Theme 2 - People and the Natural World Interactions GCSE Revision Guide 2011

Unit 1Monday 13th June am. Length: 1 hour (Themes tested = Theme 1: Challenge of Living in a Built Environment and Theme 2: People and the Natural World Interactions) Unit 2Friday 17th June am. Length: 2 hours (Themes tested = Section A: 30 minutes test on Theme 3:People, Work and Development, Section B: 1hr 30 mins test on all three themes through a decision making exercise)

Exam Dates:

Case Studies There will be one question (30 minutes long) based on Theme 2 or People and the Natural World Interactions. It is worth 30 marks so should take 30 minutes to answer (a mark a minute!) At the end of this question you will have a choice of 2 case study questions! You will pick one of these and answer it. This section is worth 8 marks and so should take 8 minutes to answer! Any of the case study questions could ask you to draw a sketch map so you need learn these for certain case studies. The case study section will ask you to: Name the case study Locate the case study Describe something about it Explain something about it (nearly always asking for you to refer to specific groups of people in this section i.e. teenagers, councils officers, elderly people, dock workers etc.) It is vital that you learn every case study in this booklet so that you are prepared for this section. Look at the past case study questions in this booklet and practise matching case studies to questions and writing answers in 8 minutes.

Theme 2People and the Natural World Interactions Glossary Please learn these key words!!
Word/Term
Weather

Meaning
The hour-to-hour, day-to-day state of the atmosphere in relation to temperature, sunshine, precipitation and wind. The average weather conditions for a place taken over a period of time. An instrument to measure rainfall in mm. A white slatted box which holds weather equipment such as thermometer. It is white to reflect the heat and slatted to let air flow through it. An instrument that measures wind speed in metres per second.

Climate

Rain Gauge Stevenson Screen

Anemometer

Precipitation

That part of the hydrological cycle where atmospheric moisture is deposited at the Earths surface as rain, hail, snow, sleet, dew, frost or fog. Rainfall caused by air being forced to rise over hills or mountains (relief). Rainfall caused by the heat of the sun. Rainfall caused by hot and cold air meeting. Cold air is dense so stays low which causes warm air to rise up and over the cold air forming rain. An area of low pressure in temperate latitudes usually associated with cloud, rain and strong winds. An area of high pressure usually associated with settled weather. The turning of land, often through physical processes and human mismanagement, into desert. The destruction of the protective vegetation cover by having too many animals grazing upon it. The exhaustion of the soil by growing crops, especially the same crop, on the same piece of land.

Relief Rainfall Convectional Rainfall Frontal Rainfall

Depressions Anticyclones

Desertification

Over Grazing

Over Cultivation

Word/Term
Hadley Cell

Meaning
Circulation of air found over the tropics caused by the suns heat. Leading to heavy rainfall on the equator (low pressure) and sinking dry air over the tropics (high pressure) This is the circulation of air found in the mid latitudes between the Ferrel and the Polar Cell. It transfers warm air to the poles and shifts cold air back to the tropics. Often associated with frontal rainfall. This is found over the poles and is a high pressure area associated with sinking air creating dry weather. The increase in the worlds average temperature, believed to result from the release of carbon dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels. The complete clearance of forested land. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is usually noted that this requires the reconciliation of environmental, social and economic demands A severe tropical storm, characterised by low pressure, heavy rainfall and winds of extreme strength which are capable of causing widespread damage. A rapid rise in sea-level caused by storms, especially tropical cyclones, forcing water into a narrowing sea area. The tallest trees in a forest that poke out above the canopy. The upper layer of a forest. The canopy receives most sunlight so contains many leaves, flowers and fruit. The area below the canopy, usually lacking in sunlight. Contains lianas and bare tree trunks The forest floor. Incredibly dark and humid. Contains large amounts of decaying material which supply trees with the nutrients they need to grow. The soil layer is incredibly thin which means tree roots are very shallow. For this reason trees in the rainforest have buttress roots to help keep them upright.

Ferrel Cell

Polar Cell

Global Warming

Deforestation Sustainable

Hurricane

Storm Surge

Emergent Layer Canopy

Under Canopy Shrub Layer

Word/Term
Ecosystem

Meaning
A natural system in which plants(flora) and animals (fauna) interact with each other and the non-living environment and local cultures. An ecosystem, such as the tropical rainforest, occurring at a global scale. The process by which minerals necessary for plant growth are taken up from the soil, and returned when plants shed their leaves or vegetation dies. When energy from the sun in the form of heat etc is passed through the trophic layers. Energy is lost as passed from plants (producers) to animals (consumers) as it is used through heat loss, energy use etc. When a city has temperatures that are warmer than in the surrounding rural area. A map showing the state of the weather at a given time. A climate type experienced in South Asia in which a seasonal pattern of wind brings in a distinct wet season. When cold and warm fronts merge. Create a front which results in very heavy rainfall and strong winds. The first front to pass in a depression associated with prolonged steady rain and a rise in temperature. The second front to pass in a depression associated with a short period of gales, heavy rain and thunderstorms. Also a drop in temperature. The force caused by molecules in the atmosphere pressing down on the Earths surface. The layer of gases surrounding the Earth. The atmosphere is one store in the water cycle. The variety of living things

Biome

Nutrient Cycle

Energy Cycle

Urban Heat Island Synoptic Chart Monsoon

Occluded Front

Warm Front

Cold Front

Air Pressure

Atmosphere

Biodiversity

Word/Term
Prevailing Wind Temperature Range

Meaning
The direction in which the wind most often blows. The difference between maximum and minimum temperature. A temperature range can be calculated for a single, or for the year. Discontinuous layer of water at or near the Earth's surface. It includes all liquid and frozen surface waters, groundwater held in soil and rock, and atmospheric water vapour. The continuous flow of water between the Earths surface and the atmosphere also called the hydrological cycle. When water is prevented from falling directly to the ground. For example, the canopy of leaves in a forest intercepts rainfall. Where water changes state from liquid into vapour. The movement of water from the ground surface into the soil. The combined loss of water from plants by both evaporation and transpiration. A flow in the water cycle. The movement of water out of the soil and into the rocks below. The flow of water through the soil. Part of the water cycle. The flow of water through rocks. The flow of water over the surface into rivers/ sea. Occurs more frequently when ground is impermeable. When water vapour cools and turns into water droplets When the ground is completely full of water Open system has inputs and outputs. A closed system does not have inputs and outputs, just stores and flows. The amount of water flowing through a river channel measured in cubic metres per second (cumecs) A steep-sided, narrow valley. Gorges are often found below a waterfall.

Hydrosphere

Water Cycle

Interception

Evaporation Infiltration Evapotranspiration Percolation Throughflow Groundwater Flow Surface Runoff

Condensation Saturated Open and Closed Systems

Discharge

Gorge

Word/Term
Erosion Deposition

Meaning
The wearing away of the land by material carried by rivers, glaciers, waves and the wind. The laying down of material in the landscape. Deposition occurs when the force that was carrying the sediment is reduced. Soil or rock which does not allow water to pass through it, such as clay. A rock which allows water to pass through it, such as limestone. A line graph showing the discharge of a river over time. The period of time between peak rainfall and peak river discharge. The wide, flat valley floor of a river where silt is deposited during times of flood. The point at which two rivers join. A smaller river joining a larger river. A ridge of high land that forms the boundary between two adjacent drainage basins. The area of land drained by a main river and its tributaries. When the climate of a dry region becomes even drier. Vegetation dies or is eaten by grazing animals and the soil becomes vulnerable to soil erosion. When there is not enough water in an area to support the populations needs When there is too much water in an area. A large store of underground water usually contained in porous rocks. When people remove water from either a surface or groundwater store. A type of coastal defence scheme consisting of low walls built into the sea. Groynes trap the sediment that is being moved by longshore drift, building up the beach and stopping erosion. A coastal landform formed by the deposition of sediment in a low mound where the coastline changes direction, for example, at the mouth of a river.

