects of Balbans rule o Said that state should be based on the support of the ruled. Hence cannot be an Islamic state. Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316) o Revered the liberal policies of Jalaluddin towards Hindus o Malik Kafur general, led campaigns in South India o Conquered Gujarat, Rajasthan and Deccan o Amir Khusrau was his contemporary Alauddin carried out numerous market reforms o Fixed the prices of all commodities o Setup three markets in Delhi: for foodgrains, costly cloth, horses o Each market controlled by an officer called shahna o Revenue from Doab region to be paid directly to the state o First sultan to pay soldiers in cash Military reforms of Alauddin o Regular muster of the armed forces o Branding of horses (dagh) o Descriptive role of soldiers

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 1412)

Mohammad Bin T (1324-51) o Secular o Giasuddin T died after the wooden platform broke o Transfer of capital: Delhi to Deogir (Daulatabad) o Token currency o Khurasan project to invade Af-Iran o Qarachil expedition Kumaon hills to counter Chinese incursion o Famine he left Delhi and lived in a camp called Swargadwari on banks of Ganges near Kanauj o Diwan-i-amir-ikohi department <agriculture?> o Rebellions during the later part o Built road from Peshawar to Sonargaon and also to Daulatabad

Firuz Tughlaq (1351-88) <longest ruling Delhi sultan> o MBTs rule had left the army and nobles discontented o FT adopted policies to appease them o Offices and iqta were made hereditary o Period of peace o Extended the principle of heredity to army as well o Imposed jizyah: first ruler to do so o Took steps to translate Hindu religious works to Persian o Humanitarian measures o Set up Public Works department. Canals o Built towns: Hissar and Firuzabad o Set up a separate department of slaves. After Firuzs death, the empire shrunk to just Delhi (a popular wit reference) 1398: Timurs invasion

Sayyid Dyansty (1414-1451) Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526) Bahlol Lodi Sikandar Lodi Ibrahim Lodi Vijayanagar Harihara and Bukka 1336 Italian traveller Nicolo Conti visited Vijayanagar in 1420 After this dynasty ended, Krishna Deva Raya founded the Tuvalu dynasty 1565: Battle of Talikota (at Banihatta) aka Battle of Rakshasa Tangadi o Vijayanagar vs Deccan Sultans o Ended the Vijayanagar empire. Bahami Alauddin Hasan 1347 (aka Hasan Gangu) Bahmani ruler Firuz Shah married the daughter of Vijaynagar king Deva Rai I Firuz Shah Bahmani o Wanted to make Deccan a cultural centre o Inducted Hindus on a large scale o Built an observatory near Daulatabad Mahmud Gawan was an important prime minister Gujarat Ahmed Shah o Imposed jizyah Mahmud Begarha Mughals - Babur & Humayun Ibrahim Lodi succeeded Sikandar Lodi in 1517 Daulat Khan Lodi and Rana Sanga invited Babur to displace Ibrahim Lodi in India 1526: Battle of Panipat Gunpowder was used in this battle 1527: Battle of Khanwa between Rana Sanga and Babur Humayun succeeded Babur in 1530 He built a new city at Delhi: Dinpanah Built Purana Qila 1539: Battle of Chausa Sher Shah def Humayun 1540: Battle of Kanauj Sher Shah def Humayun 1555: Humayun recovered Delhi Died after falling from the first floor of his library Sher Shah 1540: defeated Humayun at Kanauj 1544: Sher Shah vs Rajputs at the battle of Samel Abbas Khan Sarwani historian of Sher Shah

GT Road from Indus to Sonargaon in Bengal Built a road from Agra to Jodhpur and Chittor; from Lahore to Multan Built sarais Dictum of Shaikh Nazami: If a merchant should die in your country it is a perfidy to lay hands on his property. Local village headmen and zamindars were made responsible for any loss that the merchant suffered on the roads. Currency reforms; weights and measures Chehra and dagh system Tomb at Sasaram Malik Md Jaisi during his time Jizyah continued to be implemented. Sher Shah was succeeded by his son Islam Shah in 1545

Mughals Akbar Born at Amarkot in 1542 1556: Second Battle of Panipat vs Hemu Zabti system of land revenue assessment aka Todar Mals bandobast Other land revenue systems: dahsala, batai, ghalla-bakhshi, nasaq Land o Polaj in cultivation every year o Parati (fallow) uncultivated polaj o Chachar fallow for two to three years o Banjar fallow for more than three years o Mansabdari system 1577 1576: Battle of Haldighati with Rana Pratap Birbal was killed in a battle with Afghans Jahangir (1605-27) Clash between Sikhs and Mughals began with the imprisonment and death of Guru Arjun by Jahangir on a charge of helping rebel prince, Khusrau Aurganzeb Issued Zawabit: secular decrees Discontinued the Parsi festival Nauroz Discontinued Jharokha Darshan Reimposed Jizyah in 1679; suspended it in 1705 Deccan Ahmednagar was captured by the Mughals in 1600. Chand Bibi was defeated. Malik Amber of Berar was an obstacle. So was Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur Ibrahim Adil Shah II o Aka Abla Baba and Jagat Guru o Book Kitab-i-Nauras on Music o New Capital: Nauraspur o Gol Gumbaj his mausoleum o Ibrahim Rauza Golconda: Md Quli Qutub Shah o Char Minar Sikhs Guru Teg Bahadur was beheaded by Aurangzeb 1699: Khalsa was established by Guru Gobind Singh Marathas 1665: Treaty of Purandar between Shivaji and Jai Singh (on behalf of Aurangzeb) 1666: Shivaji escaped from Azebs detetion 1674: Shivaji crowned himself at Raigarh Assumed the title of Haindava Dharmoddharak Died in 1680

Architecture Qutab Minar o Built by Iltutmish (started by Aibak) o Dedicated to the Sufi saint Qutub-ud-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki Alauddin o added an arch Alai Darwaza to Qutub Minar o City: Siri o Haus Khas Tughlaqs o Built Tughlaqabad o Feature: Sloping walls o Firuz Shah Kotla Lodis o Built on platforms o Lodi Garden Mughal Art and Architecture Pietra dura: decorating the walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones Akbar o Agra Fort o Fatehpur Sikri; Buland Darwaza was built to commemorate Akbars victory in Gujarat o Gujrat style of architecture was used o Painters: Daswant and Basawan o European painting was introduced o Litterateurs: Abul Fazl and Faizi; Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanah; Tulsidas o Marathi: Eknath and Tukaram Shah Jahan o Red Fort, Delhi o Moti Masjid at Agra Fort o Jama Masjid, Delhi Jahangir o Great patron of painting o Portrait painting and painting of animals o Painter: Mansur Major schools of paintings during Mughal time o Rajasthan style o Pahari school Largest number of books on classical Indian music in Persian were written during Aurangzebs reign Sufi Movement Organised into 12 orders or silsilahs Orders broadly divided into two o Ba-shara o Be-shara Early sufis: Rabia, Mansur bin Hallaj, Al Ghazzali Yogic book, Amrit Kund, was translated into Persian from Sanskrit Ba-shara o Chisti and Suharwardi silsilah Chisti order o Established by Moinuddin Chishti o Bakhtiyar Kaki, Farid ud din Ganj-i-Shakau, Nizamuddin Aulia, Nasirudding Chiragh-iDelhi o Believed in fakiri (poverty). Suharwardi o Largely confined to Punjab and Multan o Shaikh Shihabuddin Suharwardi and Hamid-ud-Din Nagori o Did not believe in fakiri. Accepted the service of the state. Other important sufi

Gesu Daraz

Bhakti Movement Nath Panti movement challenged the caste system Literature and Art Khusrau created a new style of Persian which came to be called shabaq-i-hindi. Historians: Barani, Afif and Islami Zia Nakhshabi translated Sanskrit stories into Persian o Tuti-Nama (Book of the Parrot) Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin of Kashmir had Rajatarangini and Mahabharata translated into Persian Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a lover of music o Man Kautahal was compiled which contained all new musical nodes introduced by Muslims. Books Book Brihatkatha-kosh Rajtarangini (Sanskrit) Lilavati

Author Harisena Kalhana Bhaskara II (also wrote Siddhanta Shiromani) Firdausi

Remark (9th-12th century) About the kings of Kashmir Treatise on arithmetic

Shah Namah (1000 AD) (Persian)

Firdausi was a poet in the court of Mahmud Ghazni National epic of Iran

Prithviraj Raso Kitab ul Hind Padmavat Haqait-i-Hindi Mitakshara Khaliq Bari Tuzk-i-Baburi Hukumat-ri-Bahi

Chand Bardai Al Baruni Malik Mohammad Jaisi Wahid Belgrami (Sufi) Vijnaneshwar Amir Khusrau Babur A 17th century Rajasthani work

Saints et al Saint Gorakhnath Shankara Ramanuja Bhakti Saints Ravidas Chaitanya Mahaprabhu Vallabhacharya Surdas Meera Bai Kabir Tulsidas Namdeo Dnyaneshwar

Followers were called Nathpantis 9th century 11th century

Used tantra. Spread over North India. Born in Kerala. Advaitavada. Vedanta. Upheld Vedas. Vishistadvaita. Followers: Vallabha, Ramananda Contemporary of Babur, Nanak Worshipped Krishna. C of Babur Contemporary of Akbar During the time of Lodhis Akbar, Jahangir b. 1270 1200s

From Punjab Eastern India

1498-1547 Vinaypattika, Dohavali, Kavitavali, Krishnavali Marathi/Punjabi Marathi

Tukaram Ramananda Sadhana Nanak

Marathi Prayag

b. 1469

Dadu Ram Das Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi

Gujarat Maharashtra Sufi

Jahangir, Shah Jahan Follower of Ramanuja Was a butcher. Disciple of Ramananda Born in the village of Talwandi on the bank of river Ravi Non-sectarian

Nashqbandi School. During times of Jahangir

Architecture

Style Nagara

Where? North India and Deccans

Remarks By Rajputs Tall curved spiral roof over the garbha griha Khajuraho [Visvanatha temple, Kandarya Mahadeo temple] Orissa [Lingaraja temple, Sun temple, Jagannath temple]

Ibn Batuta Moraccan traveller visited during MBTs time. Gen terms Shrenis/sangha trade guilds Manigrama and Nandesi merchant guilds Tamralipti was a major port in Bengal Chahalgani 40 Turkish chiefs during the time of Slave dynasty Amir Khusrau contemporary of Alauddin Khilji Iqta small estates (like zamindars) Khuts and Muqaddams landlords during the time of Alauddin Khilji Diwan-i-arz department of military. Headed by ariz-i-mamalik (he was not C-in-C of army) Diwan-i-risalat dealt with religious matters (headed by chief Sadr qazi) Diwan-i-insha dealt with state correspondence Barid spy Tauhid-i-Wajudi Ibn-i-Arabis idea of Unity of Being

Ministries
Ministry of Commerce Policy framework for National Manufacturing and Investment Zones is being developed

Railways Indias Foreign Train Services Maitree Express

Kolkata-Dhaka. Started in 2008. Lahore-Delhi. Was first started

Samjhauta Express

There were protests from Hindu Bangladeshi immigrants Border crossing takes

in 1976 between Amritsar and Lahore. Discontinued during Punjab insurgency. Restarted in 2000. Discontinued in 2002 and restarted in 2004 Thar Express Revived in 2006. KarachiBhagat ki Kothi (Jodhpur) Nepal (find out more)

place between Wagah and Attari by changing of trains. In 2007, 68 people were killed in the train bombing in Panipat.

Railway zones: 16 1. Central CST Mumbai 2. Western Churchgate Mumbai 3. Eastern Kolkata 4. Southern Chennai 5. Northern New Delhi 6. South Central Secundarabad 7. South East Central Bilaspur 8. South Eastern Kolkata 9. South Western - Hubli 10. West Central Jabalpur 11. North East Gorakhpur 12. North Central Allahabad 13. North Western Jaipur 14. North-East Frontier Maligaon (Gauhati) 15. East Central Hazipur 16. East Coast Railway Bhubaneshwar There are ten public undertakings under the administrative control of the Ministry of Railways, viz. Rail India Technical & Economic Services Limited (RITES); Indian Railway Construction (IRCON) International Limited; Indian Railway Finance Corporation Limited (IRFC); Container Corporation of India Limited (CONCOR); Konkan Railway Corporation Limited (KRCL). Indian Railway Catering & Tourism Corporation Ltd. (IRCTC); Railtel Corporation of India Ltd. (Rail Tel); Mumbai Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. (MRVNL); Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. (RVNL); and Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India Limited (DFCCIL). The Centre for Railway Information System (CRIS) was set up as a registered society to design and implement various railway computerization projects. Ministry of Textiles Two major associations in the textile sector o Confederation of Indian Textile Industry (CITI) o Apparel Export Promotion Council (AEPC) Petroleum and Natural Gas Directorate general of Hydrocarbons Established in 1993 To promote sound management of the oil and natural gas resources having a balanced regard for environment, safety, technological and economic aspects of the petroleum activity Responsibilities like the implementation of NELP, matters concerning production sharing contracts for discovered fields and exploration blocks Rural Development CAPART Council for Advancement of Peoples Action and Rural Technology

nodal agency for catalysing and coordinating the emerging partnership between voluntary organisations and the Government for sustainable development of rural areas.

