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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027765373
s V
y.
ANCIENT HISTORY
BY
PHILIP
FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND POLITICAL ECONOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI, AUTHOR OF "MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY," "A GENERAL HISTORY," AND "HISTORY AS PAST ETHICS"
COPYRIGHT, 1904, 1916, BY PHILIP VAN NESS MYERS ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL
ALL RIGHTS RESERVEI?
516.8
M
GINN AND COMPANY- PROPKIETORS BOSTON U.S.A.
edition of 1904,
was issued
its first
publication as
a textboolc.
this
now
give out
in
second revised
The
been subjected
dis-
The
additions include,
title
many new
sections,
of
jEgean
Civilization)
period.
The
illus-
many new
Works
first
to the bibliographies,
lists.
subjjSdts suggested,
it
will
be
that
given detailed treatment in the text without leaving lank and meager
the narrative of events.
That the
maximum
of usefulness for
schools
whose expenditures
for books
must be
have received
in the"
work of
revision
on
this
am
to Dr.
W. Max
Miiller, of
who
IV
PREFACE
me
with
many
valuable sugges-
To
Dr. Joseph
Edward Harry,
I also
owe thanks
history,
on Greek
and
to
The
Phillips
Rome.
P. V. N.
M.
EDITION
what
I
1888
work
"
The
pansion of
my
was published
It is
as a library
book
&
I
Brothers.
work the
now
The
;
wholly rewritten
(1895); the
based on
Its
my
History of Greece
Roman
my Rome:
Rise
and Fall
(1901).
Besides this brief statement of fact there are various other things
relating to the scope
be said in
this place
and aim of the work that might properly enough but the book must speak for itself. I write
;
my
gratitude to those
who
in
doing
which does
It
would not be
on the volume
my
it
may
possess.
To
Professor
am
me
to Dr.
Ruf us
B. Richardson, for
many
owe
Greek portion
to Dr.
(}f
Henry
am
indebted for
vi
PREFACE
all
reading
as they
;
appear in
my Rome :
Rise
and
Fall) of the
to Professor
me
my
work from the extinction, of the Roman Empire the West to its restoration by Charlemagne is based. I wish further to make grateful acknowledgment of the assistance
given
me by
of the
Greek and
former
Roman
pupil,
chapters
and of the
aid I
have received
from
given
my me
work by
my
thanks to the
Fogg
Museum
and of the Public Library of Cincinnati, for the use and loan of
books, photographs, and other illustrative material. ...
nection
it is
fitting that
many fine pen drawings which cmbelhsh Mr, Homer W. Colby of Boston.
Lastly, to
my
publishers I feel
prompted
to express
my
appreciI
have dared
plates
aid
I
;
cuts,
and
efficient
have received from the heads and members of the various departments of their house.
P. V. N.
M.
May
12,
1904
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
PAGE
:
General Introduction
Prehistoric Times
II.
17
PART
III.
I.
30
B.C.)
23 23
Political History
II.
The
Civilization
... ...
....
.* .
34
IV.
earliest times to
728
B.C.)
Political History
II.
...
...
b.c.)
S3
V.
64
64 69
75 79
Political
History
....
II.
The
Civilization
VI.
VII, Thf.
VIII.
The Chaldean Empire. (625-538 b.c.) Hebrews Phoenicians, Hittites, and Lydians
.
87 87
91
I.
II.
III.
...
b.c.)
93
IX.
(558-330
95 95 100
Political History
...
II.
X.
106 106
India
II.
China
no
Vlll
CONTENTS
PART
II.
CHAPTER
XI.
GREECE
PAGE 114
J,
I2I_^
The ALgean
I.
Civilization
128
.
.
140
140 143
...
o*'
...
III.
Tyrannies
B.C.)
162
162
171
II.
The Age of Colonization. (About 750-600 The Tyrannies. (About 650-500 B.C.)
....
XVII.
XVIII. Hellas
The History of Athens up to the Persian Wars Overshadowed by the Rise of Persia
Prelude to the Persian Wars
177
187
191
b. c.)
XIX. The Persian Wars. (500-479 b.c.) XX. The Making of the Athenian Empire. (479-445 XXI. The Age of Pericles. (445-431 b.c.)
207
...
. . .
212
XXII.
....
II.
The Peloponnesian War. (431-404 B.C.) The Spartan and the Theban Supremacy
XXIII.
The Greeks of Western Hellas. (413-336 XXIV. The Rise of Macedonia: Reign of Philip
336
B.C.)
.
b.c.)
1 1.
(359251
XXV. Alexander the Great. (336-323 .c.) XXVI. The Grco-Oriental World from the Death of Alexander to the Conquest of Greece by the
.
256
Romans. (323-146
I.
b.c.)
.
266
266 268 269 273 274 276 278
Hellenistic Culture
II.
Macedonia
...
Greece
.