Impermeable Permeable Hydrograph Lag Time Floodplain Confluence Tributary Watershed Drainage Basin/Catchment Area Desertification

Deficit Surplus Aquifer Abstraction Groyne

Spit

Word/Term
Hydro-electric power Corrosion Attrition Abrasion/Corrasion

Meaning
Electricity generated by water flowing through turbines. Erosion caused by acids in rivers and waves dissolving rocks by chemical action. When rocks and pebbles bang against each other and erode each other away. Erosion caused by the rubbing and scouring effect of material carried by rivers, glaciers, waves and the wind. When water smashes against cracks in river or coastal cliffs air gets trapped. When this air is released tiny explosions occur causing particles of rock to break off. The movement of material by rivers, glaciers, waves and the wind. A process of transportation by rivers in which material is rolled along the bed. A process of transportation by rivers in which small particles bounce along the bed in a leapfrog movement. A process of transportation by rivers in which material is picked up and carried along within the water itself. A type of chemical weathering in which water dissolves minerals in rocks. The winding course of a river. An isolated piece of rock detached from the mainland by wave erosion. A coastal feature formed when waves erode through a small headland. An area of silt deposited by a river where it enters the sea or a lake. Erosion is allowed to take place in an area which is not of high economic value i.e. farmland. This then reduces impact of erosion down coast as puts more sediment into the system. A rocky shelf in front of a cliff. The wave-cut platform is caused by erosion and left by the retreat of a cliff. Undercut slot cut into the bottom of a cliff by wave action. The breaking up of rock by the effects of the weather such as rainfall and temperature change.

Hydraulic Action

Transportation Traction Saltation

Suspension

Solution Meander Stack Arch Delta Managed Retreat

Wave-cut platform

Wave-cut notch Weathering

Past Case Study Questions

Year Question (worth 8 marks) What case study to use?

Specimen

For a named ecosystem, describe how the ecosystem has been damaged and explain how these changes have affected people OR For a named coastal area, describe how that area is affected by human activity and explain how it may be managed.

Specimen

Name an area that has suffered the effects of drought. Describe the effects of the drought and explain how the drought was caused. OR Name a coastal area that requires management. Describe how the area is being managed and explain why it needs to be managed.

2010

For a named area that has flooded: Name the area Describe the effects of the flood on different groups of people Explain why the flood took place OR For a named coastal area: Name the area Describe the main physical features of the coast Explain how they are used by different groups of people

2009

A coastal landform

a) Name and locate a coastal landform you have studied b) Describe the main features of the landform c) Explain how the landform was formed. You may use diagrams if you wish.

2009

A water management scheme

a) Name and locate a water management scheme you have studied b) Describe the main features of the scheme. c) Explain why the scheme was developed.

Past Case Study Questions

Year Question (worth 8 marks) What case study to use?

2007

A river landform

a) Name and locate a river landform you have studied b) Describe the main features of the landform c) Explain how the landform was formed.

2007

The effects of a flood on people in an MEDC.

Name and locate an area of an MEDC where flooding has taken place. Describe how the flood affected different groups of people Explain the causes of the flood.

2006

A place that has been affected by flooding

Name the place that has been affected by flooding Describe the effects of the flooding on people and the environment Explain what caused the place to flood Or

A river landform

Name and locate the landform Describe the landform Explain how it was formed. Use the diagrams to help

2005

A landform created by the work of the sea.

(i) Name and locate a landform that has been created by the work of the sea (ii) Describe how the landform was created by the sea (iii) Explain any advantages and disadvantages that the landform brings to the sea around it. Or

A coastal management scheme that protects the coast from the action of the sea

Name and locate a coastal management scheme that has taken, or is taking place to protect the coast. Describe the scheme Explain why the scheme was, or is, necessary

Past Case Study Questions

Year Question (worth 8 marks) What case study to use?

2007

A type of climate and its effects on people

a) Name and locate a type of climate you have studied b) Describe the main features of the climate type c) Explain how it affects people and the environment Or

An ecosystem that has been changed and how the changes have affected people
Name and locate the ecosystem Describe how the ecosystem has been changed Explain the effects of the changes on people

2007

A weather event caused by high pressure

a) Name and locate a weather event that has been caused by a high pressure system b) Describe the weather event c) Explain how the weather event affected people and the environment

Consequences of changes in ecosystems

Name and locate an ecosystem you have studied Describe the main features of this ecosystem Explain how this ecosystem affects the lives of different groups of people Name a place where you have studied an ecosystem that is being used in an unsustainable way by people or organisations. Name the type of ecosystem you have studied. Describe how people or organisations are using this ecosystem. Explain why this makes the ecosystem unsustainable.

2006

An ecosystem that is being used in an unsustainable way.

A weather event caused by low pressure.

(i) Name and locate a weather event that has been caused by a low pressure weather system. (ii) Describe the weather event. (iii) Explain how the weather event affected different groups of people and/or organisations. 2005

Conserving an ecosystem that is being damaged.

Name and locate an ecosystem that is being damaged. Describe how the ecosystem is being damaged. Explain how different groups of people or organisations are trying to conserve this ecosystem.

Case Studies

Case Study 1 UK/European Heat wave 2003 (MEDC)

Topics: Investigating the effects of high pressure systems and drought on the UK and Europe

What caused the drought? The UK sits on a latitude that experiences a mixture of high and low pressure. These pressure systems come across the UK from the Atlantic and bring with them very changeable patterns of weather. Areas of high pressure are also known as anticyclones. Anticyclones bring dry, settled periods of weather. The map shows the anticyclone that positioned itself over the UK in 2003. Only one isobar of 1020 sits over the UK indicating high pressure, clear skies and low wind speeds. The long period of hot, dry weather in July and August 2003 was due to an anticyclone that stayed over Europe for several weeks. During this period the UK received only 25% of the rainfall that it would normally expect to receive at this time of year. The hottest-ever day was recorded in Faversham, Kent, on 10 August 2003 when temperatures reached 38.5 degrees centigrade. What were the impacts on different groups of people? The heat caused heatstroke and dehydration, especially among elderly people. It is estimated that 30,000 people died across Europe in the extreme heat. France was worst hit. French doctors estimate that the heatwave caused 14,000 deaths. On a normal day in August in France about 50 people are admitted to hospital suffering heat exhaustion. In August 2003 that number rose to 500. The hospitals struggled to cope. In addition, the heatwave caused several forest fires in southern Europe. All in all, the extreme heat is estimated to have caused 1 billion Euros of damage. There were also heat-related deaths in the UK (2,000), Portugal (2,100), Italy (3,100), Holland (1,500) and Germany (300). In the UKRail travel was widely disrupted across the country when fears of rails buckling in the extreme heat led to Network Rail imposing many speed restrictions. There had been one or two isolated incidents where minor derailments had been attributed to deformed rails due to unusually high temperatures. Air temperatures of 30C and above can lead to rail head temperatures of 50C to 60C in direct sunlight. This is enough to cause steel rail to visibly deform over a long length, particularly with continuously welded rail sections.