Archaeological Survey of India 150th year in 2011 Archaeology in India has progressively changed from antiquarian pursuit to rigorous science. Leading this transformation has been the Archaeological Survey of India. Since its establishment in 1861, it has been digging and discovering precious historical sites, and deciphering and describing thousands of important inscriptions. The 150th anniversary is an occasion for the nation to acknowledge the ASIs commendable track record and reflect on its future. Alexander Cunninghams 1861 memorandum to Lord Canning, which impressed on the colonial power the supreme need to undertake a systematic survey of monuments in India, led to the appointment of the first Archaeological Surveyor. Ten years later, the ASI became a distinct department, with a monthly budget of Rs.54,000. Since then, it has taken up important excavations at sites such as Kusinagara, which provided an archaeological basis for Buddhist history. It recovered the famous Lion Capital at Sarnath, which has become a part of the national emblem. It unearthed key evidence at the urn burial site at Adichchanallur, which spotlighted the unique features of the Iron Age in South India. The high point in the ASIs history was the 1921 discovery of Indus Valley sites at Harappa (by Daya Ram Sahni) and at Mohenjodaro (by R.D. Banerji). While epigraphy, excavation, and setting up site museums were part of ASI activities from the start, the periodic conservation of monuments and sites was taken up only from the 1940s. Here too, much of the work has been first-rate, with the magnificent preservation of the millennium-old Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur standing out as an example. The ASI has shared its expertise with other countries and done significant work at Bamiyan and Angkor Vat. On the flip side, it has been able to protect only 3,676 historic sites, leaving an estimated 700,000 heritage structures unattended. If this huge deficit can be blamed on poor funding by the government and shortage of trained human resources, the delays in writing and publishing excavation reports and the loss of 35 nationally important monuments to encroachment represent serious professional failures. Another area where the ASI has not done well is in adopting cutting edge technologies for Archaeological Prospection. The way forward is to correct these deficiencies, provide more autonomy to the ASIs regional circle offices, and do regular performance audits. Finally, the ASI must be encouraged to engage local communities in the protection of archaeological heritage, a strategy found to be rewarding in many countries.

Old Age
WHO: 600 million 60+ people in the world o This will double by 2025 By 2050 one out of five persons will be 60+ As per Census 2001 o Total population of 60+ people was 7.7 crore Male: 3.8 crore Female: 3.9 crore Substantial increase in health care facilities Government Policy o National Policy on Older Persons (1999)

Envisages state support to fulfil food security, shelter and protection against exploitation among the aged Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act 2007 Includes penal provision and even revocation of transfer of property by senior citizens for the abandonment or negligence by their children or relatives National Old Age Pension Scheme

Rights of the aged o Protection: physical, psychological and emotional safety o Participation: need to establish a more active role for older persons o Image: need to create a healthy and respectful attitude Problems of the aged o Physical: basic needs like food, shelter and physical support and protection o Psychological front: coping with loneliness, feelings of low self worth and general insecurity o Healthcare: diseases like dementia, Alzheimer and cancer o Economic: lack of income and funds o Social: they often dont come out in open when abused by children or relatives Steps to be taken o Tap care from all three sources: the family, the state and the community o Health: focus not only on in-patient care but also on palliative and rehabilitation care. Health insurance is another area where state intervention is required o Put in place mechanisms to ensure availability, accessibility and affordability of a decent life and good health among the aged o Implement the Act effectively to ensure that children take care of their aged parents

Problems of Old Age in India A man's life is normally divided into five main stages namely infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. In each of these stages an individual has to find himself in different situations and face different problems. The old age is not without problems. In old age physical strength deteriorates, mental stability diminishes; money power becomes bleak coupled with negligence from the younger generation. There are 81million older people in India-11 lakh in Delhi itself. According to an estimate nearly 40% of senior citizens living with their families are reportedly facing abuse of one kind or another, but only 1 in 6 cases actually comes to light. Although the President has given her assent to the Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act(2007) which punishes children who abandon parents with a prison term of three months or a fine, situation is grim for elderly people in India. According to NGOs incidences of elderly couples being forced to sell their houses are very high. Some elderly people have also complained that in case of a property dispute they feel more helpless when their wives side with their children. Many of them suffer in silence as they fear humiliation or are too scared to speak up. According to them a phenomenon called 'grand dumping' is becoming common in urban areas these days as children are being increasingly intolerant of their parents' health problems. After a certain age health problems begin to crop up leading to losing control over one's body, even not recognizing own family owing to Alzheimer are common in old age. It is then children began to see their parents as burden. It is these parents who at times wander out of their homes or are thrown out. Some dump their old parents or grand parents in old-age homes and don't even come to visit them anymore. Delhi has nearly 11 lakh senior citizens but there are only 4 governments' run homes for them and 31 by NGOs, private agencies and charitable trusts. The facilities are lacking in government run homes. Rights of the Elderly Parents cannot be evicted from a house without due process of law if they have been staying there from before.There is three enactments that can be applied. Under section 125 of the CrPC,a magistrate can order a child to maintain his old parents under the Maintenance of Parents Act.

The Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act say an aged parent can demand maintenance from children in the same way that a wife can demand it from her husband. The Domestic Violence Act too provides parents with the right to seek relief from any kind of abuse. A National Policy on older persons was announced in January 1999 which identified a number of areas of intervention-financial security, healthcare and nutrition, shelter, education, welfare, protection of life and property for the wellbeing of older persons in the country.A National Council for Older Persons (NCOP) was constituted by the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment to operationalize the National Policy on older persons.

Organizations
UK Department for International Development (DFID) The Department For International Development (DFID) is a United Kingdom government department. It was separated from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in 1997. The goal of the department is "to promote sustainable development and eliminate world poverty". Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) is a national agency of the Government of India, under Ministry of Earth Sciences. It provides ocean information and advisory services to the society, industry, government and scientific community through sustained ocean

observations and constant improvements through systematic and focused research. Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) is one of two tsunami warning centers that are operated by NOAA in the United States. Headquartered in EwaBeach, Hawaii, the PTWC is part of an international tsunami warning system (TWS) program and serves as the operational center for TWS of the Pacific issuing bulletins and warnings to participating members and other nations in the Pacific Ocean area of responsibility . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas and skies, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. It is headquartered in Washington DC. Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO) CSTO or Tashkent Treaty is a military alliance formed in 2002. Its 7 members include: Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. It grew out of the Commonwealth of Independent States framework. The members are not allowed to join other military alliances and aggression against one signatory is perceived as an aggression against all. Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) CIS is a regional organization of the former Soviet Republics established in 1991 after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. It has nine members: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan and Ujbekistan. It possesses coordinating powers in the realm of trade, finance, lawmaking and security. Eurasian Economic Community (EAEC or EurAsEC) Economic union aimed at creating common market. Members: Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan. Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) An intergovernmental organization of low-lying coastal and small island countries. Established in 1990, its main purpose is to strengthen their voice in addressing global climate change. It has 42 members. COP15 The 2009 UN Climate Change Conference, also known at the Copenhagen Summit was held in Copenhagen in December 2009. At the summit, the Copenhagen Accord was adopted which recognized climate change is one of the greatest challenges and that actions should be taken to keep temperature increases to below 2 degree C. It does not contain commitments for reduced emissions that would be necessary to achieve that aim. Integrated Defence Staff The Integrated Defence Staff and associated structures have been created under the provisions of Government of India, Ministry of Defence in 2001 following the recommendations of the Kargil Review Committee. It acts as point organisation for jointmanship in MoD which integrates policy, doctrine, war fighting and procurement by employing best management practices. The Chief of Integrated Defence Staff to the Chiefs of Staff Committee (CISC) will support the Chairman and the Chiefs of Staff Committee (COSC) in the optimal performance of their role and functions. The present CISC is Air Marshal S C Mukul. Strategic Forces Command (SFC) The Indian Strategic Forces Command (or Strategic Nuclear Command) is responsible for the management and administration of the countrys tactical and strategic nuclear weapons stockpile. It was created in 2003 and forms a part of Indias Nuclear Command Authority. Nuclear Command Authority (India)

The Nuclear Command Authority (NCA) of India is the nodal agency for all command, control and operational decisions regarding Indias nuclear weapon stockpile. Press Council of India (PCI) PCI, setup in 1966, is a statutory, quasi judicial body in India that governs the conduct of the print and broadcast media. It adjudicates the complaints against and by the press for violation of ethics and for violation of the freedom of the press respectively. It is protected by the constitution and its actions may not be questions unless proven ultra vires. Chairman: Justice G N Ray International Whaling Commission (IWC) IWC is an international body set up in 1946 by the terms of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) to provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks. IWC has now become dominated by governments opposed to commercial whaling. Hence, in 1986 IWC adopted a moratorium on commercial whaling which still continues. Defence Food Research Laboratory (DFRL) DFRL is an Indian defence laboratory of the DRDO located established in 1961 in Mysore. It conducts research and development of technologies and products in the area of food science and technology to cater the varied food challenges for the Indian Armed Forces. International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) ISAF is a NATO led security mission in Afghanistan established by the UNSC in 2001. As of 2008, its troops number around 55000. Defence Institute of High Altitude Research (DIHAR) DIHAR is a laboratory of DRDO located in Leh. Located at 3,500 meters above mean sea-level, DIHAR is doing pioneering research to not only improve the quality of life of our soldiers but also pass on spin-offs to civilian sectors for their benefit. It is currently working on a project of greening Ladakh with sustainable plant cultivation. Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT) The Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism (GICNT) is an international partnership of 81 nations and four official observers who are committed to working individually and collectively to implement a set of shared nuclear security principles. The mission of the GICNT is to strengthen global capacity to prevent, detect, and respond to nuclear terrorism by conducting multilateral activities that strengthen the plans, policies, procedures, and interoperability of partner nations. The United States and Russia serve as Co-Chairs of the GICNT. <Launched in 2006 by Bush and Putin> National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS) Estd. 1983 It is a national level inter-agency system for integrated natural resources management in the country. To support the optimal utilization of countrys natural resources it adopts various advanced technologies of satellite and aerial remote sensing, GIS, precise positioning system, precise positioning systems etc. It is supported by the Planning Commission. Department of Space is the nodal agency for implementing NNRMS and its secretariat is housed in the ISRO HQ, Bangalore.

NEERI The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur was established in 1958. It is devoted to research and innovations in environmental science and engineering besides solving a range of problems posed by industry, government and public. It has five zonal laboratories at Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Kolkata and Mumbai. World Bank Estd. 1944 Members: 186 President: Robert Zoellick HQ: Washington DC

WB is different from the WB Group. The World Bank comprises of two institutions: IBRD and International Development Association (IDA) whereas the WB Group has these two as well as three more: IFC, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). WB is one of the five institutions created at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR) Estd. 1988 HQ: Vasco da Gama, Goa Director: Rasik Ravindra It is an autonomous research and development institution under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, GoI. It is the nodal organization for the co-ordination and implementation of the Indian Antarctic Programme, including the maintenance of Indias permanent station in Antarctica. National Institute of Oceanography Estd. 1966 HQ: Dona Paula, Goa It is one of the 38 constituent laboratories of CSIR. The focus of research is on observing and understanding the special oceanographic features that the North Indian basin offers. Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) Estd. 1883 HQ: Mumbai It is one of the largest NGOs in India engaged in conservation and biodiversity research. It supports many research efforts through grants and publishes the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Translational Health Science and Technology Under the Department of Biotechnology, GoI. Research collaboration institute for biosciences. Located in Faridabad. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Estd. 1942 HQ: New Delhi Chairman: Prime Minister of India Director General: Samir K Brahmachari It is an autonomous body and R&D organization with 39 laboratories and 50 field stations across the nation. It has developed various technologies relating to engineering, sciences, molecular biology, chemicals, food, petroleum, leather and environment. CSIR also awards the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar prize for Science and Technology annually for notable research in science and technology. It is named after CSIRs founding director Dr. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar. Airports Authority of India Estd. 1995 By merging the international Airports Authority of India and the National Airports Authority. Manages 12 airports which includes 11 international airports. It handles the passenger facilities, maintaining and strengthening the airport infrastructure, air navigation services and security. Quality Council of India QCI was set up in 1997 jointly by the GoI and Indian Industry represented by ASSOCHAM, CII and FICCI, to establish and operate national accreditation structure and promote quality through National Quality Campaign. The Department of Industrial Policy & Promotion, Ministry of Commerce and Industry is the nodal ministry for QCI. Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited Estd. 1956 One of the leading producers of fertilizers in India. Awarded the Miniratna status. Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS) Started in 2008

Provides a regional forum through which the Chiefs-of-Navy of all littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region can periodically meet to constructively engage one another through the creation and promotion of regionally relevant mechanisms, events and activities. National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) Estd. 1975 To plan, promote and organize an integrated and efficient development of hydroelectric power in all aspects. It now, also includes Geothermal, Tidal and Wind energy. PowerGrid Corporation of India (PGCIL) Estd. 1992 HQ: Gurgaon Chairman: S K Charurvedi (MD as well) Status: Navratna. It is one of the largest transmission utilities in the world. It wheels about 45 pc of the total power generated in the country on its transmission network. It has also diversified into Telecom business. Standardisation Testing and Quality Certification (STQC) It is an attached office of the Department of Information Technology (DIT), GoI, provides quality assurance services in the area of electronics and IT through countrywide network of laboratories and centres. The services include testing, calibration, training and certification to public and private organizations. In July 2010, it was selected as the Biometric Certification Agency for UIDAI. SIDBI Estd. 1990 Initially a wholly owned subsidiary of IDBI. Initially it worked as a re-financing agency to banks and state level financial institutions for their credit to small industries, it has now expanded its activities and provides direct credit to SMEs. It has floated several other entities. The Credit Guarantee Fund Trust for Micro and Small Enterprises provides guarantee to banks for collateral free loans extended to SME. SIDBI Venture Capital Ltd is a venture capital company focussed at SME. SME Rating Agency of India Ltd (SMERA) provides composite ratings to SME. SIDBI is included in the list of top 30 development banks of the world in the 2001 ranking of The Banker, London. Central Institute of Indian Languages Mysore Under the ministry of HRD. Established to co-ordinate the development of Indian languages. Power Finance Corporation Rural Electrification Corporation Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction Estd. 1987 Under: Department of Economic Affairs It is established under the Sick Industrial Companies (Special Provisions) Act, 1985 (SICA). The main objective of SICA is to determine sickness and expedite the revival of potentially viable units or closure of unviable units. Foreign Investment Promotion Board FIPB is a government body that offers a single window clearance for proposals on foreign direct investment in the country that are not allowed access through the automatic route (restricted sectors). Secretary, Economic Affairs is the Chairman. Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Estd. 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization and UNEP. Tasked with evaluating the risk of climate change caused by human activity. International Seed Treaty Aka International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture Approved: 2001 at FAO Adopted: 2007 Signatories: 125 countries