III. Continental
IV. Rhodes
in
Egypt
....
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
_
ix
PAGE
283
Architecture
...
.
...
II.
Sculpture
. .
III. Painting
Introductory
....
II.
III.
IV.
The Period before 475 B.C. The Attic or Golden Age. (475-300 B.C.) The Alexandrian Age. (300-146 B.C.)
.
....
....
...
...
XXIX. Greek Philosophy and Science XXX. Social Life of the Greeks
....
Kingdom
. .
329
PART
First Period
III.
ROME
Rome as a
XXXI. Italy and its Early Inhabitants XXXII. Rome as a Kingdom I. The Beginnings of Rome
...
.
... ...
.
'.
II.
Society
and Government
III.
Religion
IV. Rome under the Kings. (Legendary Date 753-509 Legends of Early Rome
.
.
B.C.)
Second Period
Rome as a Republic.
(509-31
b.c.)
XXXIII. The Early Republic; Plebeians Secure Equality with the Patricians. (509-367 *b. c.)
360
Italy.
(367-
373
. .
XXXV. Expansion
I.
of
382
War. (264-241 B.C.) II. Rome and Carthage between the First and the Second Punic War. (241-218 B.C.) III. The Second Punic War. (2i8-20( B.C.) IV. Events between the Second and the Third Punic War.
First Punic
The
382
388
(201-146 B.C.)
V.
B.C.)
408
X
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
PAGE
Third
Period Rome as
an Empire.
/ The
Principate.
XXXVII. The Establishment of the Empire and the Principate OF Augustus C/esar.
(31
b.c.-i4A,d.)
442 452
// The
Great
I.
Absolute Monarchy
475
.
.
(284^305 a.d.)
II.
475 480
XL. The
Break-up
of
the Empire
in
the West.
.
(376-476 A.D.)
...
. . .
486
...
t
.
II.
and Law
...
....
PART
XLII.
XLIII.
IV.
527
532
.
II.
III.
The Conversion of the Barbarians The Rise of Monasticism The Rise of the Papacy
.... ....
.
.
^32
r3r
C38
543
in
the East
REssroRATioN
548
S5i
of
the
.
.
rr8
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY
^63
573
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
(After photographs, and from cuts taken from Baunieister's Deftkmaeler des klassischen AlteriumSy Oscar Jaeger's Weltgeschichte^ Schreiber's Atlas of Classical Antiquities^ and other reliable sources.)
FIGURE
1.
PAGE
.
,
2. 3.
4.
5.
Implements of the Old Stone Age Engraving of a Mammoth on the Fragment of a Tusk ... Engraving on a Reindeer Antler Wall Painting from the Cavern of Font-de-Gaume, France Implements of the New Stone Age
. . . .
.
....
.
.3
.
3 4
5
...
. .
6.
7.
Prehistoric Egyptian
8.
6
7
Age
9. Pirimitive
9
15
10.
...
.
,
...
-13
18
n. Stonehenge 12. Negro Captives 13. Ploughing and Sowing 14. Reaping the Grain 1 5. Ivory Statuette of a King
.
....
.
.....
.
.
...
. .
24
-24
26
27
of the First
Dynasty
. .
-28
29
Gifts
....
....
Kheta
30
31
20.
Rameses
II over the
21.
22.
32
.
23. 24.
.... ....
....
...
...
33
.35
36
25.
26.
....
i-
.37
38
27. Profile of
28. 29.
Rameses
II
4
4'
Mummy
An
42 43
>
30.
31.
The Judgment
Dead
32. 33.
44
45 45
xii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Ancient Babylonian Canal Impression of a Seal of Sargon I Door Socket of Sargon I Excavation showing Pavements in a Court of the Temple of Bel at Nippur Cuneiform Writing Table showing the Development of the Cuneiform Writing Babylonian Tablet Contract Tablet Diorite Seated Statue of Gudea, Ruler of Lagash (Shirpurla)
. .
.
-.
34.
49
5'
5^
38.
39. 40.
.....
.
S4
55 55
41. 42.
....
. .
5^ 56
59 60
61
Child
Hammurabi Receiving
66
67
Transport of a Winged Bull 47. An Assyrian Kelek 48. An Assyrian King and his Captives 49. Excavating an Assyrian Palace 50. Emblem of Ashur, the Supreme Deity of Assyria 51. Restoration of a Court in Sargon's Palace at Khorsabad 52. Assyrians Flaying Prisoners Alive 53. Lion Hunt 54. Restoration of the Southern Citadel of Babylon 55. Babylonian Lion 56. The Place of Wailing 57. The Later Temple at Jerusalem as Enlarged and Beautified by Herod 58. Species of the Murex
...
68 69 70
71
....
. .
....
. .
72
....
73
73
76
77
83
85
87
59.
Phoenician Galley
60.