Case Study 2 Great Winter Storm 1987, UK (MEDC)

Topics: A case study that looks at the impact of low pressure systems on the UK
What caused the storm? Regions of low pressure are formed when air lifts off the Earths surface. It is common for cells of low pressure, or depressions, to form over the Atlantic Ocean. They then track eastwards towards Europe bringing heavy rain and strong winds. Depressions are more likely to be deeper (have lower pressure) in the winter months. These weather systems can bring damaging gusts of wind and large waves onto the coast as well as heavy rain. The Great Storm of 1987 occurred on the night of 15/16 October 1987, when an unusually strong low pressure weather system caused winds to hit much of southern England and northern France. It was the worst storm to hit England since the Great Storm of 1703 (284 years earlier) and was responsible for the deaths of at least 22 people in England and France combined (18 in England, at least 4 in France). The storm made landfall in Cornwall, before tracking northeast towards Devon and then over the Midlands, going out to sea via The Wash. The strongest gusts, of up to 100 knots (190 km/h; 120 mph), were recorded along the south-eastern edge of the storm, hitting mainly Essex and Kent.

What were the impacts on different groups of people? The storm caused substantial damage over much of England, downing some 15 million historic trees in Kew Gardens, Wakehurst Place, Nymans Garden, Hyse Park, London and Scotney Castle blocking roads and railways and leaving widespread structural damage to buildings. Several hundred thousand people were left without power, which was not fully restored until more than two weeks later. Local electric utility officials later said they lost more wires in that one storm than in the entire preceding decade. At sea, as well as many small boats being wrecked, a ship capsized at Dover and a Sealink cross-channel ferry, the MV Hengist, was driven ashore at Folkestone. In London, many of the trees lining the streets were blown down overnight, blocking roads and crushing parked cars. Building construction scaffolding and billboards had collapsed in many places, and many buildings had been damaged. The following morning, the BBC Television Centre in White City was unable to function due to a power failure, and BBC 1s Breakfast Time programme was broadcast from a single-position emergency studio in central London, reinforcing an impression of national emergency. Much of the public transport in the capital was not functioning, and people were advised against trying to go to work. The storm cost the insurance industry 2bn, making it the second most expensive UK weather event on record. Peak wind velocities were in the early hours of the morning, which probably reduced the death toll. The highest recorded windspeed (gust) was 122 mph (196 km/h) at Gorleston in Norfolk The storm hit the Isle of Wight at 2am, and Shanklin Pier on the south-east coast of the island was broken into three pieces as a result of mountainous waves. Plans to rebuild the pier were soon abandoned, and the rest of the pier was demolished by contractors shortly afterwards. A monument now stands in front of what used to be the pier entrance.

Theory: What causes hurricanes (low pressure systems)

High wind speeds caused by air rushing into the centre of the storm to replace the air that has risen to make the clouds in the hurricane.

Causes

Sea temperatures need to be above 27 degrees centigrade. Heat from the sea causes evaporation and heavy cloud formation. Once storm clouds have formed, they begin to spin due to the Coriolis Effect. This is the effect where clouds do not travel in a straight line due to the earth spinning on an axis. The eye of the storm is usually calm and clear because of sinking air which causes high pressure. The eye wall is where you will find the strongest winds and the heaviest rain. High wind speeds are caused by air rushing towards the low pressure centre in the middle of the storm.

Hazards associated with hurricanes Heavy rainfall Associated with the strong convection currents from the 27 degree sea temperatures Strong winds associated with air rushing from areas of high to areas of low pressure Storm surges associated with sea level rise when air pressure is particularly low.

Case Study 3 Hurricane Katrina, USA 2005 (MEDC)

Topics: A case study to look at the impact of a severe low pressure system (a hurricane) on an MEDC and the impact it had on people
Hurricane Katrina (MEDC) Date Strength August 23rd 30th 2005 August 28th reached its peak (Category 5wind speeds 175mph) while in the Gulf of Mexico. When it hit New Orleans it had dropped to a Category 3 hurricane. USA South Florida, Louisiana, New Orleans, Mississippi and Alabama Cuba Winds of up to 175 mph 14 inches 1,876 deaths 1 million relocated/re-homed

Countries affected

Wind Speed Rainfall amount Social Impact

Environmental Impact

Sewage systems overflowed. Oil refineries flooded, forest land destroyed. Substantial beach erosion217square miles of land lost. Oil spills damaged wildlife. Costliest natural disaster in history of USA. Oil prices increased Casinos damaged 81.2 billion dollars worth of damage Most severe damage was in New Orleans where complete failure of the levee system caused 53 levees to be breachedleading to 80% of the city being flooded. 6 years later and some residents of New Orleans are still living in temporary accommodation. US Corps of engineers were blamed for the failure of the levee system.

Economic Impact

Case Study 4 Cyclone Nargis, Burma (Myanmar) (LEDC) 2008

Topics: A case study to look at the impact of a severe low pressure system (a hurricane/cyclone) on an LEDC and the impact it had on people.
Cyclone Nargis (LEDC) Date Strength May 2008 Category 4

Countries affected

Bangladesh, Myanmar, India

Wind Speed Rainfall amount Social Impact

Winds of up to 135mph 10 inches 130,000 deaths (Most people died due to drowning from the storm surge which caused coastal waves to rise up to 11 metres in parts flooding large areas of heavily populated land. 800,000 homes damaged and many survivors displaced. Around 65% of Burmas population reported health problems in June with conditions such as diarrhoea and fever. Diarrhoea was caused by the drinking water being contaminated by sewage. 3/4 of health centres were damaged by the storm sofamilies had no access to immunisation.

Environmental Impact

Land flooded and rice crops destroyed. Leaving survivors short of food. Coastal flooding caused large areas of farmland to be covered by salt.

Economic Impact

10 billion dollars worth of damage Farmers lost yields of crops. Rescue attempts were hindered by refusal of Burmas government to accept aid initially.

Case Study 5 Icelands Climate (MEDC)

Topics: A case study of a type of climate and its impact on people.
What is Icelands Climate like? Icelands climate is kept warm by an ocean current called the Gulf Stream. This brings warm water across the Atlantic from the tropics. This warm water heats the air above it and gives Icelands coastal regions a maritime climate which is warmer and wetter than other places at similar latitudes.

Factors that influence Icelands climate 1The wind often blows in from the south west, this is the prevailing wind direction. 2Air rises over the highlands of south Iceland 3As the air rises it cools and water vapour condenses forming cloud and precipitation. 4Some precipitation falls as snow on Vatnajokull, adding to the ice cap. 5After crossing the highlands and ice cap, the air sinks and warms. 6An area of rain shadow where it seldom rains.

How does Icelands climate affect its people? TourismTourism is the largest growth industry but most tourists visit in the short summer so incomes are highly seasonal. FarmingOnly 1% of Iceland is used for farming because of the ice caps and frozen ground. The growing season is too short for cereals. Hay is grown to feed sheep. Farmers grow a lot of crops in greenhouses to overcome the low temperatures. EnergyRainfall and snowmelt from glaciers feed Icelands large rivers which are used to produced Hydro-Electric Power (HEP). Cheap energy has attracted investment from US aluminium companies. TransportMountain roads are impassable in winter due to snow and ice. Mountain roads are dangerous in summer because vehicles have to ford rivers filled with glacial meltwater. Internal flights are easier than road journeys in winter.