Aims at guaranteeing food security through conservation, exchange and sustainable use of worlds genetic resources for food and agriculture. Recognizes farmer rights and allows individuals to contribute to the gene banks. World Economic Forum Started in 1971 by Claus Schwab. HQ: Geneva Non-profit foundation. Organizes its annual meeting in Davos, Switzerland. Funded by 1000 companies. Has an observer status in EcoSoc. Also organizes the annual meeting of New Champions every year in China. It publishes the following reports: 1. Global Competitiveness Report 2. Global Information Technology Report 3. Global Gender Gap Report 4. Global Risks Report 5. Global Travel and Tourism Report 6. Global Enabling Trade Report Gives the Technology Pioneers Awards National Fisheries Development Board 2006. HQ: Hyderabad Autonomous orgn under the administratie control of the Dept of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Min of Agriculture. Established to work towards blue revolution with a focus on to increase the fish production of the country to a level of 10.3 million tonnes. The period of implementation of the various activities of the board is from 2006-12 Indian Meteorological Department National Water Development Agency Estd. 1982 It is registered society under the ministry of water resources. Functions: To carry out detailed surveys and investigations of possible reservoir sites and interconnecting links to establish the feasibility of projects Financial Stability Board An international body that monitors and makes recommendations about the global financial system. Established after the 2009 G-20 London Summit. Successor to the Financial Stability Forum. The board includes all G-20 major economies, FSF members and the European Commission. Basel Committee on Banking Supervision Is a committee of banking supervisory authorities that was established in 1975. It provides a forum for regular cooperation on banking supervisory matters. Its objective is to enhance understanding of key supervisory issues and improve the quality of banking supervision worldwide.

International Bodies Name Established ASEAN+3

HQ

President

Members ASEAN, China, Japan, North Korea IEA, OPEC, BRIC, Mexico, South Africa and others

Purpose

Remarks

International Energy Forum (IEF)

Riyadh

Engage in a dialogue for increasing importance to global energy security

Worlds largest recurring gathering of energy ministers. IEF countries

International Monetary Fund

NATO

1949

Brussels

Sec-gen: Anders Fogh Rasmussen

account for >90% of global oil and gas supply and demand. Report: World Economic Outlook, Global Financial Stability Report 2010 summit in Lisbon

UNCTAD

1964

International Union of Railways (UIC)

1922

199 countries

International rail transport industry body.

International Hockey Federation

1924

Lausanne, Switzerland

Leandro Negre (Spain)

124

Publication: Trade and Development Report, World Investment Report To promote rail transport at world level and meet the challenges of mobility and sustainable development Organizes 6 major hockey events: Olympic Games, World Cup, Junior WC, Champions Trophy, Indoor Hockey WC, Champions Challenge

International Air Transport Association (IATA)

1945

Montreal

Giovanni Bisigani

It is an international trade group of airlines. It represents some 230 airlines comprising of 93 percent of scheduled international air traffic 22 members, 4 observers Observers: India, Eritrea, Established through the Alexandria Protocol

Arab League

1945

Cairo

Brazil, Venezuela

Six original members: Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria Institutions: Arab League Education, Cultural and Scientific Org (ALESCO), Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAFU) India became an observer in 2007 Serves as an intergovernme ntal forum for scientific and technical cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

1957

Vienna

Yukiya Amano

151 countries

Promote peaceful use of nuclear energy. Inhibit its use for military purpose

World Food Programme United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Non-Aligned Movement Asian Development Bank (ADB)

1960/1963 1961 by Pres Kennedy

Rome Washington DC

Josette Sheeran Rajiv Shah

36

Under the FAO of UN Responsible for administering civilian foreign aid

Motto: From the American People

1961 in Belgrade 1966 Manila, Philippines Haruhiko Koruda

118

1955: Bandung conference To provide concessional credit to needy members Accelerate economic growth, social progress, cultural development of its members. Peace and stability in the region. Opportunities for member countries to discuss differences Geopolitical and economic organization. First summit: Bali (1976) 16th summit: Vietnam (2010) 17th summit: Indonesia (2010)

ASEAN

1967

Jakarta

67: Members are from the region as well as outside the region 10: Indonesia, Malaysia, Phillipines, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Singapore, Brunei, Myanmar, Camobdia

peacefully. First IndiaASEAN summit in 2002 in Phnom Penh One of the 16 specialized agencies of the United Nations

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

1967

Geneva

Francis Gurry

184

United Nations Population Fund

1969

Nuclear Suppliers Group

1974/75

(rotating chair) Hungary for 2009-10

46 countries (EU observer)

To encourage creative activity, to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world. Focuses on Health, Gender Equality and population and development strategies. Reducing nuclear proliferation by controlling the export and retransfer of nuclear material.

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

1975

Abuja, Nigeria

Goodluck Jonathan (Nigeria)

European Space Agency (ESA) Gulf Cooperation Council

1975

Paris

15: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, GuineaBissau, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, Niger (suspended), Ivory Coast (suspended) 18

One of the pillars of the African Economic Community

Founding Members (7): Canada, West Germany, France, Japan, USSR, UK, US. China became a member in 2004. Was formed in response to Pokharan 1. Created by the Treaty of Lagos. <Lagos is in Nigeria>

1981

6: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar,

Intergovernmental organization for exploration of space. Trade bloc.

International Organisation of Securities Commissions Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering

1983

Madrid, Spain

1989: On the initiative of G7

Paris (at the OECD HQ)

Luis Corral

Saudi Arabia, UAE Security commissions from 100 different countries 36

To combat money laundering and terrorist financing. It has issued Forty Recommendation and Special Recommendations on Terrorist Financing

India became a member in 2010. Several international organisations including the IMF and WB are observer members Founded by the Treaty of Asuncion 2010 summit (8th summit): Brussels. In 2010, Russia, New Zealand and Australia also became members. VP, Hamid Ansari represented India. First summit: Bangkok 9th summit: Laos Total of 45 partners

MERCOSUR

1991

Montevideo, Uruguay

Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM)

1996 in Bangkok

4: Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay European Commission, EUs 27 states, ASEAN+3 (China, Japan, South Korea), India, Mongolia, Pakistan

Economic Union

It is an interregional forum. Biannual meetings. India was admitted at the Beijing summit in 2008.

International Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) Shanghai Cooperation Organization

1998

Marina Del Rey, CA

Responsible for managing the assignment of domain name and IP address 6: China, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan. 4 observers: India, Iran, Mongolia, Pakistan 2 dialogue First summit, 2001, Shanghai 2010 summit: Tashkent 2011 Summit: Astana Head: 2009-10: China 2010-11: Kyrgyzstan

2001 (Previously known as Shanghai five. Became SCO when Uzbekistan joined in 2001)

Beijing

African Union

2002

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo (Pres of Equitorial Guinea)

partners: Belarus, Sri Lanka 4 Guest: Afghan, ASEAN, CIS, Turkmenistan 53 African Nations

Morocco is the only African state which is not a member.

East Asia Summit

2005

ASEAN, Australia, New Zealand, China, India, South Korea, Japan

A forum held by the 16 countries. ASEAN is the major player.

First summit: Kualalumpur, 2005 Fifth summit: Hanoi, 2010 US and Russia to join at the Hanoi summit after which the number of members would become 18. Official languages: Arabic, English, French India is not a member Next head: Kazakhstan China and Taiwan are represented separately India is not a member. 2010 summit: Astana, Kazakhstan First summit: Helsinki Finland (1975)

Organisation of Islamic Conference

1969

Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

Sec Gen: Ekmeleddin Ihsanoglu, Turkey

57

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

1989

Singapore

Chair: Japan

21 Pacific Rim countries

To promote free trade and economic cooperation throughout AsiaPacific region Worlds largest security oriented intergovernmental organisation

Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)

1973. renamed as OSCE in 1995

Vienna

Sec Gen: de Brichambaut

56: Europe, Caucasus, Central Asia and N America

IUCN

1948

Gland, Switzerland

Dir: Julia Marton, Pres: Ashok Khosla

Conservation organisation. CITES under its aegis. Publishes Red

List Eurasian Group on Anti Money Laundering and Combating the Financing of Terrorism (EAG) NAM 2004 Moscow 9: Belarus, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyztan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ujbekistan, Russia, India Is an FATF type regional body

1955, Bandung conference Formally came into being in 1961 at Belgrade at its first conference 118 members 1983 summit: New Delhi Mrs. Indira Gandhi chaired the 1983 summit Giani Jail Singh & N Sanjeev Reddy were secretary generals of NAM between 1983-1986 (not simultaneously) Present Chairman: Hosni Mubarak (Egypt) <after he stepped down as president there should be some one else> First Sec-Gen: Josip Broz Tito Recent meetings o 2006: Havana o 2009: Sharm El Sheikh o 2011: Belgrade and Jakarta o 2012: Kish Island

SAARC 1985 at Dhaka Idea was proposed by Bangladesh President Zia Ur Rahman HQ: Kathmadu Members 8: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan, Maldives Afghanistan admitted in the 13th summit: 2005 (Dhaka) Observer: China, Japan, US, S. Korea, EU, Mauritius, Iran, Australia, Myanmar Meetings: o 2nd: 1986, Bangalore o 8th: 1995, New Delhi o 14th: 2007, New Delhi o 15th: 2008, Colombo o 16th: 2010, Thimpu o 17th: 2011, Male Sec Gens o First: Abul Ahsan o 2nd: Kant Kishore Bhargava o 9th: Sheel Kant Sharma o 10th: Ms Fathimath Dhiyana Saeed (Incumbant) The Commonwealth

Estd: 1926 (Balfour Declaration) Statute of Westminster: 1931 London Declaration: 1949 HQ: London Members: 54 <All but two, Mozambique and Rwanda, were formerly part of the British Empire> Sec-Gen: Kamlesh Sharma Chairperson-in-Office: Kamla Persad Bissessar (Trinidad and Tobago) Members of CW are represented in other CW countries by High Commissioners Biennial meeting of Heads of Government of CW o 24th meeting: New Delhi in 1983 (Indira Gandhi)

o 2009: Trinidad and Tobago o 2011: Sri Lanka CW Games o 1930 o Current name in 1978 o Refer CWG-2010 article

Reports of World Bank Global Economic Prospects UNSECO Reports EFA Global Monitoring Report UNFPA Reports Millennium Development Goals Report 2010 IMF Reports Global Financial Stability Report World Economic Outlook Global Financial Stability Report 2011 After the crisis, the confidence in the banking sector in many advanced economies not restored Stability improved but vulnerabilities remain due to high government debt in advanced economies Surging capital inflows in the emerging economies can also lead to instability Classified as per regions South Asia BIMSTEC Reports 2010 UNRISD Combating Poverty and Inequality: Structural Change, Social Policy and Politics o Economic growth by itself does not reduce poverty or inequalities. HDR 2010 http://www.hindu.com/2010/11/17/stories/2010111754241000.htm Twenty years is a good enough time to assess how countries of the world, irrespective of the economic or political system they follow, have performed in promoting human development. Successive Human Development Reports (HDR), since 1990, have mainstreamed health and education as critical indicators of human progress and contributed to international policy structures. For instance, the Millennium Development Goals, aimed at using international financial resources to reduce global poverty, can be traced to the HDR-1991 on financing development. Significantly, this year's HDR has made long-term innovations in measuring development. First, it reconfigures its indicators on literacy and income. Replacing gross enrolment' and adult literacy rates' with expected years of schooling' and mean years of schooling' makes for a deeper understanding of this important socioeconomic attribute, particularly as literacy rates, which are rising around the world, could gloss over structural weaknesses. Replacing Gross Domestic Product' with Gross National Income', which includes international income flows, would bring in a fresh perspective on an economy's standing, particularly in the current globalising context of a country's poverty reduction programmes. Secondly, HDR-2010 introduces three indices the Multidimensional Poverty Index, the Gender Inequality Index and the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index aimed at gaining a deeper appreciation of a country's development path. The 2010 Report, The Real Wealth of Nations: Pathways to Human Development, comes as a timely reality check on India's global standing. It shows that, despite recording a phenomenal economic growth recently, India continues to remain in the bottom-50 on human development it is placed at 119 out of 169. The report points to critical social failures. Its new indicators on education tell the story of how rising literacy rates are no cause for comfort. The mean years of schooling' is only 4.4, compared to the global figure of 7.4; and the expected years of schooling' of 10.3 is short of the global average of 12.3. These are particularly important pointers at a time when India prepares to give

its children the right to free and compulsory education. At a theoretical level, it is noteworthy that the report finds a weak long-term association between income growth and changes in education and health. This finding, read along with the failure of trickle down' theories to deliver, only re-emphasises the need to rethink economic growth strategies, particularly in the developing world.