Development
of
English
Letters
from the
90
91
The
Hittite
God
of the
Sky
Caravan Crossing the Taurus Hittite Hieroglyphic Writing Croesus on the Pyre
. .
...
. . .
.
92 92 96
97 98
65.
The Tomb
of Cyrus, at Pasargadse
Insurgent Captives brought before Darius 67. Traces of the Royal Road of Darius 68. The Behistun Rock 69. Rock-cut Tomb of Darius I, near Persepolis
66.
. . .
99 99
. . .
roc
102
70. 71.
72.
103
104
Derivation of Modern Earlier Pictorial Writing 74. Gallery in the South Wall at Tiryns
73. 75.
from
....
1.
.111
-115
116
...
...
The
Plain of Olympia
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
76.
Xlll
PAGE
The Labyrinth
Theseus and the Minotaur The Lions' Gate at Mycenae Battle at the Ships between the Greelis and Trojans Hissarlik, the Probable Site of Ancient Troy Grave Circle at Mycenas
122 123
7778.
79-
126
128 129
80. 81.
at
Mycense
. .
130
131
Great Magazines, or Storerooms, of the Palace at Cnossus Fresco of a Young Cup-bearer 85. A Cnossian Seal Impression 86. Theater and " Dancing-place " (?) Excavated at Cnossus Dr. Evans 87. Cretan Linear Tablet with Chariot and Horse
...
.
....
132
133
by
134
135
....
...
The
90.
So-called "
of
Group
"
.
144
to the
.
The Carrying
Persephone by Hades
. .
Underworld
her
145
.
.
146
147 148 152 '55 16S
100. loi.
Greek Runners ... Racing with Four-horse Chariots ... Battle between Greeks and Amazons ... Sparta, with the Ranges of the Taygetus in the Background Ruined Temples at Passtum Coin of Cyrene Coin of Corinth The Bema, or Orator's Stand, on the Pnyx Hill, Athens The Athenian Tyrannicides, Harmodius and Aristogiton
.
.
....
....
....
....
. .
Ostrakon with
Name
of Themistocles
102. Hoplite, or
103.
104. Pericles
105.
106.
The The
Theseum
107. Alcibiades
...
.
.
108, 109.
Coin of Syracuse
....
.
.
249
253
257
Demosthenes
no. Alexander the Great III. The So-called Sarcophagus of Alexander 112. The Dying Gaul
113-
264
274
27s
Restoration of the Great Altar of Zeus Soter at Pergamum 114. Showing the Influence of the Master-form of the Pharos on the Evolution of the Moslem Minaret and the Christian Church
Tower
Orders of Greek Architecture 116. The Parthenon
115.
,
280
.
284
287
xiv
FIGURE
117. -The
118.
119.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
at
Athens
.
'.
...
...
...
.
29'
The Charioteer
Throwing the Discus, or Quoit ... Athenian Youth in Procession ... Athena Parthenos Head of the Olympian Zeus by Phidias
. .
.... ....
. . .
.
292
293
294 295
295 296
297
125.
...
Wax
Paint
Homer
Hoeing and Ploughing
.
.
....
...
. . .
.
.......
...
.
...
.
137. 138.
Herodotus Thucydides
....
.
312
321
142.
143.
144.
145.
.....
.
.
...
.
Etruscan Chariot 146. Wall Painting of an Etruscan Banquet 147. Head of Janus 148. Divining by Means of the Appearance of the Entrails of a Sacrificial Victim 149. The Cloaca Maxima
.
An
....
...
.
350
3^1
.....
,.
. .
150.
Roman
Soldier
...
.
.
...
. .
... ...
.
.
354 355
361
Fasces
....
. . .
,.
...
. .
...
.
.
54.
155.
1
Duilius
,.
385
-587
.
Augur's Birds 157. Hannibal 158. Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus) 159. Coin of the Italian Confederacy 160. Mithradates the Great
56.
-igi
-ing
.
^15 420
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE
1
xv
PAGE
61.
Marius
(?)
421
162.
163.
Roman Trading
Pompey
.
425 427
166. 167.
168.
169.
170. 171.
Octavian (Octavius) as a Youth Cicero Augustus Maacenas Vespasian " Judaea Capta "
....
....'.
434
.
. . .
437 438
...
...
.
172. 173.
174.
Triumphal Procession from the Arch of Titus A Street in Pompeii ... House of the Vetti at Pompeii
. . .
....
. .
....
459 460
461
Column
.
462
....
.
Roman Aqueduct and Bridge near Nimes, France Commodus Represented as the Roman Hercules
Triumph
of Sapor over Valerian
. . . .
...
.
...
470
471
182. Caracalla
183.
Good Shepherd
The Labarum
Arch of Constantine at Rome, Germans Crossing the Rhine
as
it
186.
187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192.
193.
Appears To-day
...
,,
494
503 504
.