Case Study 6 Urban Heat Islands, London (MEDC)

Topics: A case study of how people can affect climate

What is the urban heat island effect?

When cities create higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas. The city acts like a huge storage heater, transferring heat from buildings and cars to the dome of air that covers the city. Concrete, brick and tarmac absorb heat from the sun during the day. This heat is then radiated into the atmosphere during the evening. Buildings that are badly insulated lose heat, especially through roofs and windows. Heat is also created in cars and factories and this heat is also lost to the air through exhausts and chimneys. How do cities affect patterns of wind and rain? Tall buildings in a city are able to affect local wind patterns. The shelter they provide means that average wind speeds in cities are lower than in the surrounding countryside. Urban air has ten times more dust particles in it than rural air. The dust comes from car exhausts, heating systems, industry and building sites. When water vapour condenses it forms water droplets by attaching itself to these dust particles. So more dust means that cities have more clouds and rain.

Map to show impact of urban heat island effect on Londons temperatures.

Sunshine Duration

5-15% less

Annual Mean Temperature 1-2 degrees C warmer Temperature on sunny days Occurrence of frosts Total precipitation Number of rain days Number of days with snow Cloud cover Occurrence of fog in winter Amount of dust 2-6 degrees C warmer 2-3 weeks fewer 5-30% more 10% more 14% fewer 5-10% more 100% more 10 times more

How doe it affect people? Cities like London have fewer frosts and less ice on the roads in winter. Summers are hotter and there are more days when people can suffer the effects of heat stress. Discomfort and heat-related deaths increase when night-time temperatures stay above 25 degrees centigrade. In July 2001 a tube train broke down in London, trapping 4,000 people underground. The temperature rose to 40 degree C and 600 people had to be treated for heat exhaustion. During the heatwave of 2003 the temperature in central London was 9 degrees higher than the surrounding countryside.

Management Make sure that all new buildings are well insulated to reduce heat loss. Introduce more green spaces. Parks reflect more of the suns energy. More trees must be planted. The shade from the trees reduces air temperatures. The roofs of buildings could be coated in lightcoloured materials to reflect sunshine. Reduce the amount of traffic in Londonhence introduction of congestion charge.

Global WarmingCauses, effects and management

Topics: A case study of how people can affect climate.

What is global warming? The Earth goes through a warm period that usually lasts about 10-20,000 years. This is then followed by 80-90,000 years of ice age. This warming and cooling occurs naturally due to changes in the tilt of the earth, the Earths orbit, variations in the suns output and even volcanic eruptions such as the one in the Phillippines in 1991 (Mt Pinatubo) can affect our climate. It is believed though, that humans are also having an increasing influence on Earths climate. Certain gases, including carbon dioxide and methane, are known to trap heat in our atmosphere. (See diagram on left).

Which gases cause the greenhouse effect and where do they come from?

Global WarmingCauses, effects and management

Topics: A case study of how people can affect climate.

What evidence is there for man-made climate change? Scientists studying polar bears in Canada show that the ice in Hudson Bay now melts three weeks earlier than it did when studies began in the early 1970s. Polar bears feed on young seals during March and April and put on a lot of weight to survive the summer, when they hardly eat at all. For each week that the thaw comes early, the bears have less chance to feed, and come on shore 10kg lighter. The consequences of further climate change are worrying: more young bears and pups will starve over the longer summer; females will be less fertile; hungry bears are more likely to forage for food in towns where they come into conflict with people.

What impact could global warming have on a global scale? About 3.6 billion people (60% of the worlds population) live within 60km of the coast. This is likely to rise to 6.4 billion (75% of the worlds population) by 2030. Between 1900 and 2000 the worlds sea levels rose on average by 2mm per year. This is mainly due to expansion of sea water as global temperatures increase. If greenhouse emissions continue at their present rate it is likely that sea levels will continue to rise by on average 4mm a year over the next 100 years. The strongest hurricanes in the present climate may be upstaged by even more intense hurricanes over the next century as the Earths climate is warmed by increasing levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Warmer climate will increase sea temperatures and increase intensity and frequency of hurricanes. Polar ice caps are melting, contributing to the rise in sea levels and affecting marine animals in this area who are unable to adapt to changes in temperature quickly. How is global warming being managed on different scales? International Action (Global) In 1979, the world held its first climate conference. The conference called on governments to foresee and prevent potential man-made changes in climate. United Nations takes action In 1988, the United Nations set up the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to analyse and report on scientific findings. The IPCC warned that only strong measures to stop greenhouse gas emissions would prevent serious global warming Global targets for reducing emissions In 1992, the Earth Summit took place in Rio de Janeiro. Here, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was signed by 154 nations. It agreed to prevent 'dangerous' warming from greenhouse gases and set voluntary targets for reducing emissions. The UK is one of a small number of countries which met this voluntary target. Kyoto: legally binding cuts in emissions In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was agreed. Kyoto was the first international treaty to set legally binding emissions cuts for industrialised nations. It was signed by 178 countries and came into force in 2005.

Global WarmingCauses, effects and management

Topics: A case study of how people can affect climate.
Management Continued Reducing human impact on global climate at the national scale. At a national scale it is an individual countrys government that is in control. In 2006, the Stern report was published in the UK by HM Treasury. It was the first report of its kind into the economic impact of climate change. It found that the costs of inaction far outweighed the costs of action. In November 2008, the UK government passed the Climate Change Act. The Act sets legally binding targets for reducing emissions by 80 per cent on 1990 levels by 2050. Some of the ways in which the UK government aims to achieve the above aim are outlined below: Hybrolights Woking Borough Council has introduced lights powered by renewable energy. Approximately 170kg of carbon dioxide emissions are saved per light per year. The lights are powered by solar and wind power using photovoltaic panels and a wind turbine on the light. Renewable EnergyIn 2006 wind energy produced 1% of the countrys electricity. The UK government wants to increase this to 20%. The UK is very windy so a good location to harness wind energy and the UK has doubled its capacity in the last 2 years. 10,000 more turbines are needed to get to 20% (the same as 6 nuclear power stations). Hybrid Carsencourage the use of low carbon cars like the Toyota Prius, cutting the use of petrol which produces nitrous oxide.

Reducing impact as individuals There are a number of things WE as individuals can do to reduce global warming: For example: Insulate our house properly Turn off lights when not using rooms Dont fill up kettles too much when not needed Turn thermostat down on central heating Share car journeys, use public transport, walk and cycle more!!

Case Study 7 Impact of global warming and climate change on Iceland (MEDC)
Topics: A case study that looks at the impact of climate change on different groups of people in Iceland.

Climate change is predicted to have huge impacts in Iceland. Icelands landscape will change as its ice caps and glaciers melt. In the short term though the economy could benefit as melting glaciers feed Icelands rivers and these provide hydro-electric power for Icelands industry. Run-off from glaciers will peak sometime in the next 100 years and, according to computer models, Icelands glaciers will have disappeared by 2200.

Icelands Power stations

Impact If temperatures rise 1 degree centigrade above todays temperature then farmers will be able to start growing wheat. They will also greatly increase the number of cattle and sheep they keep because they will be able to grow 20% more hay. Most of the 300,000 people in Iceland live close to the coast. Sea level rise will threaten Reykjavik and many other smaller towns. Extreme weather events caused by low pressure will become more common. Storm surges will cause coastal erosion and flooding. Small changes in the ocean currents could affect fish stocks in the seas around Iceland affecting fisherman. 87% of Icelands electricity is created by HEP. Climate change will gradually cause the glaciers and ice caps to melt. This means that rivers will have an even greater discharge during spring and summer months. Iceland will be able to create even more electricity. This will make Iceland a big attraction to energy-hungry industries such as aluminium smelting and web servers. Tourism may also be impacted. The cost of air travel is rising due to rising cost due to carbon dioxide emissionswill tourists still visit if cost of air travel goes up? Also will people still come to visit if the ice disappears.