Programmes/Schemes
Sanchar Shakti

For empowering women SHGs through ICT related livelihood skills. Sanchar Shakti envisages bringing together the combined efforts and contributions of Department of Telecommunication (DoT), Universal Service Obligation Fund (USOF), mobile and Mobile Value Added Service Providers, Telecom Equipment Manufacturers and their partner NGOs to use ICT to empower rural women. NABARD and U.N Women have also been involved in the development of this scheme. The Sanchar Shakti scheme includes four categories of projects aimed at rural womens SHGs:

1. Provision of subsidized mobile VAS subscription to SHGs with a service validity/ warranty of at least one year 2. Setting up of SHG run mobile repair centers in rural areas 3. Setting up of SHG run modem repair centers in rural areas 4. Setting up of SHG run solar based mobile/CDMA FWT charging centers in rural areas

Integrated Guided Missile Development Program

The Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) was an Indian Ministry of Defence program between the early 1980s and 2007 for the development of a comprehensive range of missiles, including the intermediate range Agni missile (Surface to Surface), and short range missiles such as the Prithvi ballistic missile (Surface to Surface), Akash missile (Surface to Air), Trishul missile (Surface to Air) and Nag Missile (Anti Tank). The program was managed by Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO) in partnership with other Indian government labs and research centres. One of the most prominent chief engineers on the project, Dr. Abdul Kalam went on to become the President of India. When was it started? PURA

Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas (PURA) is a strategy for rural development in India. Concept given by former president Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.and framed by Prof.Emerson. PURA proposes that urban infrastructure and services be provided in rural hubs to create economic opportunities outside of cities. Physical connectivity by providing roads electronic connectivity by providing communication network and knowledge connectivity by establishing professional and Technical institutions will have to be done in an integrated way so that economic connectivity will emanate. The Indian central government has been running pilot PURA programs in several states since 2004. The Government has restructured the Provision of Urban Amenities in Rural Areas (PURA) scheme for implementation on pilot basis during 11th Five Year Plan. The scheme aims at holistic and accelerated development of compact areas around a potential growth centre in a Gram Panchayat (s) through Public Private Partnership (PPP) framework for providing livelihood opportunities and urban amenities to improve the quality of life in rural areas. The scope of the scheme is to select private partners to develop livelihood opportunities, urban amenities and infrastructure facilities in select Panchayat / cluster of Panchayat. The private developer is given the flexibility to identify and select the Gram Panchayat for undertaking PURA projects based on their familiarity with the area or past experience of working at the grassroots level. However, the consent of the concerned Panchayats is mandatory.

Rajiv Awas Yojana The President of India has announced a new scheme called Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) on June 4, 2009 for the slum-dwellers and urban poor, aimed at ushering in a Slum-free India by encouraging States/Union Territories to tackle the problem of slums in a definitive manner. RAY calls for a multi-prolonged approach focusing on: Bringing existing slums within the formal system and enabling them to avail of the same level of basic amenities as the rest of the town; Redressing the failures of the formal system that lie behind the creation of slums; and Tackling the shortages of urban land and housing that keep shelter out of reach of the urban poor. Rajiv Awas Yojana would extend support to States that are willing to assign property rights to people living in slum areas. To facilitate the preparation of Slum-free Plans based on slum survey and GIS Mapping, a new scheme called Slum-free City Planning has been approved with an allocation of Rs.120 Crores. Rs. 60 crores has been released by the Finance Ministry against this amount during 2009-10.

Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM)

Launched in 2010, it is one of the eight national missions which comprise Indias National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). It has the twin objectives of contributing to Indias long-term energy security and its ecologically sustainable growth. It aims at providing solar lighting for 20 million households (20000 MW) by the end of the 13th Five Year Plan in 2022. The missions under NAPCC include National Missions on Solar Energy, on Enhanced Energy Efficiency, on Sustainable Habitat, on Conserving Water, on Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem, on creating a Green India, on Sustainable Agriculture and finally, on establishing a Strategic Knowledge Platform for Climate Change.

Integrated Low Cost Sanitation Scheme

Started in 1980, the objective is to convert dry latrines into low cost twin pit pour flush latrines and construction of new toilets to economically weaker section households who have now latrines in the urban areas. Basic Services to Urban Poor (BSUP)

This is a sub-mission under JNNURM. To provide improved housing, water supply, sanitation and delivery of already existing universal services of the government for education, health and social security. Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme

This is also a sub-mission of JNNURM. Launched to improve the dilapidated living conditions of urban slum dwellers in the cities covered under JNNURM. Zonal Cultural Centres

The aims and objectives of the Zonal Cultural Centres (ZCCs) are to preserve, promote and disseminate the arts, specially folk/tribal arts of the country. The ZCCs endeavour to develop and promote the rich diversity and uniqueness of various arts of the Zone and to upgrade and enrich consciousness of the people about their cultural heritage. There are only seven ZCCs in the country. The power of Ideas 2010

The initiative, launched on June 22, 2010 is Indias largest entrepreneurial platform that encourages, nurtures and grooms business ideas by connecting them with relevant mentors, incubators and investors. Its a public-private-academia partnership. The department of Science and Technology, GoI is offering guaranteed funds worth Rs 5 crore for the initiative. It was first launched by The Economic Times in 2009. Working alongside will be the Centre for Innovation, Incubation and Entrepreneurship (CIIE), Indian Institute of Management (IIM), Ahmedabad. Tagline: Fostering a Culture of Innovation Mission Olympics, Indian Army Mission Olympics in Army was launched in 2001, which presently caters for ten sporting disciplines, grouped under five sports nodes. It aims at training army personnel to represent India at Olympics.

Capacity Building and Technical Assistance for North Eastern Youths

The Capacity Building and Technical Assistance programmes administered by the Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region (DoNER) primarily aims to provide skills and competencies for self employment and employability and also assist in providing any other specialized inputs required for Human Resource Development in various sectors. It follows from this that the responsibility of the Ministry is holistically directed towards imparting training for better governance and skill development of educated youth of the region. Total Sanitation Campaign

TSC is a comprehensive programme to ensure sanitation facilities in rural areas with broader goal to eradicate the practice of open defecation. TSC gives strong emphasis on information, education and communication (IEC), capacity building and hygiene education for effective behaviour change with involvement of NGOs. It follows a principle of low to no subsidy where a nominal subsidy in the form of incentive is given to rural poor households for construction of toilets. Key intervention areas a household latrines and community toilets. National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP)

Launched: 2006 The NAIP is to facilitate accelerated and sustainable transformation of Indian agriculture in support of poverty alleviation and income generation by collaborative development and application of agricultural innovation by the public research organizations in partnership with the farmers groups, the private sector, the civil society organizations and other stakeholders. National Legal Mission

National litigation policy under the mission aims to reduce the cases pending in various courts in India from average pendency time of 15 years to 3 years. National Green Tribunal Bill

Provides for setting up of Green Benches for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment. It will have same powers as a civil court. Millennium Development Goals

MDGs are eight international development goals that all the UN member states ( and at least 23 international organizations) have agreed to achieve by 2015. The goals are To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, Achieve universal primary education, promote gender equality and empower women, reduce child mortality rate, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS and other diseases, ensure environment sustainability, develop a global partnership for development. Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

It is a centrally sponsored scheme implemented in all states (except Delhi and Chandigarh) since 1999. It is primarily designed to promote self-employment oriented income generating activities for the BPL households in the rural areas. Woven around the mechanism of Self-Help Groups (SHGs), the SGSY was designed to break the financial, technical and market constraints that the individual BPL

households face to cross the threshold of poverty line. National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM)

Approved in 2010, it is the restructured form of the centrally sponsored Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY). NRLM aims at reducing poverty through promotion of diversified and gainful self-employment and skilled wage employment opportunities. It will have the objective of universal social mobilization and training and capacity building through larger role for SHGs and formation of peoples institutions for promoting micro enterprises. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE)

Implementation plan approved in June 2010. NMEEE is one of the eight national missions with the objective of promoting innovative policy and regulatory regimes, financing mechanisms, and business models which not only create, but also sustain markets for energy efficiency in a transparent manner with clear deliverables to be achieved in a time bound manner. NMEEE proposes the following four new initiatives to enhance energy efficiency, in addition to the programmes on energy efficiency being currently pursued : a) A market based mechanism to enhance cost effectiveness of improvements in energy efficiency in energy-intensive large industries. The trading of energy saving certificates would facilitate this process (Perform Achieve and Trade). b) Accelerating the shift to energy efficient appliances in designated sectors through innovative measures to make the products more affordable. (Market Transformation for Energy Efficiency). c) Creation of mechanisms that would help finance demand side management programmes in all sectors by capturing future energy savings. {Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEP)}. d) Developing fiscal instruments to promote energy efficiency namely Framework for Energy Efficient Economic Development (FEEED). National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS) National Clean Energy Fund Technology Upgradation Fund Scheme: Ministry of Textiles http://india.gov.in/govt/viewscheme.php?schemeid=241 PMs 15 Point Programme for Welfare of Minorities http://ncm.nic.in/points_programme.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/15_point_Programme_for_minorities National Afforestation Programme

The National Afforestation Programme provides assistance to the Forest Development Agencies for implementing projects to regenerate degraded forest lands though the participation of Joint Forest Management Committees. The two components of Training and Capacity Building and Overheads envisage activities for inter alia capacity building of Forest Development Agencies. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)

The RKVY was operationalised with effect from August, 2007 to achieve 4% annual growth in the agriculture sector by ensuring a holistic development of agriculture and allied sectors. The scheme aims at incentivising States to increase public investment in agriculture and allied sectors and enable them to generate additional growth in agriculture and allied sectors through better planning and by undertaking appropriate growth-oriented projects to achieve this goal.

Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana (PMAGY)

Lunched in 2009, PMAGY aims to achieve all-round, integrated development of selected villages (SC dominated) primarily, through convergent implementation of all relevant Central and State schemes in them, and by meeting needs through provision of gap-filling funds for which central assistance will be provided @ Rs. 10 lakh per village, with State Government also expected to make a suitable, preferably matching, contribution. Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Yojana (RGSY) http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=63188 The Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Yojana is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme being implemented by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj for the non-BRGF districts. The scheme focuses primarily on providing financial assistance to the States/UTs for Training & Capacity Building of elected representatives (ERs) and functionaries of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) so that they can perform the functions devolved upon them and the schemes entrusted to them effectively, besides a small component for infrastructure development. Calamity Relief Fund

The list of calamities under the CRF eligible for assistance at present are: cyclone, drought, earthquake, tsunami, fire, flood, landslide, avalanche, cloud burst and pest attack. Backward Region Grant Fund (BRGF)

BRGF is designed to redress regional imbalances in development. The fund will provide financial resources for supplementing and converging existing developmental inflows into 250 identified districts. It is being implemented by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj. Rashtriya Sam Vikas Yojana (RSVY) has been subsumed under this programme. Missile Development Programmes http://www.pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=64466

Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana Under the ministry of power. Nodal Agency: Rural Electrification Corporation Ltd. Launched in 2005 by merging the ongoing schemes. Objectives: 1. Electrification of 1.15 lakh unelectrified villages and access to electricity for all rural households. 2. Providing free electricity connections to 2.34 crores BPL households. Indias three stage nuclear power programme

In the first stage, India has so far used natural uranium as fuel to build 17 Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs). In the second stage, plutonium reprocessed from the spent fuel of the PHWRs, depleted uranium and thorium kept in the blanket form will be used as fuel to power a series of breeder reactors. Thorium used in the breeders gets converted into uranium-233, a fissile material.

In the third stage, reactors will use thorium and uranium-233 to generate electricity. Thus, the three stages are inter-linked. Fast reactors are commonly called breeder reactors as they breed more fuel than they consume. Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme

1996-97 To give loan assistance to the States to help them complete some of the incomplete major/ medium irrigation projects which were at an advanced stage of completion and to create additional irrigation potential in the country.

National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology (SAKSHAT)

objective of ensuring connectivity of the learners to the World of Knowledge in cyberspace and to make them Netizens in order to enhance their self-learning skills and develop their capabilities for on-line problem solving and to work for : creation of knowledge modules with right contents to address to the personalized needs of learners; certification of competencies of the learners, acquired through formal or non-formal means; and to develop and maintain the database having profile of human resources. Aakash was developed under this mission. Janani Shishu Suraksha Yojana

The new initiative of JSSK would provide completely free and cashless services to pregnant women including normal deliveries and caesarean operations and sick new born (up to 30 days after birth) in Government health institutions in both rural and urban areas. The new JSSK initiative is estimated to benefit more than one crore pregnant women & newborns who access public health institutions every year in both urban & rural areas. The Free Entitlements under JSSK would include: Free and Cashless Delivery, Free C-Section, Free treatment of sick-new-born up to 30 days, Exemption from User Charges, Free Drugs and Consumables, Free Diagnostics, Free Diet during stay in the health institutions 3 days in case of normal delivery and 7 days in case of caesarean section, Free Provision of Blood, Free Transport from Home to Health Institutions, Free Transport between facilities in case of referral as also Drop Back from Institutions to home after 48hrs stay. Free Entitlements for Sick newborns till 30 days after birth similarly include Free treatment, Free drugs and consumables, Free diagnostics, Free provision of blood, Exemption from user charges, Free Transport from Home to Health Institutions, Free Transport between facilities in case of referral and Free drop Back from Institutions to home.