The Pantheon, at Rome The Roman Forum in 1885 The Circus Maximus .... The Colosseum
....
....
. .
505
506
. . . . .
A Roman
Milestone
...
194.
195. 196.
507 ^oS
Rome
509 510
197. Gladiators
...
.... ....
S'S
.
521
.
Dining-couch 199. Tomb of Theodoric at Ravenna 200. Ruins of the Celebrated Monastry of lona
198. Semicircular
.
....
.
201.
A Monk
Copyist
.
202. Trial
203.
546
552
LIST
PLATE
I.
OF PLATES
PAGE
;
The Parthenon. (A
restoration
in colors)
Frontispiece
II.
III.
Old Stone Age. (Aitex Brenil; in colors) the Pyramids of Gizeh. (From
6
a
photo26
(From
a photo-
30
.
V. Fapade of Rock Temple at Ipsambul. _ (From a photograph) VI. A Restoration of the Hall of Columns at Karnak. (From Liibke,
.
34 42
102
VII. "
The
History of Art in colors) Frieze of the Archers," from the Palace of Darius at Susa.
;
in colors)
VIII.
IX.
their
Scrolls.
,
...
.
13S
The Acropolis of Athens. (From a photograph) X. The Piraeus and the Long Walls of Athens. (A restoration)
178
.
210
XI.
A A
...
XII. The Mourning Athena. (From a photograph) XIII. General View of Olympia. (A restoration)
...
. .
...
. .
XIV.
Rock-hewn Facade
graph)
at Petra,
Arabia Petraea.
(From a photo466
502
.
XV. The Roman Forum. (A restoration) XVI. House of Livia, on the Palatine Hill
Stobart,
(interior view).
. .
(From
. ,
^lo
LIST OF
MAPS
Colored Maps
(After Kiepert, Schrader, Droysen, Spruner-Sieglin, and Freeman.
charts have
The Freeman been so modified by omissions and additions that most of them as they
PAGE
Semites, and
i8
...
Ancient Egypt Assyrian Empire, about 660 B.C. Median and Babylonian Empires, about 600 B.C. The Division of Solomon's Kingdom, about 953
.
22
.
.
......
.
.66
78 82
B.C.
98
114 162
Map
of Ancient Greece
Greece and the Greek Colonies ... at the Beginning of the Peloponnesian War, 431 B.C. Empire of Alexander the Great, about 323 B.c Italy before the Growth of the Roman Power The Mediterranean Lands at the beginning of the Second Punic War,
.
226
258
338
Z18 B.c
Dominions at the End of the Mithradatic War, 64 B.C. Empire at the Death of Augustus, 14 A. D Empire at its Greatest Extent (under Trajan, 98-1 1 7 a.d.) Empire Divided into Prefectures Map showing Barbarian Inroads on the Fall of the Roman Empire (movements shown down to 477 A.D.) Europe in the Reign of Theodoric, about 500 a.d.
390 426
446 462
478
486
526
Europe
814 A.D
...
554 558
Sketch Maps
The Tigris-Euphrates Valley The World according to Homer Magna Graecia and Sicily
Plan of the Battle of Marathon
xvii
50
143
167
194
xviii
LIST OF MAP
PAGE
Illustrating the Invasion of
Map
Greece by Xerxes
^'-'
^4 ^'
;
231
March
of the
...,;.
. . .
^4i
244
The Mountain System of Italy The Seven Hills of Rome The Roman Domain and the
.
>
....
Time
of the
.
33^
343
...
. .
3^4
392
549
Justinian
ANCIENT HISTORY
CHAPTER
I
The
The immensely
is
long
periods of
to
human
life
which
lie
man began
called the
The comparatively few centuries of human experience made known to us through such records comprise the Historic Age. In Egypt we find records which date from the fifth or fourth
Prehistoric Age.
millennium
b. c.
For Babylonia
it
opens about loop B.C.; for the countries of central and northern
Europe, speaking broadly, not until about the beginning of our era
New World only a little over four hundred years ago. How we Learn about Prehistoric Man. A knowledge of what manner of man prehistoric man was and what he did is indispensable
and for the
2.
and
In
dim
prehistoric ages of
human
life
the
man
cannot be understood
child.
But how,
in the
we
to find out
man ?
many ways we
life
much about
races
;
him.
First,
by studying the
of present-day backward
for
we have
behind
men who
dawn
of history
left
what manner of men they were. In ancient gravel beds along the streams where they fished or hunted, in the caves which afforded them shelter, in the refuse heaps
as to
I
PREHISTORIC TIMES
(kitchen middens)
in the graves
tities
[3
on the
where they
laid
away
learn
or or camping, places, great quantheir dead, we find hands. articles shaped by their
From
we
what
skill
these early
men had
acquired as tool
and something of
Fig.
No.
I,
I.
the core of a
flint
of Paleolithic
man.