Case Study 8 Norfolk Broads, East Anglia (MEDC)

Topics: A case study that looks at the impact that people have on a small-scale ecosystem, and how this is being managed.
Location The Norfolk broads are situated in Eastern England. They lie close to three of Norfolks main rivers and are near to the coast. They are designated as a National Park. Background The Norfolk Broads are the remains of old peat workings dating from Saxon and late medieval times. They were abandoned when sea level rose and flooded the area. Many of the Broads are linked by natural streams and rivers while others are artificially joined. The Norfolk Broads are a wetland environment that is home to a wide range of creatures and plants. The Norfolk Broads today have three principle elements: natural history, tourism and agriculture. The conflicts between these three have created a need for management.

Activity

Problem Eutrophication This is the fertilisation of water as a result of too many nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus. Algae and other floating plants can multiply and block out sunlight from the water, leading to reduction of water plants that put oxygen into the water, as result fish and other aquatic life die. Fresh Water The Ecology of the broads depends on a regular flow of fresh water. This has been greatly reduced by demands for irrigation and for the public water supply. Lower river levels can lead to inflows of salt water from the sea which can threaten the freshwater ecosystem. Tourists Boats Thousands of tourists each year bring power boats, barges and yachts to the Broads. Many others hire boats or take day trips. Wash leads to bank erosion. Water Quality Anglers Lead pollution from the weights used by anglers is poisonous to invertebrates, plants and animals. Lead weights have also injured swans that swallow them accidentally.

What problems do humans cause?

Agriculture grazing of cattle, use of fertilizers and draining of marshes. (Farmers)

Tourism generates 20-30 million each year.

Management Strategies Phosphorus has been traced to a few sewage treatment works and can be treated by adding chemicals to the treatment process. Biological Manipulation This restores water quality. Fish are temporarily removed from an area of water, allowing an increase in the water flea population. The water fleas consume the algae that cause eutrophication. When fish are returned to the water they eat the water flea. Farming Grazing Marshes Conservation Scheme encourage farmers to return to using traditional grazing practices and provided a grant for this. Boating Zoning has been introduced, which restricts certain activities to particular areas. Some boat users have been asked to avoid some stretches of water during certain times of the year. Bank Erosion Reed walls are put along the banks to protect them and dissipate the wash of the boats. Boats have been designed with a hull that deflects the water to the centre of the river instead of towards the banks. This reduces wash and so bank erosion.

The Rainforest Nutrient Cycle

Trees and animals die. Leaves fall (Flow)

BIOMASS Weight of living material (plants and organisms) (Store)

LITTER Surface layer of vegetation (Store)

Nutrients released as plants and leaves decomposein rainforests this happens rapidly due to high temperatures and damp conditions.

Nutrients taken up by plants. (Flow)

SOIL (Store)

Some additional nutrients added by weathering of rock. (Flow)

Some nutrients lost due to leaching. This happens a lot in rainforests due to the heavy daily rainfall. (Flow)

Above is a diagram to show you the nutrient cycle within a rainforest. It consists of stores (where nutrients are stored i.e. soil, trees etc and flows i.e. leafs falling from trees or nutrients leaching into the rock under the soil.

Case Study 9 Amazon Rainforest, Brazil (LEDC)

Topics: A case study that looks at how an ecosystem is structured; how plants and animals have adapted to the ecosystem; the importance of the ecosystem; how people are damaging it; what impact this is having and how this ecosystem can be managed sustainably.

The Climate of the Rainforest Rain forests belong to the tropical wet climate group. The temperature in a rain forest rarely gets higher than 93 F (34 C) or drops below 68 F (20 C); average humidity is between 77 and 88%; rainfall is often more than 100 inches a year. There is usually a brief season of less rain. In monsoonal areas, there is a real dry season. Almost all rain forests lie near the equator. It usually rains each afternoon. There are huge thunderstorms which are caused by convectional rainfall.

A map to show the location of the worlds rainforests

Structure of the rainforest

Emergent Layer

Canopy

Under Canopy

Forest Floor

Case Study 9 Amazon Rainforest, Brazil (LEDC)

Topics: A case study that looks at how an ecosystem is structured; how plants and animals have adapted to the ecosystem; the importance of the ecosystem; how people are damaging it; what impact this is having and how this ecosystem can be managed sustainably.

Structure of the rainforest

Emergent layer - trees are spaced wide apart, and are 100 to 240 feet tall with umbrella-shaped canopies that grow above the forest. Because emergent trees are exposed to drying winds, they tend to have small, pointed leaves. Some species lose their leaves during the brief dry season in monsoon rainforests. These giant trees have straight, smooth trunks with few branches. Their root system is very shallow, and to support their size they grow buttresses that can spread out to a distance of 30 feet.

The canopy - allows light to be easily available at the top of this layer, but greatly reduced any light below it. Most of the rainforest's animals live in the upper canopy. There is so much food available at this level that some animals never go down to the forest floor. The leaves have "drip tips" that allows rain to run off. This keeps them dry and prevents mould and mildew from forming in the humid environment.

The under canopy - This layer is made up of the trunks of canopy trees, shrubs, plants and small trees. There is little air movement. As a result the humidity is constantly high. This level is in constant shade.

The forest floor - is usually completely shaded, except where a canopy tree has fallen and created an opening. Most areas of the forest floor receive so little light that few bushes or herbs can grow there. As a result, a person can easily walk through most parts of a tropical rain forest. Less than 1 % of the light that strikes the top of the forest penetrates to the forest floor. The top soil is very thin and of poor quality. A lot of litter falls to the ground where it is quickly broken down by decomposers like termites, earthworms and fungi. The heat and humidity further help to break down the litter. This organic matter is then just as quickly absorbed by the trees' shallow roots.

Case Study 9 Amazon Rainforest, Brazil (LEDC)

Topics: A case study that looks at how an ecosystem is structured; how plants and animals have adapted to the ecosystem; the importance of the ecosystem; how people are damaging it; what impact this is having and how this ecosystem can be managed sustainably.

Rainforest Adaptations
Trees are tall (up to 40m) - they need to grow rapidly in order to reach life-giving sunlight. Tree trunks are straight, and in their lower parts, branchless in their efforts to grow tall. Leaves are all at the top of the trees as that is where the sunlight can be found. The roots of the trees are very shallow so need support as they are so tall. This support is provided by buttress roots (triangular bases) to help support the tree. Leaves of trees have drip tips as if water sits on leaves they will rot. Drip tips ensure that the leaves shed water quickly. Sloths hair grows downwards so as water washes straight off of their backs and prevents them getting wet.

The importance of the rainforest Just 20 species of plant in the rainforest provide 90% of the worlds food. Medicines and medical equipment. Curare and Quinine, obtained from Amazon rainforest plants, are used in medical surgery and to treat malaria. The Rosy Periwinkle is used to treat childhood Leukaemia. Rubber and sugar are obtained from rainforest trees Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere helping to ease issues surrounding global warming.