National Monsoon Mission

The Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) has proposed a National Mission on monsoon (in 2010) towards developing reliable dynamic models for forecasting the monsoon over the next three to fiveyear period through a multi-institutional effort. National Knowledge Network

The NKN is a state-of-the-art multi-gigabit pan-India network for providing a unified high speed network backbone for all knowledge related institutions in the country. The NKN will enable scientists, researchers and students from different backgrounds and diverse geographies to work closely for advancing human development in critical and emerging areas

Rights & Justice

Human Rights in India Major issues Torture by police and custody deaths AFSPA, (POTA), (Official Secrets Act) Issues of human rights violation in NE and Kashmir Freedom of expression: Press Human Trafficking Communal Violence Caste violence and social discrimination Manual scavenging Protecting Human Rights in India Refer pg 51 of April Yojana

Tribal Neglect and Limitations of Budget-Centric Approach to Development Central region of India, despite being resource rich, inhabits the poorest people who have not benefited from social and economic development to the same extent as people in other region Multiple reasons for vulnerability of the tribal communities o They are poor, assetless and illiterate compared to the general population o Inability to negotiate and cope with the consequences of their forced integration with the mainstream economy, society, cultural and political system, from which they were historically protected as the result of their relative isolation Post independence dams and development displacement, loss of livelihoods, land alienation on a vast scale, hereditary bondage. Problems of tribals o Land alienation o Indebtedness o Relation with forests, and govt monopoly over minor forest produce o Non implementation of the Forest Rights Act 2006 o Ineffective implementation of PESA for schedule V areas o Involuntary displacement o Shifting cultivation o Poor utilisation of government funds o Poor delivery of government programmes There schemes concerning tribals are controlled by different ministries. Ministry of Tribal Affairs concentrates only on its programmes like grants to NGOs, scholarships etc. Systemic change is needed in the way MOTA and state tribal departments function o Their approach must change from simply spending their own budget through narrow departmental schemes to knowledge based advocacy with other concerned ministries/departments <Refer the ppt on tribals>

Providing an improved environment for HR in the country Social justice is predicated on the idea that a society can be regarded as egalitarian only when it is based on principles of equality and solidarity, where human rights are valued and the dignity of every individual upheld The right to social justice may be said to be the right of the weak, aged, destitute, poor, women, children and other underprivileged persons, to the protection of the State. It is the balancing wheel between haves and have nots DPSP Social justice has become a pressing issue especially in the larger context of globalisation Human rights form the foundation of the society, and without its observance, society would disintegrate The basic Charter of Human Rights is found in Magna Carta, American War of Independence and French Revolution Universal Declaration of HR adopted in 1948 by UN which included both civil and political rights as well as economic, social and cultural rights Declaration of Right to Development, 1986 o Defined development as a composite right where all human rights civil, political, economic, social, cultural as well as other rights such as the rights of children and women are realised.

Science & Technology

IPv6

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is a version of the Internet Protocol (IP). It is designed to succeed the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). While IPv4 allows 32 bits for an Internet Protocol address, and can therefore support 232 (4,294,967,296) addresses, IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, so the new address space supports 2128 (approximately 340 undecillion or 3.41038) addresses. This expansion allows for many more devices and users on the internet as well as extra flexibility in allocating addresses and efficiency for routing traffic. It also eliminates the primary need for network address translation (NAT), which gained widespread deployment as an effort to alleviate IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6 also implements additional features not present in IPv4. It simplifies aspects of address assignment (stateless address autoconfiguration), network renumbering and router announcements when changing Internet connectivity providers. The Internet Protocol Suite is the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks. The Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal communications protocol used for relaying datagrams (packets) across an internetwork using theInternet Protocol Suite. Responsible for routing packets across network boundaries, it is the primary protocol that establishes the Internet. 1000 Genomes Project

launched in January 2008, is an international research effort to establish by far the most detailed catalogue of human genetic variation. Human Genome Project

HGP was an international scientific research project with a goal to determine the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA and to identify and map the genes of the human genome. Began in 1990 and ended in 2003. Genome

The genome is the entirety of an organisms hereditary information. It is coded either in DNA or RNA (for many viruses). International HapMap Project

The International HapMap Project is an organization whose goal is to develop a haplotype map of the human genome, which will describe the common patterns of human genetic variation. It is a collaboration among researchers at academic centers, non-profit biomedical research groups and private companies in Canada, China, Japan, Nigeria, UK and the US. 1000 Plant Genomes Project

Started in 2008, the aim of the project is to obtain the transcriptome (expressed genes) of 1000 different plant species. Headed by Dr. Wong and Dr. Deyholos of the University of Alberta.

Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO)

SDO is a NASA mission launched on February 11, 2010 which will observe the sun for over five years. The observatory is a part of the living with a star program. SDOs goal is to understand the suns influence on earth and near-earth space by studying the solar atmosphere on small scales of space and time and in many wavelengths simultaneously. It will find out how the suns magnetic field is generated, structured and converted into violent solar events such as turbulent solar wind, solar flares and coronal mass ejections. Living With a Star (LWS)

LWS is a NASA program to study those aspects of the connected Sun-Earth system that directly affect life and society. Currently, it has two projects: Solar Dynamics Laboratory (SDO) and Radiation Belt Storm Probes (RBSP). Smed-Prep

This is the gene that is essential for correctly regenerating body parts among creatures. This research could prove vital in artificial regeneration of human organs. Loriciferans They are organisms found in the Mediterranean sea which live anaerobically. They are the first multicellular anaerobic organisms to be discovered. Chandrayaan-1

Launch: October 22, 2008 Site: Satish Dhavan Space Centre, Sriharikota The objectives of the programme were: 1. To develop and orbit a spacecraft around moon using an Indian-made launch vehicle. 2. To prepare a three-dimensional atlas of both the near and the far side of the moon. 3. Chemical and mineralogical mapping of the entire lunar surface. 4. To study the impact of Moon Impact Probe on the surface of the moon as a fore-runner to future soft landing missions. NASAs Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) had on Chandrayaan-1 had detected water on the surface of moon. The mission was expected to last two years. However, the communication with the satellite was lost on 29 August 2009 and the mission was declared over. It lasted for 312 days and achieved 95 percent of its objectives. Chandrayaan-1 was selected by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) as one of the recipients of its annual AIAA SPACE 2009 awards for contributions to space science and technology. Internationalized Domain Name (IDN)

IDN is an internet domain name that contains at least one label that is displayed in software applications, in whole or in part, in a language-specific script or alphabet, such as Arabic, Chinese, Russian or Hindi. European Space Agency (ESA)

Estd. 1975 Intergovernmental organization dedicated to the exploration of space. Planck (Spacecraft)

Planck is a space observatory designed to observe the universe using high sensitivity and angular resolution. It was launched in 2009. In July 2010, the Planck space satellite released the full map of the entire universe. Solar Impulse Project

Solar impulse is a European long range solar powered plane project which aims at circumnavigating the world on a solar powered air plane. In July 2010, the plane completed a 24 hour flight, the first solar plane to do so by using batteries charged during the day to keep it aloft overnight. Spitzer Space Telescope

It is an infrared space observatory launched in 2003. It is the fourth and final of NASAs Great Observations. The other great observatories are: 1. Hubble Space telescope: It is a NASA space telescope launched in 1990 and the first great observatories. It is one of the largest and most versatile space telescopes. It was built by NASA with contributions from the European Space Agency and is operated by the Space Telescope Science Institute. 2. Compton Gamma Ray Observatory: Launched in 1991 and was deorbited in 2000. 3. Chandra X-ray Observatory: It is a satellite launched by NASA in 1999. Chandra is sensitive X-ray sources 100 times fainter than any previous X-ray telescope. GPS Aided Geo Augmentation Navigation (GAGAN)

It is a planned implementation of Satellite Based Navigation System (SBNS) developed by Airports Authority of India (AAI) and ISRO. GAGAN is expected to provide a civil aeronautical navigation signal consistent with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Standards and Recommended Practices as established by the Global Navigation Satellite System Panel. GAGAN was launched in August 2010. With this India has become the 4th Country in the World to have satellite based navigation system. <behind?> It is a system to improve the accuracy of a GNSS receiver by providing reference signals. In vitro fertilisation

NowCast It is a weather predicting device that is used to predict a few hours ahead in specific localities. The device was used in the Common Wealth Games 2010 in New Delhi to predict weather over each stadium. Water on Moon

Indias Chandrayan had discovered water on the surface of moon. The matter was re-confirmed by the US Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter and Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) in 2009. It sent a spent rocket upper stage crashing on the moons South Pole and another rocket behind studied the debris thrown up by it. It showed that the debris matter contained about 5 pc of its weight in the form of ice. This could have an important implication in terms of using it as a space fuel. Stuxnet

Stuxnet was a computer worm that was found to affect several computers in Iran (it later spread to India, Indonesia and other countries). The worm affected the computers at the nuclear facility in Iran. It is speculated that it was aimed at destroying the centrifuges at Irans nuclear establishment. El Tor

It is a strain of a cholera causing bacteria. This strain led to a cholera outbreak in Haiti in late 2010 GFAJ-1

GFAJ-1 is a strain of rod-shaped bacterium in the family Halomonadaceae. The extremophile was isolated from the hypersaline and alkalineMono Lake in eastern California, and reported as new to science by a research team led by NASA astrobiologist Felisa Wolfe-Simon in a 2010Science journal publication.[1] According to the authors, the microbe, when starved of phosphorus, is capable of substituting arsenic for a small percentage of its phosphorus in the DNA and sustain its growth. AEROSTAT Balloon

An aerostat (From Greek aer (air) + statos (standing) through French) is a system that remains aloft primarily through the use of buoyant lighter than air gases to give a vehicle with nearly the same overall density as air. Aerostats include free balloons,airships, and moored balloons. An aerostat's main structural component is its envelope, a lightweight skin containing a lifting gas[1][2] to provide buoyancy, to which other components are attached. One of the most recent deployments of an aerostat was seen at the opening ceremony of the nineteenth 2010 Commonwealth Games, held in Delhi, India. Important Institutes of Science and Technology Place Institute Delhi International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology

Why in news? Scientists found out a germ for tuberculosis that helps it remain dormant in hosts body

Human Papillomavirus

Is a member of the papillomavirus family of viruses that is capable of affecting humans. They can cause cancers of the cervix, vulva, vagina and anus in women or cancers of the anus and penis in men. HPV was in news recently due to the controversy over medical trials of a drug for treating cervical cancer. Mobile Phone Technologies Differences between 1G, 2G, 3G.. Mobile Phone Standards GSM, TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, OFDM GSM Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a standard for mobile telephone system. 2G services. CDMA Code Division Multiple Access. It is a channel access method used by various radio communication technologies. It employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. CDMAONE and CDMA2000 are mobile technology standards using CDMA channel access in 2G and 3G respectively. Endosulfan

It is a pesticide banned in many countries of the world due to its adverse health effects. It is used in India though in Cashewnut plantations. A recent report by the National Institute of Occupational Health, Ahmedabad documented its adverse effects on the workers and people living near Cashewnut plantations in Kerala and declared it as a health hazard. Keplar Spacecraft

Launched in 2009, the spacecraft has the mission to discover earth like planets orbiting other stars. Till Feb 2011, it had discovered more than 1235 planets including six exoplanets orbiting a single sun like star. PETN

It is a lethal explosive Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate. It was allegedly used in the Sept Delhi High Court Blasts. Sakshat/Aakash

Is a tablet computer designed in India as a low cost but full functioning device in order to attempt to bridge the digital divide. It is to cost USD 35. Developed under the National Mission on Education programme SOFIA

Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) is a new telescope used by NASA to study distant stars. The telescope is not placed in space but flies around on a Boeing 747 jet. Vikram Computer It is an indigenous computer developed by ISRO. It helped launch PSLV C17 that put GSAT 12 in orbit. SAGA 220

Supercomputer for Aerospace with GPU Architecture. It is Indias fastest super computer. Developed by ISRO. 220 teraFLOPS (floating point operations per second) Redshift

Redshift is a measurement of a stars redness in the light spectrum. The farther the distance, the more the wavelength stretches deeper into the red zone, becoming a yardstick of how far light has travelled. <this was in news because the 2011 Nobel Physics winners used this phenomenon to study distant stars> CarbFix experiment An experiment in Iceland which seeks to separate CO2 from steam on a volcanic field and pump it underground to react with porous basalt rock, forming limestone, to see how well the gas can be locked away in a harmless form. Lulzsec

A computer hacker group that claims responsibility for several high profile attacks including the compromise of the user accounts from Sony Pictures in 2011. It also claims responsibility for taking the CIA website offline.

Digital Signature

Is a mathematical scheme for demonstrating the authenticity of a digital message or document. Digital signature provides a high level of security for online communication such that only intended recipient can read it. It provides authentication, privacy, non-repudiation and integrity in the digital world. Blue Gene Project

Blue gene is a computer architecture project to produce several supercomputers, designed to reach operating speeds in petaFLOPS. It was awarded the 2008 National Medal of Technology and Innovation in US. Blue Brain Project

Blue Brain Project is an attempt to create a synthetic brain by reverse engineering the mammalian brain down to the molecular level. Differences between Living modified organism (LMO) and genetically modified organism (GMO) The difference between an LMO and a GMO is that a Living Modified Organism is capable of growing, and typically refers to agricultural crops. Genetically Modified Organisms include both LMOs and organisms which are not capable of growing, i.e. are dead. Top ten science breakthroughs of the year Photos : George Foulsham, Sushil Kumar Verma, AFP, AP