It
clutched with the hand (No. 9), and hence is called the hand-ax or fist-ax. flint flake struck from a nodule. No. 8 (a harpoon-poilit) tells us that the
No. 2
is
man
of this
From No.
;
6 (a
infer that
he
made
clothing of skins, for since he had not yet learned the art of weaving (the spindle-
whorl does not appear till the next epoch see Fig. 5 and eiiplanatory note), the material of which he made clothing could hardly have been anything else than the skins of animals killed in the chase. That skins were carefully prepared is evidenced by the scraper (Nos. 4, 11), an implement used in dressing hides. No. f (an engraving-tool) tells us that art had its beginnings in Paleolithic times
3. Divisions of Prehistoric
Times.
The long
period of prehistoric
times
is
the material which man used in the manufacture of his weapons and tools. The earliest epoch is known as the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age; the following one as the Neolithic or New Stone
named from
Besides these material things that can be seen and handled, there are manv as, for instance, language, which is as full of human memories that light up for us the dim ages before history as the rocks are of fossils (see
1
immaterial things
sect, 10),
4]
Age
and the
Age
of Metals.
The
division lines
epochs run into and overlap one another, just as in modern times the Age of Steam runs into and overlaps the Age of Electricity.
4. The Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. :in the Old Stone Age man's chief implements were usually made of stone, and especially
of
chipped
flints,
though
bones,
horns,
material
tusks,
and
also
other
were
weapons of
Fig.
z.
Paleolithic
man,
found mostly
in river gravel
which
we
know
positively to
The rhan
Age
in
Among
the
of
know most
man
there)
no longer where
found
the regions
primitive
man
hunted them.
As
tation changed,
some of these
cold-loving
Fig.
3.
Engraving on a Reindeer
the
species retreated
What we know
a rock shelter
1
;
as follows
his habitation
implements were
These
efforts of
man
the oldest
them the
pictures on
PREHISTORIC TIMES
he had no domestic animals save possibly the dog
of the arts of spinning of
;
['^
he was ignorant
making
pottery.^
The
to
by millenniums even, but only But we do know that the long slow epochs did not pass away without some progress haying been made by primeval man, which assures us that though so lowly a creature, he was endowed with the capacity for growth and improvement. Before
reckon
duration by
centuries or
by geologic epochs.
acquired wonderful
the chipping of
flint
skill
in
points
and blades
the use of
he had learned
as
fire,
we know
fire
found
where he made his abode and he had prob^ ably invented the bow and
arrow, as
in
(After Breuil)
we find
this
weapon
man
war
what was
to
be one of
down
his chief
weapons
in the chase
and
in
to
and even
cave
But most prophetic of the great future of ithis savage or semisavage man of the Old Stone Age was the fine artistic talent that some
;
for,
strange as
it
may
seem,
among
were some amazingly good artists. Besides numerous specimens of his drawings and carvings of animals, chiefly on bone and ivory, which have been found from time to time during the last half century and more, there have recently been discovered many large drawings and paintings on the walls of various grottoes in southern France and northern Spain.^ These wonderful
the of this epoch there
1
men
The The
Australians and
;
New
Zealanders
when
first
stage of culture
2
first
were of
were discovered in 1879, but that they reallv the immense age claimed for them was not established beyond all doubt until
of these wall paintings
4]
the Celtic
pony of
one
The
species
species being
mammoth. This
that primitive
to the wild life
men shows
a hunter and
lives so close
more advanced
races
for as a
Fig.
5.
Implements of the
New
Stone Age
flints
These tools and weapons mark a great advance over the chipped
Stone
of the Old
Age
(Fig.
i).
of years of
human
'j^jo
the results of thousands (perhaps tens of thousands) experience and invention, and mark the first steps in human progress.
They embody
Nos. 7J and
fitting
handles to
show how after unmeasured ages man had learned to increase the and weapons by grinding them smooth and sharp, and by them. No. 5 records the incoming of the art of making pottery one
No. 6 (a spindle-whorl of stone or of hardened clay used as a weight in twisting thread) informs us that man had learned the civilizing arts of spinning and weaving
of Iron.
Age
high authority asserts, " in some respects the art of these hunter
painters has never been surpassed or even equaled."
art (sculpture, engraving,
The
history of
works of these
artist
hunters of the
1902 (see Cartailhac et Breuil, La Caveme d^Aliamira^ 1906 and Perony, La Caverne de Foni~de-Gaume^ 191c). The pictures are generally found in the depths of caverns where not a ray of the light of day ever enters. They were made by the light of lamps fed with the fat of animals. It is almost certain that they had a magical purpose, that
;
is,
were made
1
the
game animals
by a species of magic they would cause an increase of them a sure prey in the chase,
i; also Art.
"Painting," Encyc.Brit.,
nth
ed.
PREHISTORIC TiAlES
5.
[5
The
Neolithic or
New
Stone Age.