Why are Rainforests being destroyed? Rain forests are being eliminated for timber, minerals, agriculture, and human settlement. Other motives, such as the desire to conquer nature or to control unoccupied territory, also are factors in deforestation. Trees in Brazil are disappearing for five reasons 1. Logging for export to MEDCs trees should be replanted so the industries can keep selling long-term, but may LEDCs want to make money today and dont plant for the future. 2. Population is increasing settlement and road building in the TRF is needed. 3. Cattle Ranches The forest is cleared and cattle ranches set up. This quickly makes the land useless. 4. Mineral extraction helps Brazil pay foreign debts Carajas in Brazil is the worlds largest iron reserve. 5. Hydro-electric power has led to large areas of land being flooded.

Case Study 9 Amazon Rainforest, Brazil (LEDC)

Topics: A case study that looks at how an ecosystem is structured; how plants and animals have adapted to the ecosystem; the importance of the ecosystem; how people are damaging it; what impact this is having and how this ecosystem can be managed sustainably.

The Effects of Deforestation on the Environment

Deforestation

Change in Biodiversity Loss of plant species Animal food supply and habitat lost Species become extinct or threatened Change in Hydrology Water cycle is disrupted Interception and evaporation are reduced Surface run-off increases Silt washed into rivers causing floods

Change in soils Soil is easily eroded Torrential rain removes nutrients Soil becomes infertile Surface runoff causes gull eying and mud slides Change in Climate Transpiration is reduced. The climate becomes drier. Global Warming

The Effects of deforestation on People

The Benefits Money earned would benefit other projects in the country e.g. medical centres, schools, infrastructure, industry etc. Money earned would help to clear Brazils debts. Quality of life would be improved for local people as it creates jobs Primary goods can be exported and so create wealth. The Problems Infertile soil means that farmers have little time to farm. Soil erosion clogs up rivers and makes navigation difficult, water polluted and fish stocks decline Native people of the rainforest lose their livelihoods, culture and newcomers bring disease. Medicines are lost. Research becomes limited as species are destroyed New species of plants are still being discovered. Many may go unfound. Global Warming trees absorb CO2 and so reduce Global Warming. Burning them gives off CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)

Case Study 9 Amazon Rainforest, Brazil (LEDC)

Topics: A case study that looks at how an ecosystem is structured; how plants and animals have adapted to the ecosystem; the importance of the ecosystem; how people are damaging it; what impact this is having and how this ecosystem can be managed sustainably.

How can the Amazon Rainforest be sustainably managed?

Ecological Reserves have been createdthese are areas rich in wildlife that are completely protected from exploitation and development. Extractive reserves have also been createdno trees are felled or damaged, but local people have limited farming and fishing rights and can collect forest products such as rubber, brazil nuts, fruits, and specimens for scientific research. This is sustainable because plants can regenerate naturally and the rainforest is unharmed. Sustainable forestry methods can be used where one tree is replanted for each tree felled or logging is undertaken in thin lines through the rainforest (strip logging) so that great swathes of trees are not taken down. Ecotourism is also being encouraged: this is small-scale, with small numbers of tourists, controlled by local people and environmentally friendly.

Sources of fresh water

The water on this planet is split into 95.96% salt water and 4.04% fresh water. The 4% that is fresh water is divided into five main stores shown below:

Atmosphere 0.024%

Glaciers and polar ice 73.8%

Biosphere 0.0025%

Groundwater 26%

Surface stores (lakes and rivers) 0.22%

The Water Cycle

10

1 Evaporation (output) 4 Infiltration 7 Throughflow (Transfer)

2 Condensation 5 Evapotranspiration 8 Groundwater Flow (Transfer) Examples of stores would be: Glaciers Lakes Aquifers

3 Precipitation (Input) 6 Surface Runoff 9 Interception

10 Percolation

Case Study 10 Lesotho Highlands Water Project, involves countries of Lesotho and South Africa (LEDC)
Topics: A case study of water management/water supply. Water being distributed from a wet (Lesotho Highlands) to a dry area (Johannesburg).
Background The country of Lesotho, and particularly Lesotho Highlands, receives a lot of rainfall. (1338-2340mm per year). Johannesburg is a rapidly growing city in South Africa (located just to the North of Lesotho). It only receives 335-668 mm per year of rainfall so has a shortage of water. Lesotho is one of the worlds poorest countries but it does have water!! It is able to sell its water to South Africa as part of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project. The scheme involves 4 major dams and 200km of tunnels. The project was agreed in 1986 between the two countries. There are 4 phases to the project and so far only one phase has been completed though three dams have been built.
Short term advantages and disadvantages : Lesotho. 1. Lesotho has water shortages itself and poor sanitation (Only 37% of people had any sanitation). 2. The people of Lesotho cannot get any of the LHWP water as it all goes to SA. 3. The people of Lesotho has benefitted from the new paved roads that have been built to build the dams and tunnels. 4. Many people were displaced by the building of the dams. 20,000 were displaced when the Katse dam was built in 1998. People were given some training and money but this has not helped them find jobs. 5. New jobs were created to work on the dams. 20,000 jobs were created but these are short term.

Long term advantages and disadvantages : Lesotho. 1. The money Lesotho gains could be spent on developing the countries own water supplies. 2. Lesotho will be able to use HEP Hydro Electric Power that the dams will produce. HEP is a renewable source of electricity. 3. Displaced people have not found jobs to support their families. Jobs that have been found are low paid. 4. New jobs and people moving into the area temporarily has caused AIDS cases to rise, prostitution and alcohol abuse. 5. Thousands of hectares of agricultural land have been destroyed.

Short term advantages and disadvantages : South Africa. 1. SA can increase the availability of safe clean water to its people. 2. People in Johannesburg had to pay higher water bills before they received any water. Money was needed by SA to pay for the dams and tunnels. 3. 50% of water was being lost because of leaking pipes. People were very cross about this waste and protested.

Groups affected Lesotho farmer Lesotho government minister Resident of Johannesburg

Other Water flow downstream from the dams will decrease. This will lead to reduce amounts of sediment. This will also result in reduced oxygen in the water and fewer nutrients. The water quality will be lower.

Long term advantages and disadvantages : South Africa. 1. The money ($8 billion) is loaned to SA from the World Bank and will have to be paid back.

Case Study 11 Sustainable Ways to manage South Africas Water Supply

Topics: A case study to look at how South Africa could manage its own water supply sustainably without having to use schemes like the LHWP. The methods below are sustainable ways of managing water and do not impact people or the environment in a negative way.

Ma Tshepo Khumbane is a South African farmer who teaches rainwater harvesting techniques. Her management strategies are affordable and practical for families, no matter how small the farm is or how little money they have. The above methods of water management are sustainable as they are not big enough to have an impact on the surrounding drainage basin so they are sustainable. They use cheap practical methods of appropriate technology which are easy to maintain. Methods: Trenches on farmers fields are dug along the contours of the slope to catch rain water and prevent soil erosion. Vegetable beds are filled with organic matter such as leaves and manure to help retain water. Some beds are surrounded by stones called bunds, to help retain rainwater when it falls and to stop soil washing away. Water is collected from the roof when it rains and used. The above methods have been vital in preventing the effects of drought in rural areas in South Africa (the village of Athol in Limpopo) and can be easily maintained by rural farmers.

Case Study 12 Drought and Desertification in Kenya. (LEDC)

Topics: A case study to look at the impact of desertification in Kenya and how it can be managed.