Achievements: (Clockwise from top left) Andrew Cleland, Aaron O'Connell, John Martinis invented a mechanical device that operates in the quantum realm; Much like knockout mice, scientists have created knockout rats; Researchers sequenced the Neanderthal genome from the bones of three female Neanderthals who lived in Croatia sometime between 38,000 and 44,000 years ago; Faster and cheaper sequencing technologies are enabling very large-scale studies of both ancient and modern DNA; Two HIV prevention trials reported unequivocal success; (centre) Researchers built a synthetic genome and used it to transform the identity of a bacterium. A mechanical device that operates in the quantum realm tops the Science journal's list of advances in 2010. Until this year, all human-made objects have moved according to the laws of classical mechanics. Back in March, however, a group of researchers designed a gadget that moves in ways that can only be described by quantum mechanics the set of rules that governs the behaviour of tiny things like

molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles. In recognition of the conceptual ground their experiment breaks, the ingenuity behind it and its many potential applications, Science has called this discovery the most significant scientific advance of 2010. Physicists Andrew Cleland and John Martinis from the University of California at Santa Barbara and their colleagues designed the machinea tiny metal paddle of semiconductor, visible to the naked eye and coaxed it into dancing with a quantum groove. First, they cooled the paddle until it reached its ground state, or the lowest energy state permitted by the laws of quantum mechanics (a goal long-sought by physicists). Then they raised the widget's energy by a single quantum to produce a purely quantum-mechanical state of motion. They even managed to put the gadget in both states at once, so that it literally vibrated a little and a lot at the same time a bizarre phenomenon allowed by the weird rules of quantum mechanics. Science has recognized this first quantum machine as the 2010 Breakthrough of the Year. They have also compiled nine other important scientific accomplishments from this past year into a top ten list, appearing in a special news feature in the journal's 17 December 2010 issue. This year's Breakthrough of the Year represents the first time that scientists have demonstrated quantum effects in the motion of a human-made object, said Adrian Cho, a news writer for Science. On a conceptual level that's cool because it extends quantum mechanics into a whole new realm. On a practical level, it opens up a variety of possibilities ranging from new experiments that meld quantum control over light, electrical currents and motion to, perhaps someday, tests of the bounds of quantum mechanics and our sense of reality. The quantum machine proves that the principles of quantum mechanics can apply to the motion of macroscopic objects, as well as atomic and subatomic particles. It provides the key first step toward gaining complete control over an object's vibrations at the quantum level. Such control over the motion of an engineered device should allow scientists to manipulate those minuscule movements, much as they now control electrical currents and particles of light. In turn, that capability may lead to new devices to control the quantum states of light, ultra-sensitive force detectors and, ultimately, investigations into the bounds of quantum mechanics and our sense of reality. (This last grand goal might be achieved by trying to put a macroscopic object in a state in which it's literally in two slightly different places at the same time an experiment that might reveal precisely why something as big as a human can't be in two places at the same time.) Mind you, physicists still haven't achieved a two-places-at-once state with a tiny object like this one, said Cho. But now that they have reached the simplest state of quantum motion, it seems a whole lot more obtainablemore like a matter of when' than if.' The other nine Science's list of the nine other groundbreaking achievements from 2010 follows. Synthetic Biology: In a defining moment for biology and biotechnology, researchers built a synthetic genome and used it to transform the identity of a bacterium. The genome replaced the bacterium's DNA so that it produced a new set of proteinsan achievement that prompted a Congressional hearing on synthetic biology. In the future, researchers envision synthetic genomes that are custombuilt to generate biofuels, pharmaceuticals or other useful chemicals. Neandertal Genome: Researchers sequenced the Neandertal genome from the bones of three female Neandertals who lived in Croatia sometime between 38,000 and 44,000 years ago. New methods of sequencing degraded fragments of DNA allowed scientists to make the first direct comparisons between the modern human genome and that of our Neandertal ancestors. HIV Prophylaxis: Two HIV prevention trials of different, novel strategies reported unequivocal success: A vaginal gel that contains the anti-HIV drug tenofovir reduced HIV infections in women by 39 percent and an oral pre-exposure prophylaxis led to 43.8 fewer HIV infections in a group of men and transgender women who have sex with men. Exome Sequencing/Rare Disease Genes: By sequencing just the exons of a genome, or the tiny portion that actually codes for proteins, researchers who study rare inherited diseases caused by a single, flawed gene were able to identify specific mutations underlying at least a dozen diseases. Molecular Dynamics Simulations: Simulating the gyrations that proteins make as they fold has been a combinatorial nightmare. Now, researchers have harnessed the power of one of the world's most powerful computers to track the motions of atoms in a small, folding protein for a length of time 100 times longer than any previous efforts. Quantum Simulator: To describe what they see in the lab, physicists cook up theories based on equations. Those equations can be fiendishly hard to solve. This year, though, researchers found a short-cut by making quantum simulatorsartificial crystals in which spots of laser light play the role of ions and atoms trapped in the light stand in for electrons. The devices provide quick answers to

theoretical problems in condensed matter physics and they might eventually help solve mysteries such as superconductivity. Next-Generation Genomics: Faster and cheaper sequencing technologies are enabling very largescale studies of both ancient and modern DNA. The 1,000 Genomes Project, for example, has already identified much of the genome variation that makes us uniquely humanand other projects in the works are set to reveal much more of the genome's function. RNA Reprogramming: Reprogramming cellsturning back their developmental clocks to make them behave like unspecialized "stem cells" in an embryohas become a standard lab technique for studying diseases and development. This year, researchers found a way to do it using synthetic RNA. Compared with previous methods, the new technique is twice as fast, 100 times as efficient and potentially safer for therapeutic use. The Return of the Rat: Mice rule the world of laboratory animals, but for many purposes researchers would rather use rats. Rats are easier to work with and anatomically more similar to human beings; their big drawback is that methods used to make "knockout mice" animals tailored for research by having specific genes precisely disableddon't work for rats. A flurry of research this year, however, promises to bring "knockout rats" to labs in a big way.

Science & Technology

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. It also includes genetic engineering as well as cell and tissue culture technologies Some branches of biotechnology Bioinformatics/Computational Biology Blue Biotechnology Green Biotechnology Red Biotechnology White Biotechnology Applications of Biotech Medicine o Pharmacogenomics o Pharmaceutical Products o Genetic Testing o Gene Therapy o Human Genome Project o Cloning Agriculture o Crop yield o Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses o Increased nutritional qualities o Improved taste, texture or appearance of food o Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals o Production of novel substances in crop plants Industrial o Bioleaching o Production of beer and other food products o Bioremediation Biological engineering Gene Therapy GT may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity Two ways of implementing gene therapy o Ex vivo o In vivo

Cloning Cloning involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed. Two types of cloning o Reproductive Cloning o Therapeutic Cloning

Controversies on Biotech Genetically altering reproductive cells Ethical concerns in eugenics and human cloning Free will via-a-vis genetic determinism Effect on social institutions like family

Space Technology GSLV Programme Requires a cryogenic engine A cryogenic engine is one that uses a cryogenic fuel or oxidiser, that is, its fuel or oxidiser (or both) is gases liquefied and stored at very low temperatures Communication Technology Telecom network grew by 40 pc during 2010 with addition of 216.13 million connections In 2010 there were 706.7 million wireless connections making India the largest wireless network in the world Significance o Connects people across the length and breadth of the country o Contributes significantly to Indias GDP o Has made transactions faster 74 pc to 100 pc FDI is permitted for various telecom services

States Disputes
Krishna Water Dispute

Parties: AP, Karnataka and Maharashtra Since last 43 years (in 2011) Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal (II) verdict on December 30, 2010 o AP will receive the biggest share of the water available (1001 TMC), followed by Karnataka (911) and then Maharashtra (666) o The award shall be valid till May 31, 2050 o It also permitted Karnataka to raise the storage level in the Almatti dam to 524.256 m from 519.5 m o The three states will also contribute for Chennai city drinking water supply o The tribunal has asked the Centre to set up a Krishna Water Decision Implementation Board with representation from all the three states to monitor the implementation of the award. o Krishna Water Dispute Tribunal II KWDT-II constituted in 2004 Justice Brijesh Kumar

TAGUP Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) Chairman Nandan Nilekani, who was handpicked by Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee to head the Technology Advisory Group for Unique Projects (TAGUP), on Friday submitted the seven-member group's report to Mr. Mukherjee, detailing, among other things, specific recommendations for various IT-intensive projects pertaining to the Finance Ministry. Mr. Mukherjee said the report was submitted at the right time and would help in various IT projects such as Tax Information Network (TIN), New Pension Scheme (NPS), National Treasury Management Agency (NTMA), Expenditure Information Network (EIN) and Goods and Service Tax (GST). He lauded the report as a result of good teamwork. Key recommendations Among the recommendations, the TAGUP has suggested that for complex IT-intensive projects, National Information Utilities (NIUs) working in the spirit of partnership with the government be put in place to handle all aspects of IT systems. The report noted that while strategic control is to be retained by the government at all times, NIUs should be set up as private companies with a public purpose. They should be financially independent and empowered to take quick and efficient business decisions pertaining to attracting and retaining talent, procurement, rapid response to business exigencies and adopting new technologies, among other things. On challenges to human resource, it said strong support from the top leadership within the government, dedicated team at the level of project implementation, and ownership and commitment at various operational levels were necessary concomitants of success of any project. The group recommends that every project should have a dedicated Mission Leader within the government with a Mission Execution Team. The team should be manned by personnel, who possess a diverse set of skills, including intimate familiarity with the government processes, specialisation in verticals such as technology, outreach, law, as well as the ability to manage a large decentralised organisation, among others. The group also recommends certain monetary and non-monetary incentives for the team, it said. The report also addresses the challenges faced by large complex IT projects in the government, and then applies this framework to the evaluation of GST, TIN, EIN, NTMA and NPS at hand. The group was asked to address and make recommendations on a host of issues human resource, including modification in government rules, procedures, etc; appropriate placement of tasks and allocation of responsibilities within the government; contracting, commercial terms and charges, including procedures for competitive bidding, pricing models and suggestions on user charges; road map from start-up to going concern for each of these projects, which would also focus on legal/ regulatory change, if any; technology architecture and ways for co-ordination among the Centre,

States and local governments; accountability and self-corrective mechanisms; and protection of individual's right to privacy with focus on safeguards in the IT systems to protect legal and constitutional rights, etc.

Telangana
Telangana The Srikrishna Committee has favoured maintaining the status quo of a united Andhra Pradesh and described the demand for a Telangana State as the second best option. The 461-page report lists six options (I) maintaining the status quo; (II) bifurcation of the State into Seemandhra and Telangana, with Hyderabad as a Union Territory, and the two States developing their own capitals in due course; (III) bifurcation of the State into the Rayala-Telangana and coastal Andhra regions, with Hyderabad being an integral part of Rayala-Telangana; (IV) bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh into Seemandhra and Telangana, with an enlarged Hyderabad metropolis as a separate Union Territory; (V) bifurcation of the State into Telangana and Seemandhra as per the existing boundaries, with Hyderabad serving as the capital of Telangana, and Seemandhra having a new capital; and (VI) keeping the State united by simultaneously providing certain definite constitutional/statutory measures for socio-economic development and political empowerment of the Telangana region creation of a statutorily empowered Telangana Regional Council.

Treaties

Environment

Two environmental priorities internationally now are: 1. Climate Change Mitigation 2. Biodiversity Conservation Convention on Biodiversity

CBD has failed in its original goal of reduce the loss of biodiversity significantly by 2010. Next meeting of CBD is scheduled for 2012 in New Delhi. Cartagena Protocol On biosafety. It is a part of the CBD. Ramsar Convention On wetlands. 1972. 25 sites from India Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer Rotterdam Convention On the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade. Signed: 1998 Effective: 2004 Signatories: 73 Parties: 128 Stockholm Convention On Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of POPs. Signed: 2001 Effective: 2004 Signatories: 152 Parties: 169

Basel Convention
On the control of transboundary movements of hazardous waste and their disposal Signed: 1989 Effective: 1992 Signatories: 51 Parties: 175 Standards Codex Alimentarius CA is a collection of internationally recognized standards, codes or practice, guidelines and other recommendations relating to foods, food production and food safety developed by the FAO and WHO.

Non-proliferation Wassenaar Arrangement On export controls for conventional arms and dual use goods and technologies. It is a multilateral export control regime with 40 participating states (india is not yet a member: Nov 2010). Its secretariat is located in Vienna. Estd: 1996 It is the successor to the cold war era Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls. The Australia Group The Australia Group (AG) is an informal forum of countries which, through the harmonisation of export controls, seeks to ensure that exports do not contribute to the development of chemical or biological weapons.

Est: 1985 Missile Technology Control Regime The Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) is an informal and voluntary partnership between 34 countries to prevent the proliferation of missile and unmanned aerial vehicle technology capable of carrying a 500 kg payload at least 300 km. Est: 1987 Treaty Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Year 1972 Parties US-Soviet Union Provisions To limit ABM systems used in defending areas against missile delivered nuclear weapons US unilaterally withdrew in 2002 Will come into force 180 days after it is ratified by all 44 annex 2 countries. India, US, Pakistan, Israel are Annex 2 countries. India, Pak, N. Korea havnt signed Banned nuclear tests in atmosphere, underwater and in space. Major non-parties: India, Pakistan, North Korea, Israel. N Korea withdrew in 2003. Iran is a party 3 pillars: non proliferation, disarmament, peaceful use

Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)

1996/Not in force

Partial Test Ban Treaty NPT

1963 1968/1970 189

Interim Agreement on Offensive Arms (SALT I) Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT II) Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) START II

1972

US-Soviet Union US-Soviet Union Replaced SALT I. US withdrew from SALT II in 1986. Global ban on short and long range nuclear weapons systems, as well as intrusive verification regime Limited long range nuclear forces

1979

1987

1991/1994

Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT or Moscow treaty) New START

1993/never put into force 2002/2003

US-Soviet independent states Russia US

Ambiguous. US and Russia agreed to reduce their strategic nuclear warheads to between 1700 and 2200 by 2012 Russia US Replaces SORT. Reduces nuclear warheads by about half. Will remain into force until at least 2021.

2010/2011

International Conference on Disarmament and Non-Proliferation was held in Tehran in 2010. US didnt attend.