Chipped or continued to be used, but what characterizes this period was the the use of ground or polished implements. Man had learned edge with sand art of grinding his tools and weapons to a sharp
on a grinding stpne.^
also
To
his
ax he had
learned to
it
attach a
handle,
which
made
a vastly
more
effective
implement
(Fig- S)-
and weapons, the man of the New Stone Age had made other great advances beyond the man of the Old Stone Age. He
had learned
to
Fig.
6.
to
till
the
soil
he had learned
make
and
to
weave
Prehistoric
Egyptian Tomb
(After/, de Morgan)
Primitive man's belief in a future life led
though
like Paleolithic
man he
sometimes
lived in caves,
piles
him to
place in the
(Fig. 8)
and
manner
(Fig. 6)
belief in
dead
in such
gifts
with
accompanying
that he
as to
show
life.*
had a firm
Stone Age
architec-
37-40).
a future
The
ture.
New
men
it
stones
1
immense .that
Some
the Paleolithic and the Neolithic Age. a subdivision of the Old Stone Age.
which they name the Middle Stone Age between Most, however, consider this period merely
2 The North American Indians were in this stage of culture at the time of the discovery of the New World. The Egyptians and Babylonians were just emerging from it when they first appeared in history. 8 Recent discoveries have revealed traces of this belief even before the close of the Paleolithic period. Several cases of burial have been<found with rich grave outfits of flint implements and weapons, which point unmistakably to a belief in a life after death.
Plate II. Remarkable Palniings on the WaIlls of Caverns, by the Hunter-Artists of the Old Stone Age. (After BreuU ; see p. 4, n. 2)
6]
more men to haul them and to them up. The most common forms of these monuments are shown in the accompanying cut (Fig. 7).
The
and
the
all
was widespread.
continents.
The
relics
of Neolithic
man
are found on
Italy,
the
and
in other
^^^^
Fig.
7.
is called a menhir^ and a large stone resting on smaller ones (No. 2) a dolmen. Prehistoric stone monuments of these and other types are found in almost all parts of the world, but in especially great numbers in western Europe and
monuments
Some were
memory
of great events
Age
It thus
The Age
of Metals.
the
Age
of Metals.
This age
subdivisions
the
Age
of Copper, the
like the
Age
Some
peoples,
use of iron
came
into use
in the
order
named.
Speaking broadly, we
of Metals began
PREHISTORIC TIMES
for the
[6
more advanced peoples of the ancient world between 3000 and 4000 B.C.''-
The
zation.
civili-
Indeed,
it
importance to man.
Man
could do very
little
/f.-,.
Fig.
8.
A Restokation
of building
of Swiss Lake Dwellings of the Later Stone Age. (From Keller, Lake Dwellings)
on
piles in the shallow
This
mode
of Neolithic times, was continued far into the Bronze Age, as proved by the bronze objects found in the mud on the sites of ancient pile-villages in Switzerland and elsewhere
men
compared with what he could do with metal implements. It was a great labor for primitive man, even with the aid of fire, to fell a tree with a stone ax and to hollow out the trunk for a boat. He was hampered
1 The limited use of copper seems to have begun among the peoples of the Orient some centuries before this date in Egypt about ssooJb.c. But copper is a soft metal, and tools and weapons made of it were not so greatly superior to the stone ones then in use as to put them out of service. But either by accident or through experiment
it
discovered that by mixing about nine parts of copper with one part of tin a new metal called bronze, much harder than either tin or copper, could be made. So greatly superior were bronze implements to stone that their introduction caused the use of stone for tools and weapons to be practically discontinued, and consequently the Age of Bronze constitutes a well-defined and important epoch in the history of culture.
was
7]
in
all
by the rudeness of
his tools.
It
of metal implements
earth and to
and weapons that he began really to subdue the get dominion over nature. All the higher cultures of the
ancient world with which history begins were based on the knowledge
The Domestication
of Fire.
In
this
follow-
ing sections
we
upon some
in
(^
Fig.
g.
Tylor)
The processes of smoothing, polishing, and grooving softwood implements, and of boring holes in them with pieces of harder wood, could hardly fail of revealing the secret. The character of the fire-making devices of
present-day savages point the
way
of the discovery
The
is
primeval times.
That
fire
was known
it
to Paleolithic
man we
and rock
shelters
which were
No
As
to the
way
in
which early
man came
into possession of
first fire
fire,
we
have no knowledge.
lava stream or
ning.^
However
vital
is
may
be,
he had
times learned to
borer, accord-
produce the
spark by means of
The
fire
ing to Tylor,
i
among
Since the
over 2000
by lightning
lO
PREHISTORIC TIMES
difficult,
[^
once alight was carefully flame fed so that it should not go out. The duty of watching the community, naturally fell to the old women or to the daughters of the
the
fire
to
which custom
the
among
(sect. 390).