Climatic Change

Less rainfall, increased drought More animals reared Overgrazing

Soil exposed to wind and rain Increased risk of soil erosion

Population Growth

More land needed for crops

Overcultivation

Vegetation Cover Removed

Vegetation dies

Vegetation cannot reestablish itself

Desertification

More energy needed for cooking

Deforestation

Desertification is the process where land turns into desert.

Causes Bad farming techniques have increased soil erosion. Pastoral farmers have been forced to overgraze the land or use marginal land. Slopes have been cultivated without cutting terraces, and forests have been cleared for large tea and coffee estates. An increasing number of trees have been cleared for firewood and for expanding urban areas. This leaves the land open to erosion by wind and rain. A change in the global climate is causing more droughts than normal. This damages the ecosystems and soils in many areas.

Case Study 12 Drought and Desertification in Kenya. (LEDC)

Topics: A case study to look at the impact of desertification in Kenya and how it can be managed.

Impacts Most of the impacts are felt in the northern lowlands of Kenya around Lake Turkana, where very little rainfall is received. (Less than 250mm per year. People have to travel large distances for water. Food shortages and famine are rife. The amount of usable farmland available decreases as it is overused. Crop yields are smaller as rains do not occur as frequently and soil quality is poorer. What crops/food there are has to be locked away as is a precious commodity that some people may steel. Livestock have to be sold for food. Large areas of land turn into desert. Trees are cleared to create more farm land and to use for fuel wood, this leaves the top soil bare and open to erosion.

Management Establishments like the Bantu Tree Nursery encourage the planting of trees to stabilise and protect soil. Land is being terraced to allow for farming on slopes. Terracing land stabilises slopes, stops soil erosion and encourages water to be retained on the slopes. Stone bunds or walls are being placed around fields to keep top soil in place and to collect rainwater when it rains. Inter-cropping is being encouragedusing a variety of crops instead of just one. As the crops mature at different times this means that the precious soil is protected for longer periods of the year. Mini-dams are being created to collect rainwater when it falls.

Case Study 13 UK Floods 2007River Severn (Shrewsbury, Tewkesbury) (MEDC)

Topics: A case study to look at the causes, short and long term impact and management of flooding in an MEDC.
Causes Rainfall during the Summer of 2007 was unusual. Depressions that passed over the UK were very slow moving which led to huge amounts of rainfall. On the 20th July alone many parts of the UK had over 100mm of rainfall; thats more than the usual amount for the whole month! Due to a number of depressions having passed over one after the other the ground was saturated and could hold no more water resulting in large scale floodsparticularly on the River Severn in the Tewkesbury, Gloucester, Shrewsbury area. Other causes are outlined below: 1. Urban creepOver the last 60 years more and more houses have been built on floodplains. People are also paving over their front gardens. This means that more land is impermeable. Rain water flows straight into the rivers rather than soaking into the soil and causes flooding. 2. Ocean temperatures have been rising slowlyduring the Summer of 2007 the Atlantic Ocean was warmer than normal, causing an increase in evaporation and therefore rainfall.

Short term Impacts Thousands of motorists were stranded as roads became impassable and motorways closed. As many as 10,000 people were stranded on the M5 motorway. Rivers overflowed their banks destroying crops that were ready for harvesting. Sewerage and drainage systems could not cope with the huge quantities of water. Water flowed up from manhole covers and the sewers, flooding peoples homes and local businesses. People were advised to stay out of the floodwaters for fear of contamination with many complaining of sickness. In Gloucester an electricity substation was shut down, causing 40,000 people to lose electricity. A water treatment plant in Tewkesbury flooded, leaving 350,000 people without tap water. Schools and businesses were closed. Long Term Impacts Many people whose homes had been flooded had to stay with relatives or in caravans or hotels. Businesses had to be cleaned out and may lost orders whilst they repaired the damage. Shops were flooded and goods spoilt. Some children had to be taught in temporary classes without books, which had been lost in the floods. Farmers lost crops worth over 11 million. Insurance claims approached 3billion.

Sustainable Solutions to flooding Householders should be encouraged not to pave over their gardens. Advice needs to be given so that gravel and permeable surfaces are used instead of tarmac. Old storm drains also need to be replaced which are too old to cope with heavy rainstorms. Hard engineering schemes, like flood walls or levees, speed up the flow of water. These schemes funnel water along to the next community living further downstream and actually increase the risk of flooding. We need to return river valleys to a more natural state. If you allow rivers to flood in areas like farmland, this alleviates the pressure on the river and makes flooding less likely. Old peat bogs in the upper part of the river should be restored. Bogs act like sponges and soak up water meaning ess water reaches the river. Restrict building on flood plains Make homes flood proof e.g. put sockets higher up the wall and use yacht varnish to make wooden floors water proof. Groups involved: Motorists, Water Board, Electricity Board, school children, insurance companies, shop owners, farmers.

Case Study 14 Flood Management, River Mississippi, USA (MEDC)

Topics: A case study to look at the impact of desertification in Kenya and how it can be managed.
Background: River Mississippi is over 3000km long and drain half of the USA. The two main problems that need managing on the Mississippi are flooding and keeping the river channel clear for shipping. The task of controlling the Mississippi belongs to the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The river management techniques they have put in place are outlined below:

Hard Engineering
Technique Leveesto control flooding Method Walls built either side of the river to keep the river in its channel and protect the floodplain. Problems Good at controlling small and medium sized floods but when a 1 in 100 year flood occurred in 1993, the levees could not cope with the extra water. They failed and ended up making flooding worse than it naturally would have been. Rivers do not like to flow in a straight line. Within 10 years the River Mississippi gained back 50km of the 250km it had lost. Speeding water through some areas increases the risk of flooding downstream. Increase in erosion could lead to an increase in deposition downstream.

Channel Improvement

The river was straightened, and shortened by 250km so that water would pass through urban areas quickly and not flood. It was also lined with concrete to increase the speed of flow. Concrete walls were built out into the river. These wall trapped sediment making the river narrower and therefore deeper. This improved the depth of the channel for shipping. Dams used in the upper course to hold back water and ease pressure on the levees further downstream.

Wing Dykes

Control dams

Dams trap sediment and increase erosion downstream as river is not carrying sediment and has more energy to erode.

Soft Engineering (Sustainable Management) Soft engineering is a sustainable alternative to hard engineering. It does not involve building walls and dams. Instead you could plant trees which would intercept and absorb rain water reducing the risk of flooding. You could allow parts of the river to flood where not important i.e. farmland. This would then reduce the amount of water in the river and decrease the risk of flooding downstream. You can also create wetland/marsh areas around the river which act like natural sponges, soaking up any excess water.