Security Related Treaty Biological Weapons Convention Chemical Weapons

Year 1972/1975 1993/1997

Parties 163 188

Provisions Bans the production of biological and toxin weapons Depository: UN Sec Gen

Convention

Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons Convention on Cluster Munitions Civil Nuclear

1981/1983

109

Prohibits the use and production of chemical weapons Non-parties: Angola, Burma, Egypt, Israel, N. Korea, Somalia, Syria Restricts the use of certain excessively injurious conventional weapons Prohibits the use, transfer and stockpile of cluster bombs

2008/2010

Parties: 108. Sign: 55

Treaty Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage International Ownership

Year 1963/1977

Imp points Operators liability limit at not less than 300 mn SDR

Treaty UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

Year 1982

Major Points Defines territorial waters. Territorial sea upto 12 nm Contiguous zone from 12 nm upto 24 nm EEZ: from 12 nm to 200 nm (includes contiguous zone)

Urbanisation
Some stats Census 2011 indicates that compared to 1363 in 2001, there are now 3893 census towns o There have been 2774 new census towns

Important developments

Census criteria for an urban area o Minimum population of 5000 o Density of 400 persons per sq km o At least 75 pc of the male working force in occupations other than agriculture o These are known as census towns Apart from the above way of classifying urban areas, there exist statutory towns o Any area that comes under a corporation, municipality or town panchayat is automatically classified as urban and is defined as a statutory town Apart from census towns, there is also another category called statutory towns o There are towns which are declared to be urban under a state law, where a municipal or similar set-up is available As of now there are o 139 municipal corporations o 1595 municipalities o 2108 nagar panchayats Census 2011 has reported marginally higher growth rate of 2.76% in urban population (19912001: 2.73%) Around 31% urbanisation in India

Constitutional context: 74th amendment o To ensure a participative, functionally distinct and accountable structure of governance for urban areas

International Experience in Urban Governance

A two tier structure for the metropolitan area prevails in Mexico, Seoul and Greater London Toronto has moved from a two-tier to a single tier system Berlin has the status of a city state

A report on urbanisation in India by McKinsey claims By 2030, Indias urban population will be 600 million. That is double of the current population of US 70 pc of new job creation will be in cities 7400 kilometres of metrorail and subways will need to be created to address public transportation requirements JNNURM Has four components o Urban Infrastructure and Governance for 65 cities o Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns covers 640 towns o Basic Services for Urban Poor extends to all the 65 towns identified for UIG component o Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme The total project cost of all the 4 components was about 1 lakh crore out of which centre provided 50 pc assistance

Issues o A larger share of the funds (upto 95 pc) went to the already well developed cities and states o The allocation for the development of small cities was very less o There has been a disconnect between the various activities of the Mission and the urban local bodies. The involvement of ULBs has been marginal o

Slums Definition o UN-HABITAT: run down area of a city characterised by substandard housing and squalor and lacking in tenure security One billion people worldwide live in slums. o The figure may go upto 2 bn in 2030 Characterised by high rates of poverty, illiteracy and unemployment By 2030 India will have 41 pc of its population living in cities and towns compared to the present 28 pc. Drinking water and sanitation are a problem Indias slum dwelling population rose from 27.9 million in 1981 to over 40 million in 2001 As per 2001 census, 640 towns spread over 26 states and UTs have reported existence of slums o Total slum population: 75.26 million NSSO survey in 2002 identified 51,688 slums in urban areas of which 50.6 pc have been declared as notified slums. Govt Plans o 1972: Environmental Improvement of Urban Slums o 1996: National Slum Development Programme o 2005: JNNURM o 2008: Rajeev Awas Yojana Reasons for the growth of slums o Migration: Lack of development of sustainable rural infrastructure and inadequate rural employment opportunities in rural areas o Unequal development of different regions in India o More labour force in unorganised sector Waste Management In India the last three years have seen hazardous waste import increased by 48%.In 2009 6.4 million tonnes of hazardous waste came from the west to India and 5.9 million tonnes was produced domestically. Much of this waste was metal, electronics and plastics. They may have contaminated with lead, mercury and other toxins which can cause serious illness and environmental damage. The brass import increased by 60%.Battery waste import doubled. Municipal ash import rose 70 times. Iron and stainless waste steel import increased by 40%.Plastic waste import increased seven times. The government is supposed to monitor the import of hazardous waste which enters India through a gap in the law that allows the import of waste for recycling. Most of the ports in India do not have radiation scanning technology. Workers processing hazardous waste use their eyes to tell the difference. Most of the waste enters through ports of Mumbai, Chennai, Calcutta, Cochin and Visakhapatnam. Waste comes to distribution centers like West Delhis Mundka and Mumbais Dharavi before being taken away by different agents to specialty processing markets like Seelampur in Delhi. Agents sell the components to others who sell them to factories. The finished recycled products much cheaper than their branded counterparts are sold in the wholesale markets. In New Delhi Seelampur is the biggest market for second hand electronic parts. But most of the shops here are not registered as legal recyclers which have deterred the entry of legal recyclers. The informal sector gets 95% of the business as they do not pay the cost to meet the environment norms. When a court order shut down all plastics burning in Seelampur five years ago, the industry merely shifted 8 kms away. India has a capacity to handle just 30% of its domestic waste. Indias capacity to treat hazardous waste is not growing at the same pace as waste generations. Although recycling industries are temporarily profitable; the damage to the environment is often permanent. Near Moradabad, the waters of the once fertile Ramganga river have turned black with plastic ash. With no government control and little regard for the environment, the private waste-processing industry poses a threat to public safety in India.

Wars & Treaties

War Anglo Marathas First Year 1775-82 Treaty Began: Treaty of Surat End: Treaty of Gov General Warren Hastings Battles et al Battle of Wadgaon

Second Third

1803-05 1816-19

Salbai Began: treaty of Bassein Treaty of Gwalior

Lord Wellesley Marquess of Hastings

Battle of Assaye Battle of Pindari End of Peshwa rule

Anglo French First

1746-48

Treaty of Aix-laChepelle

Second

1749-54

Third

1758-63

Treaty of Paris

Reason: Austrian succession in Europe War of succession between Nasir Jung (English) and Muzaffar Jung (French) after death of Nizam Reason: 7 years war in Europe

1746: Battle of Adyar/San Thome

1749: Battle of Ambur Rise of Robert Clive

1760: Battle of Wandiwash (French defeat)

Anglo Mysore First Second

1766-69 1780-1784

Treaty of Mangalore Treaty of Seringapatnam

Warren Hastings Cornwallis Wellesley

Third Fourth

1789-92 1799

After death of Hyder Ali in 1782 Tipu led the war Defeat of Tipu Battle of Seringapatnam. Death of Tipu.

Anglo Sikh War First Second

1845-46 1848-49

Treaty of Lahore

Hardinge Dalhousie

Final Subjugation of the Sikhs

1806 Treaty of Raighat Peace with Holkars

Litterateurs Poet/Writer Kanchan Nambiar Tayaumanavar Dayaram Warris Shah Shah Abdul Latif Sachal, Siami Education in India

Language Malayalam Tamil Gujarati Punjabi Sindhi Sindhi

Work (Sittar poet) Heer Ranjha Risalo

1781 Calcutta Madarsah by Hastings 1791 Sanskrit College, Varanasi: Jonathan Duncan 1813 Charter Act directed the Company to spend a sum of Rs. 1 lakh on education <was made available in 1823>

1817 Hindu College by David Hare & RM Roy; 1825 Vedanta College, RM Roy 1835 Macaulays minute 1854 Woods Dispatch: asked the govt to assume the responsibility for the education of the masses

Gopal Hari Deshmukh was a religious reformer in Western India and was popularly known as Lokahitwadi Separate electorates were introduced by the Morley Minto Reforms of 1909 Dyarchy was introduced by the Montford reforms of 1919 Timeline of Satyagraha: Champaran (1917) Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) Kheda (1918) 1927 Butler commission to review the centre state relations 1934 Congress Socialist Party: Acharya Narendra Dev and JP 1936 All India Kisan Sabha: Swami Sahajanand Saraswati

Water
National Water Policy, 2002 <Get details>

The Union Ministry of Water Resources has undertaken a review and revision of the National Water Policy (NWP), 2002. Some points regarding to that are mentioned below as the recommendations given in an editorial of The Hindu: There is a gross mismanagement of water in India as evidenced below: o Intermittent and unreliable water supply in urban areas o Rivers turned into sewers or poison o Water related conflicts between uses, sectors, areas and states o Irrigation system in disarray o Depletion of aquifers in many parts of the country o Inefficiency and waste in every kind of water use o Environmental impacts of big water-resource projects Hence there is need for a radical reform of water policy Need to adopt a stringent restraint on the growth of demand for water On the supply side the primacy will have to shift from large, centralized, capitalintensive water resource development (WRD) projects with big dams and reservoirs and canal systems, to small, decentralised, local, community-led, water-harvesting and watershed-development programmes, with the big projects being regarded as projects of the last resort. Multiple perspectives on water o Rights perspective o Social justice/equity perspective o Womens perspective o Community perspective o State perspective o Engineering perspective o Citizen/water-user perspective o Environmental perspective etc

World Geography
Contents Introduction Two approaches to study Geography 220 220

History: Branches: Origins of Earth Theories: Nature of earth: Time line: Solar System Earth: Shape and Size Location on Earth Motion of the Earth & Effect of inclination Time Moon Atmosphere Structure Radiation Belts Composition of Atmosphere Aurora and Magnetic Storms Insolation and Heat Budget Greenhouse Effect Temperature Distribution Temperature inversion Pressure

Introduction Two approaches to study Geography: 1. Regional Approach: The regions of the earth are different and these differences must be studied. Descriptive discipline. 2. Systemic Approach: Though all places differ in some respects, yet there are similarities between different parts of the world. The aim of the geographer should be to identify these similarities. Analytical discipline. History: First geographers: Hecateus and Theophrastus Kant differentiated between history and geography by proposing that geography is a chorological science while history is a chronological science. Branches: Main branches: 1. Physical G: Physical environment and processes of changes on the earth. Consists of geomorphology (similar to geology), climatology, oceanography, biogeography (relationships of organisms with their environment. 2. Human G: Study of pattern and activities of human occupancy on earth. Population geography, cultural geography, settlement geography(urban and rural geography), political geography (geopolitics and electoral geography) 3. Economic G: Offshoot of human geography. Study of spatial patterns of various economic activities. Consists of agricultural & nutritional geography, industrial geography, transport geography, resource geography, geography of development. Besides, there can be historical g, military g, radical g, medical g, gender g etc.

Origins of Earth Came into existence 4.6 billion years back Theories: Gaseous Hypothesis: (Kant) Clouds of gases flattened down under gravity to create earth. Nebular Hypothesis: (Laplace) Formed by solidification of a ring thrown away by a rotating nebula (sun) Tidal Hypothsis: (Jeans and Jeffreys) Proposed effects of two nebulas in forming the earth. A larger nebula came close to the smaller one (sun). The gravitational pull caused tidal upsurge on the surface of sun. As the larger nebula moved away, small rings of nebula separated from the smaller nebula and formed the earth and other planets. Nature of earth: Layered structure: Crust, mantle, core Crust: sial (silica and aluminium) Mantle: sima (silica and magnesium) Outer Core: (nickel and iron) Core: Iron Time line: Age estimated through carbon-dating Three Eras: Palaeozoic (542 to 241 million years ago), Mesozoic (240 to 64 million years ago) and Cenozoic Era (63 million to 10000 years ago). The era before the Palaeozoic era is called the Pre-cambrian period. Earlier forms of life have existed as long ago as 3.5 billion years back. Human species came into existence around 2 million years back. Solar System Sun and eight planets All planets rotate on their axis from west to east except Venus and Uranus which rotate from East to West. Direction of revolution around the sun is also west to east. Jupiter has the largest number of satellites (63) while Mercury and Venus have none. Asteroids and planetoids: Bodies revolving around the sun that are small to be classified as planets. Asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Jupiter Trojans are asteroids revolving around the sun in Jupiters orbit. Near-earth objects: perihelion distance <1.3 AU. Geocentric View: Ptolemy; Heliocentric View: Copernicus Inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Rest are outer planets. Mercury and Venus which are closer to the sun that earth are called inferior planets. Venus is the closest planet to earth. Brightest: Venus Smallest: Mercury Most elliptical orbit: Pluto. It intersects with Neptunes orbit. Earth: Shape and Size Shape: Spheriod. (Oblate spheroid or oblate ellipsoid) Diameter: Equatorial 12757 km (7927 miles); Polar 12715 km (7901 miles) Geoid: Imaginary shape of the earth where sea level surface of the oceans is extended to the continents to form continuous figure. Mass: 5.976*1024 kg Volume: 1.083*1024 liters Mean density: 5.518 kg/litre Total Surface Area: 509.7 million sq.km. Land 148.4 million sq.km (29 pc). Water 361.3 million sq. Km (71 pc) Rotation: 23hrs 56 mins 4.09 sec Revolution: 365 days, 6 hrs, 9 mins and 9.54 sec Highest point: Mt Everest (8848 m asl) Lowest point on land: Coast of Dead sea (399 m bsl) Mean height of land: 756 m Deepest point: Mariana trench (near Guam: 11033 m bsl) Avg ocean depth: 3730 m Earths Crust: Oxygen (46.6 pc), silicon (27.7 pc), Al (8.1 pc), Iron (5 pc), Ca (3.6 pc), Na (2.8 pc), K (2.6 pc), Mg ( 2 pc). Other elements (1.6 pc) Hottest: Lut deserst, Iran (70.7 degreeC)(internet). Al Aiziyah, Libya (58 degree C)