Only gradually did primeval man learn the various properties of put, just as fire and discover the different uses to which it might be
historic
man
electricity.
By some happy
clay,
it
would harden
hundred other
that
it
it
would smelt
aid
ores,
and he became
a worker in metals
and that
would
him
in a
ways. " Fire," says Joly, " presided at the birth of nearly every art, or quickened its progress." The place it holds in the development of
the family, of religion, and of the industrial arts three significant
is
revealed by these
hearth, the
altar,
the forge."
No
other
it
civilization.
Indeed,
to conceive
fire primitive
man
Animals.
"
When we
visit
life
yoke
the
cow
udder
to the
accompanied by
to his master,
this familiar
it is
intercourse between
man and
beast
seerns
so
natural that
different.
And
we
it is by everyday wonders that our amazement is least excited." ^ The most of this work of inducing the animals of the fields and woods to become, as it were, members or dependents of the human
was done by
prehistoric
man.
to
become
in
appears
9]
history,
ii
known
The dog wag already his faithful companion first won from among the wild creatures; the
sheep, the cow, and the goat shared his shelter with him.*
The human
it
in history.
in culture
marks the opening of a new epoch shepherd,^ and the hunting stage
pastoral.'
9.
The Domestication
of Plants.
Long
before the
dawn
of history
World who were to play great parts in early historic times had advanced from the pastoral to the agricultural stage of culture. Just as the step from the hunting to the pastoral stage had been taken with the aid of a few of the most social species of animals, so had this second upward step, from the pastoral to the
those peoples of the Old
agricultural stage,
Wheat and
probably
first
barley,
cereals,
were
over Europe.
in the
These grains, together with oats and rice, have been, words of Tylor, " the mainstay of human life and the great
civilization."
moving power of
They
and
civilizations of
The
to
were
built,
be amassed those
the
2
thought by some that one reason why the tribes were so farljehind the peoples of the Old none of real importance save the was that there were fewer tamable animals here llama and the alpaca in the Andean uplands of South America and possibly the buffalo
animals are of Old
of the
World
origin.
It is
New World
of North America.
12
treasures,
PREHISTORIC TIMES
material
[10
heirloom of humanity.
soil
of the hitherto
life.
political
formed, and cities were united into states and great kingdoms were the Nile the political history of man began, as in the valleys of
how much he owed to the art of god or godhusbandry, for in the mythologies of many peoples some how to tiH the soil and to dess is represented as having taught men plant the seed. It seemed to man that for so great a boon he must
Early
man seems
to
have realized
The Formation
of
Language.
ment of primitive man was the making of language. The earliest speech used by historic man, as Tylor observes, " teaches the interesting lesson that the main work of language-making was done in the
ages before history."
The
is
is
stages,
been required for the formation out of the scanty speech of the first men, by the slow process of word-making, of the rich and polished
languages already upon the
lips
when they
first
appear
We
man
of the
acquisition of language.
Without
it
all
his other
acquisitions
and
discoveries
forts to
lift
So thorough was prehistoric man's search for whatever in the plant world could be man has not been able during the last 2000 years from the tens of thousands of wild plants to discover any Species comparable in value to any one of the staple food-plants selected and domesticated by primeval man (De Candelle,
1
It is interesting further to
man exploited the organic kingdoms, that is to say, the animal and vegetable realms he made few and slight requisitions upon the forces of the, inorganic world. It was reserved for the men of the later historic age for the ancient- civilizations have to their credit
to domesticate, so to speak, the powerful no epoch-making achievements here agents steam and electricity and through their utilization to effect revolutions in modem
society
11]
13
Without
so far as
we
can
see,
in arl unprogressive
The Invention of Writing. Still anotlier achievement of prehistoric man, and after the making of language perhaps his greatest, certainly the most fruitful, vi'as the invention of viriting the perfection of which marks the opening of historic times. The iirst form of writing used by primitive man was picture writ11.
ing,
is
still
the
New
World.
In
this
organ of sight
Fie. 10.
Record of an Alaskan hunt. It reads thus I go, by boat (indicated by paddle) sleep one night (hand to side of head denotes sleep), on island with two huts; I go to another island two sleeps there hunt with harpoon, sga lion also with bow return by boat with companion (indicated by two paddles), to my lodge
; ;
illustration,
a picture consisting of
U^^
to indicate rain.
which seems
natural to
wavy lines beneath an arc representThis way of representing ideas, man, is known as ideographic writing,
called ideograms.
is
A great
step in advance
taken
when
is,
words.
by
different
independently.
mode
pronoun
peoples
seems
to
have been
What makes
the existence in
every language of words having the same sound but different meanings.
Thus
in English the
/
/
is
sounded
rain.
like the
word
eye,
word
Now
the picture
reign, could
do so by the use
<s^
i^j^.
When
14
writing
is
PREHISTORIC TIMES
phonetic or sound writing.