Case Study 15 The risk of flood and drought in Cambodia (LEDC) A case study of interdependency
Topics: A case study to look at how long and short term international co-operation might improve responses to drought and flood risk in Cambodia.
Many rivers cross from one country into another on their way to the sea. The River Mekong flows through six countries between its source and mouthCambodia, Thailand, Laos, Burma, Vietnam and China. Each country relies on the river for its water supply and for food. Drought and flooding in Cambodia Cambodia has a tropical climate with a seasonal pattern of rainfall. Spring has a low rainfall and drought and food shortages are possible. Late summer is then dominated by low pressure and rain (monsoon). This then causes flooding. The people of Cambodia rely on these natural floods as they deposit fertile silt on their floodplains improving farming. They also rely on this flooding to water their rice crops.
Are dams the answer or the problem to flooding and drought in Cambodia? Dams do have their benefits. The dams in China generate electricity to fuel Chinas fast growing economy. Dams also reduce the risk of flooding. Dams built on the Mekong have evened out its flow and reduce the size of annual floods in Cambodia. But they also have disadvantages. 25,000 people lost their homes in China when the Manwan dam was built. Dams on international rivers like the River Mekong can create conflict between different countries that are dependent on the water. Building a dam in one country alters the flow of water causing problems for people who live further downstream. So as more water is used in China, less arrives in Cambodia and farmers are fearful that there will not be enough water for a good rice harvest. The Cambodian government feels, that as the country furthest downstream, it is most vulnerable to changes made to the river by other countries. It feels that river management upstream by China is affecting the frequency of floods, rate of sediment deposition and the fish population. Cambodian fisherman are also impacted as the dams are preventing the migration of fish downstream reducing their catch. How should the river be managed in the future? An international response is needed to solve Cambodias flood and drought issues. Short and long term solutions are outlined below: Short Term Solutions Produce advice to householders on how to protect themselves Assess flood risks in each community Long Term Solutions Fund a flood control centre to collect data and issue forecasts Better land use planning so that homes are not built on floodplains Start talking to neighbouring countries about river management Set up an annual conference where guests are invited from neighbouring countries

Meander Formation

River Cliff

Point Bar or slip off slope

A meander is a bend in a river. The river flows faster on the outside of a bend so has more power to erode banks. On the inside of a bend the water flows more slowly due to friction. The river loses energy as it slows down and deposits its load on the inside . The processes involved in the erosion on the outside of the bend are hydraulic action and abrasion. The landform created as a result of this erosion is a river cliff. The landform created on the inside of the bend due to deposition is called a point bar or a slip off slope. The fastest flow of the river is always in the deepest part.

Case Study 16 A river landformGullfoss Waterfall, Iceland (MEDC)

Topics: A case study to show the formation of a river landform, the impact the landform has on people and the impact people have on the landform.
What impact do people have on Gullfoss and what impact does it have on people?
Tourists walk down to the waterfall and have eroded an unsightly footpath. 300,000 people visit Gullfoss every year. There is a large tarmaced parking area that is unsightly. Tourists trample the very fragile arctic vegetation killing plants and leaving the bare soil susceptible to rain erosion. Hydro electricity companies wish to dam the gorge. The waterfall would disappear under a reservoir or, if the dam were upstream there would be little water flow. People travel from all over the world to visit this unique landform and the fast flowing water attracts white water rafters. People visit the large caf and gift shop on site and stay overnight in local hotels booming the

How was Gulfoss formed. The river Hvita is fed by glacial meltwater. The gorge created by Gullfoss waterfall is 3km long. The river erodes the lava flows into a series of steps and creates a gorge downstream of the waterfall. The river erodes through hydraulic action, corrasion and corrosion.. The lava flows are undercut by the erosion of the river creating a plunge pool. The overhanging lip collapses causing the position of the waterfall to retreat upstream. Because there are several lava flows there are several steps to the waterfall. The waterfall has formed within the last 10,000 years since the end of the last ice age. Gulfoss is one of three biggest tourists attractions in Iceland, part of the golden triangle.

local economy and creating employment for local people. How is the area managed? The footpath to the waterfall is closed in winter as it is icy and dangerous and most damage from trampling feet could occur. There is sufficient tarmaced car and coach parking so vehicles do not park on the fragile arctic vegetation. There is a visitors information centre to inform people about caring for the environment. There are toilets available. The area has been designated a protected national park so that it cannot be bought by a private company. There are board walkways so that visitors can get to viewpoints above the waterfall without trampling the fragile arctic vegetation. There are litter bins in the car park!

Case Study 17 Hurst Castle Spit, England (MEDC)

Topics: A case study of a coastal landform looking at its formation and impact on people.

How did it form? Longshore drift is the process where sediment is transported along the coast via the processes of swash (waves pushing sediment onto the beach) and backwash (waves moving sediment off of the beach). In this way sediment is moved along the coastline pushed by the prevailing wind direction. If the sediment comes to a change in direction of coastline it carries on depositing along the line of the previous coastline creating the beginning of spit formation. The spit continues to get larger and often has a curved end caused by the direction of the secondary wind. Behind the spit a salt marsh can be found, this is due to the fact that water is sheltered in this area encouraging deposition and vegetation then colonises this area.

How does Hurst Castle Spit affect people and how do people affect it?? Hurst Castle Spit is supplied (sediment) by the erosion that happens frequently further west along the coast at Barton on Sea. The spit has created a sheltered harbour for the settlement of Keyhaven which would not exist if it were not for the spit. Hurst Castle has been built on the end of the spit to protect The Solent from invaders and is now an important tourist destination. The salt marsh that has been created behind the spit attracts many wild, rare species of birds which attract bird watchers. Tourists come from a long distance away to visit this unique landform and the castle at the end of the spit. Recently though, the spit has been under threat of being breached due to the coastal management that has now been put in place at Barton on Sea. As a result, it is now managed to prevent the spit from disappearing. On the hinge of the spit is a large boulder groyne to trap sediment and build this area of the spit up. Beach nourishment is regularly used to build up the spit to protect it. Boulder armouring has been placed at the foot of Hurst Castle to protect it from coastal erosion.

Case Study 18 Barton on Sea, England (MEDC)

Topics: A case study of coastal managementusing defences to prevent coastal erosion and the impact this management has.
Why is management needed at Barton on Sea? There are many human and physical reasons why this scheme was needed. Firstly the cliffs at Barton on sea consist of soft rock including local bolder clay. In addition to this the fetch at Barton on Sea on average is about 4000km, this means that there is high wave energy in the area, these factors combined mean that the area has a high rate of erosion measuring 1.2 meters a year. In addition to this the cliffs are made up of layers of permeable rocks types which lie on top of impermeable rock types. This means that the area suffers from slumping. Barton on Sea is a heavily populated area and it is estimated that 15 properties will be lost in the next 20 years. A main bus route also runs across the cliff tops in this area, as well as a few small local businesses. The human and physical factors combined mean that the management in the area is necessary

What impact does the management have on people? The management techniques put in place have reduced the rate of erosion in the area but have had a detrimental affect on the natural look of the beach. Some methods used are unsightly and the buckling sheet piles are dangerous. However they have served to protect what is an economically very important part of the coastline, although erosion is still occurring but at a slower rate. Local businesses and residents properties are being protected. An alternative to the hard engineering techniques being used at Barton on Sea is know as soft engineering. These are techniques which do not affect the natural look of the environment. Beach nourishment is one soft engineering technique where sediment is placed on the beach in front of the cliff to protect it from wave attack. Another alternative is managed retreat where you allow certain parts of the coastline to erode naturally where it is not economically important i.e. farmland. Erosion at these points allows more sediment into the system and beaches build up in front of settlements providing protection.

What management has been put in place? How successful has it been? Wooden and rock groynes have been placed at the foot of the cliff to trap sediment and build up a beach in front of the cliff. Drainage pipes have been placed into the cliff to take water away from the slippery impermeable clay layer to prevent slumping. Gullies and fan-shaped drains have also been placed on the cliff face to get rid of excess water. Rock armour has been placed at the foot of the cliff to protect it from wave attack. All of the above methods have been successfulparticularly the cliff drainage system. The barrier of interlocking sheet pile that was put into the cliff face has not been so successful and in places is already buckling under the weight of the cliff quite dramatically.