Coldest: Vostok Station, Antarctica (-89.6 degree C) Inclination on polar axis: 23 deg 26 min 50 sec Orbital Speed: 29.8 km/s Mean distance from sun: 149,598,500 km ( 1 AU). Max distance: 152 million km (aphelion, July 2-5) Min distance: 147 million km (perihelion, Jan 2-5) Location on Earth Latitude: Angle subtended by a point to the equatorial place. Lines of latitudes are called parallels. Longitude: Distance east or west of the meridian of Greenwich. Equator: Parallel of zero is called equator. It is the largest circle that can be drawn on earth. Countries on Equator: (countries) Sao Tome and Principe, Gabon, Republic of Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equador, Columbia, Brazil, Uganda, Kenya. Somalia, Indonesia. (water bodies) Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Guinea, Indian Ocean, Gulf of Tomini, Halmahera Sea, Pacific Ocean. Geographical Mile: One arc of the equator. Tropic of Cancer: 23.5 degree North. Countries on Tropic of Cancer: (countries)Mexico, Bahamas, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Mali, Algeria, Niger, Libya, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Oman, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Vietnam, Taiwan; (water bodies) Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, Taiwan Strait, Pacific Ocean, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic Ocean Tropic of Capricon: 23.5 degree South Countries on Tropic of Capricon: (countries) Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, Brasil, Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Mozambique, Madagascar, Australia; (water bodies) Indian Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Ocean Arctic Circle: 66.5 degree North Areas on Arctic Circle: (countries) Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, US-Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Iceland; (water bodies) Arctic ocean, White Sea, Kandalaksha Gulf, Gulf of Ob, Chukchi Sea, Kotzebue Sound, Norwegian Sea, Davis Strait, Greenland Sea. Antarctic Circle: 66.5 degree South Areas on Antarctic Circle: (land) Different regains on Antarctica are claimed by some countries By this claim the circle passes through territories in Antarctica claimed by Australia, France, Argentina, Chile and United Kingdom; (water) Southern Ocean The two tropics mark the limit of the zones at between which suns rays can be vertical at one time of the other. At tropics, sun rays are vertical once a year while in between the tropics twice a year. Summer Solistice: Sun overhead Tropic of Cancer Winter Solistice: Sun overhead Tropic of Capricon. Greenwich: Prime meridian Great circle: It is the largest circle that can be drawn on earth. Its plane passes through the centre of the earth. Navigators follow the great circle routes to minimize distance. Motion of the Earth & Effect of inclination Earths axis is inclined at 23.5 degree from the line perpendicular to the plane of ecliptic (the plane of orbit of the earth around the sun) Change of season occurs due to a combined effect of the revolution of the earth around the sun and the inclination of its axis. If the axis was not inclined there would have been no change in the amount of energy received by a place throughout the year and hence no change of season. Also, day and night would have been equal in length. ritical positions of earth: Summer solstice: (June 21) Tropic of Cancer receives vertical rays of the sun. North Pole experiences a continuous day while South Pole experiences a continuous night. Longest day in northern hemisphere. Winter solstice: (December 22)Tropic of capricon receives vertical rays of the sun. South Pole experiences a continuous day while North Pole experiences a continuous night. Longest day in the southern hemisphere. Exquinoxes: (23rd September and 21st March) Equator receives vertical rays of the sun. Day and night are of equal length throughout the world on these days. The season in the two hemispheres are reverse of each other At the equator, the days and nights are exactly equal all the year round. Longer than 24 hours day and night are experienced only in the arctic and Antarctic circles. Time Time is reckoned with respect to the position of the sun. Time of all places on a given meridian is the same.

Time required for one degree rotation is four minutes. International Date line: The line at 180 degree distance from the prime meridian is called the International Date line. Moving from the west to east one loses a day if he crosses the line. The date in the Eastern Hemisphere is ahead that in the western hemisphere. The date line is bent and altered to keep some countries in the same time zone. The central meridian for India is the longitude of 82.3 degree E which passes near Allahabad. Indian Standard Time is the time of this meridian. It is 5 hrs 30 minutes ahead of the GMT. Solar Day: Average time period required for the successive passages of the sun over a given meridian. It is 24 hours Sidereal day: Time required for a given star in the sky to return to the same position with respect to the earth. It is four minutes less than the solar day. This difference between solar and sidereal day exists because the position of earth with repect to sun keeps changing due to revolution. However, the position with respect a star at infinity is constant. Solar year: measured with respect to the sun Sidereal year: measured with respect to a star Leap year: Since earth takes slightly more than 365 days for revolution around the sun, one day is added every four years to the calendar. This correction is however too large because the actual solar year is 365.2419 days and not 365.25 days. Hence, the leap year is omitted in the century year unless the century year is divisible by 400 (a leap century). Thus, 1900 was not a leap year while 2000 was. Gregorian Calender: Julius Ceaser. Pope Gregory XII. Moon Axis of moon makes an angle of 58 degree 43 mins to the ecliptic plane. Diameter: 3480 km Mass: 1/81 of earth Perigee: nearest point to earth (356000 km) Apogee: Farthest point to earth (407000 km) Period of revolution around earth: 29.53 days. This is called synodic month. The time taken by moon to complete one rotation on its axis is exactly same as its sidereal month (27.5 days). Hence, we see the same face of the moon from the earth. Only 59 percent of the total surface of moon is visible from earth. Phases: The synodic month begins when the sun and the moon are in conjunction. At this time, moon is dark and called the new moon. This is followed by various phases and the month ends with again the new moon phase. Tides: Regular rise and fall of water level in the seas and oceans. Twice a day. Successive high tides are about 12.5 hours apart. Tides are caused by a combined effect of the gravitational pull of moon and sun on earth. When the forces of sun and moon complement each other, higher tides known as spring tides occur. This occurs on full moon and new moon days when the earth, sun and moon are in the same straight line. When the forces of sun and moon act contrary to each other the tides of lower magnitude known as neap tides occur. Neap tides are observed in the first and the last quarters of the moon. Tides are stronger at the time of perigee and weaker at the time of apogee. Tidal range: difference between the water levels at the time of high tide and low tide. It changes from time and place.Narrow bays have higher tidal range. Bay of Fundy has the highest tidel range in the world. Tides may lead to advance of water upstream into the rivers. This is known as tidel bore.

Atmosphere Structure Layered structure: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere, thermosphere-exosphere Troposphere: Most important for life forms Thickness: 8-16 km. (low at poles, high at equator)(more in summer, less in winter) Contains of the total molecular mass of the atmosphere. All weather phenomenon occur here Temperature: Falls with increasing height at rate of 1 degree for every 165 metres (or 6.5 degree per km). This is called the lapse rate. Lapse rate varies with latitude and altitude. Decreases with altitude. Higher over tropical zone. Hence, the upper limit of troposphere is cooler over the equator than over the poles. Stratosphere: Extends upto height of 50 kms. Upper part is also called ozonosphere. Uniformity in horizontal distribution of temperature; however, increase with height. Contains most of atmospheric ozone. Absorbs UV rays. Free from dust particles and atmospheric turbulence. Ideal for flying aircrafts. Mesosphere: Upto height of 80 km. Temperature decreases with height. Mesopause (the upper boundary of mesosphere) is the coldest atmospheric layer with an average temperature of -85 degree C. Ionosphere: Upto 600 km Contains electrically charged ions. Used for radio communication. Temperature increases with height. Most meteors burn up here upon entering the atmosphere. Thermosphere, Exosphere, Magnetosphere: Thermosphere: 85-400 km. International Space Station orbits in this layer. Exosphere: Upto a height of 9600 km. The outermost part of exosphere is called magnetosphere. Radiation Belts There are two belts in the upper atmosphere having a high concentration of ionized particles. They are known as Van Allens radiation belts. Lower belt lies at about 2600 km height while the upper belt is about 13000-19000 km height. Composition of Atmosphere Heavier gases concentrated in the lower part while lighter gases are in the upper apart. Nitrogen (78 pc), Oxygen (21 pc) by volume. They are also called permanent components of the atmosphere. Proportion of other gases like Co2, H2, water vapour etc varies from place to place. Hence, they are called variable components of the atmosphere. Nitrogen has a moderating influence on temperature and controls combustion. It is also an important nutrient for vegetative growth. Oxygen is important for breathing, decomposition and combustion. Water vapors help in containing temperature. Carbon dioxide and water vapors lead to greenhouse effect preventing the earth from cooling down excessively. Ozone: The maximum concentration of ozone is found in the stratosphere, about 25-30 km above the earths surface. Ozone depletion: Ozone depleting at rate of 4 pc per decade since late 70s. Ozone has declined by about 33 pc in the Antarctic. This is known as the Ozone hole. Global Warming: According to IPCC, global surface temperature increased 0.74 +- 0.18 degree C during the 20th century. Aurora and Magnetic Storms Aurora is natural display of lights in the atmosphere in the polar regions. Produced by the entry of charged particles from the sun into earths magnetic field. In northern hemisphere, they are called aurora borealis or northern polar lights. In southern hemisphere, they are called aurora australis or southern polar lights. They are most intense during solar storms.

Magnetic storms are temporary disturbances in the earths magnetic field that are supposedly caused by the occurrence of solar flared and sun spots. Sun spots are temporary phenomena on the surface of the Sun that appear as dark spots compared to surrounding regions. They are caused by intense magnetic activity. They occur in a cycle of 11 years Insolation and Heat Budget Insolation is the energy received on the earth surface from the sun. Although the entire amount of insolation reaching the earth has to pass through the atmosphere, very little of it is absorbed by the atmosphere before reaching the earths surface. This is because solar radiation is in the form of short waves for which the atmosphere almost acts as a transparent medium. When the heated surface of the earth radiates this energy back it is in the form of long waves which is absorbed by the atmosphere. Distribution of insolation: Solar constant is the amount of solar energy received upon a unit area of surface held at right angles to the suns rays. Its value is 2 gm-calorie/sq.cm/minute. Solar constant, however, varies with sun spots cycle. Also, due to varying sun-earth distance, more energy reaches earth during perihelion than aphelion. Albedo: The proportion of solar radiation reflected from earth. High for light colored surfaces and low for dark colored ones. Latitudes affect insolation by affecting the angle of suns ray and determining the length of the day. Vertical rays provide more energy. Slope of land also affects insolation. So, tropical areas receive the maximum amount of insolation while the polar areas the minimum. Heat Budget: Earths temperature remains fairly constant despite insolation because it loses an amount of heat equal to that gained through insolation. This mechanism of maintaining the same temperature is called the heat budget or heat balance. Long waves in terrestrial radiation. There are latitudinal variations in heat budget. Tropical areas gain more heat than lost and polar areas lose more heat than gained. This imbalance is corrected by latitudinal transfer of energy. This takes place through air and water circulation. Greenhouse Effect The process by which radiative energy leaving a planetary surface is absorbed by some atmospheric gases called greenhouse gases. It is due to this effect that cloudy nights are warmer. Co2s greenhouse effect is a factor in global warming. Temperature Distribution Temperature at a place, to a large extent, depends on the angle of incidence of suns radiation. Earth receives only about 1/2000 millionth part of the total energy emitted by the sun. Part of the incident energy is reflected back. Other is absorbed by the surface of earth which gets heated up and starts radiating energy. This makes the air near the earth surface hotter. This fact explains why it is cooler as one goes higher up. Latitude, altitude, distances from sea, aspect of the land and nature of surface are some of the factors that affect the global distribution of temperature. Latitude: Highest temperature near the equator and lowest near poles Altitude: Temp decreases with height Nature of surface: Albedo. Land has higher albedo than water. However, if the angle of incidence is high and there is movement in water, its albedo might become higher than land. Distance from sea: Due to difference in specific heats of land and water bodies, land gets heated faster than oceans and cools faster as well. Hence, while oceans have moderate temperatures, continents experience extremes of temperatures. Effect of nearness to sea is called maritime influence while that of location in the interiors of a continent is called continental influence. Temperature Zones: Torrid zone (tropical region), temperate zone (mid-latitude areas) and frigid zone (polar areas) Isotherms: The horizontal distribution of temperature is represented with the help of isotherms the lines joining places with the same temperature. They are generally parallel to the latitudes but are modified at places due to the maritime influence. In the month of July they bend northwards while moving from land to sea while in January they bend southward.

Vertical distribution of temperature: Lapse rate. It is also measured by adiabatic rate. Adiabatic cooling occurs when the air moves upwards and expands. Adiabatic rate higher when air is dry and lower when it is saturated. Temperature inversion When temperature increases with increasing altitude (instead of decreasing), it is called inversion of temperature. Mostly found in mountain valleys. Air gets cooled and night and becomes heavier to move downwards to the valley and in the process pushing the warmer air upwards. This kind of inversion is also called drainage inversion. It is responsible for frosts at valley bottoms. This is the reason why fruit orchards in mountainous regions are laid on valley slopes instead of valley bottoms. When inversion occurs due to rapid cooling of air near the surface it is called radiation inversion. It is common in plains in winter. Advection inversion: When air from a warmer area blows over to a colder surface. Frontal inversion: When warm air and cold air masses converge, the warm air will rise above the cold air. It is found in latitudes where polar air mixes with tropical air. It leads to foggy conditions. Thermal anamoly: The difference between the average temperature of a place and the normal temperature of its latitude. They are caused by the factors mentioned before. Depicted on map using isanomals which are lines joining places with equal anomalies. In winter, oceans have postitive anomaly while continents have negative anomaly. Vice versa in summers. The annual range of temperature is the lowest over the oceans and near the equator. Thermal Equator: It is the isotherm of the highest mean annual temperature. It is generally taken as coinciding with the geographical equator. The annual range of temperature near the equator is lower than the daily range of temperature. Pressure Pressure = force/area 1 milibar = 1000 dynes/sq.cm. Measured through barometer. Aneroid barometer: no liquid. Barogram. Distribution of Pressure: Pressure is inversely related to temperature and altitude. Depends on rotation of earth and effect of ascent and descent of air. There are seven belts of pressure: the equatorial low, the subtropical high (two belts), sub-polar low (two belts) and the polar high (two belts). This is the planetary distribution of pressure.

Swing of pressure belts: Due to the shift in the position of vertical rays of the sun, the pressure belts move slightly northwards during summer solstice and southwards during winter solstice. Interruption of pressure belts: Due to maritime and continental effects, the pressure belts are not continuous but subdivided into blocks of low and high pressure.

Isobar: lines joining places with equal pressure. Use to show distribution of pressure on map. Sea level affects here as well. Planetary Winds Winds are caused due to differences in pressure. Pressure gradient: rate of decrease of pressure per unit of horizontal distance. It is measured in the direction of fall of pressure. Direction of the pressure gradient determines the direction of the wind. Its steepness determines the velocity of wind. Coriollis effect: Deflection of winds due to the rotation of earth. Due to this the winds are deflected to their right in the northern hemisphere and to their left in the southern hemisphere. This is referred to as Farrels law. The May 22, 1960 Valdivia earthquake or Great Chilean Earthquake is to date the most powerful earthquake ever recorded, rating 9.5 on the moment magnitude scale.