[11
the chasm between difficult step picture writing and sound writing is bridged, and the most thought. taken in the development of a practical system of representing symbol stands In the first stage of sound writing, each picture or must of course for a whole word. In such a system as this there the language be as many characters or signs as there are words in the Chinese represented. In working out their system of writing
In
this
way
Two
additional steps
beyond
first
order to
The
of these
taken when
the characters
This reduces at
once the number of signs needed from m"any thousands to a few hundreds, since the words of any given language are formed by
the combination of a comparatively small
number
of syllables.
With
between four and five hundred symbols the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians, who used this form of writing, were able to represent all
the words of their respective languages (sect. 52).
Characters or
symbols used
phonograms,
and a
While a
still
final
taken when the symbols are used to represent not syllables but
few
score or two
human
voice, of
in
called
'alphabetic.
B.C.
we
an alphabet.
Through various
through the agency of trade and commerce, this alphabet was spread
east
all
but one
of the
(sect. 95).
12]
12.
IS
We
of a noble heritage
the in-
We
men
of the
first
genera-
But even
we have made of what was discovered, invented, and thought out by man during the unmeasured epochs before recorded history opens cannot
that a vast estate
fail
to
fact
was transmitted by
man.
Fig. II.
Stonehenge. (From
a photograph)
This imposing huge stone monument on Salisbury Plain, England, probably dates from about the end in western Europe of the New Stone Age or from the beginning of the Bronze Age (between igoo and 2000 B.C.). Some archseologists regard the structure as a sepulchral monument others suppose it to have been a shrine for sun-worship
;
than to do
this,
then
we
shall
our wont.
We
man
new
light.
We
to
thought, the path which he has followed to be longer and toilsome than
more
we
before imagined.
But our
and of
his
We
and
upward with
his face
toward the
light.
PREHISTORIC TIMES
References.
important of the Old Stone Age (" The most s own species that has appeared since Uarwin Ancient Hunters. Myre, Descent of Man.' "Theodore Roosevelt). Sollas, Man The Dawn of History. YlOY.-B.fi-s.?., Primitive Man. H.j^i.iOT, Prehistoric and his Story. Joly, Man before Metals. Keary, The Dawn of History. Starr, Some First Steps in Hiiman Progress. Tylor, Anthropology, chaps, iv, Lubbock, Previi, "Language" and "Writing"; Primitive Culture, 2 vols.
Osborn.i
Men
of our
Mason, First Steps in Human Culture and The Origin of IndenDavenport, Domesticated Animals and Plants. Shaler, Domesticated Animals. Hoffmann, The Beginnings of Writing. Clodd, The Story of the Alphabet. TAYLOR, The Alphabet, 2 vols. Fergusson, Rude Stone Monuments. HOLBROOK, Cazie, Mound, and Lake Dwellers (juvenile). Topics for Class Reports, i The relation of domesticated animals to man's
historic Times.
tion.
.
advance
of fire
:
in civilization:
Animals and Plants, chap. i. 2. The making and the use Mason, The Origin of Invention, chap, iii, and First Steps in Human Frobenius, The Childhood of Man, chap, xxvii. 3. The Culture, chaps, i, ii origin of writing: Hoffmann, The Beginnings of Writing; Mason, First Steps
port, Domesticated
;
xxi
xii,
Keary, The
4.
The dawn
:
of art
Reinach, Apollo,
pp. 1-9
5.
Parkyn, Introduction
6.
How
pp. 428-429.
Study of Prehistoric Art, chaps, iii, iv. Frobenius, The Childhood of Man, Marett, Anthropology, chap, ii, "Antiquity of Man."
to the
moved
at
1 For full names of authors and further information concerning works end of book.
cited, see
list
CHAPTER
II
the Historic
Age
We
begin
now our
study of
The
Modern
History.
we can
gain
to the
Roman Empire
in the
West, in the
fifth
century a.d.
fall
of
Rome
New World
It is
by Columbus,
1492 a.d.
Modem
and extends
which we
14.
shall
The Races
Mankind
into
Distinctions
many
But we
must not suppose each of these three types to be sharply marked they shade into one another by insensible graoff from the others dations. There is a great number of intermediate types or subraces.
;
1 It is
let
great Teutonic migration (376 a.d.), or the restoration of the Empire by Charlemagne (800 A.D.), mark the end of the period of Ancient History, and to call all after that
Modem
History.
Some
modem period
from the
capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453 a.d.) ; while still others speak of it in a general way as commencing about the close of the fifteenth century, at which time there
were many inventions and discoveries, and great movements in the intellectual world. 2 The classification given is simply a convenient and practical one (see table, p. 22). It disregards various minor groups of uncertain ethnic relationship. 17
I8
[15
We
assume the
physical
human
race.
It is
probable
arose
that the
through their
influences
races
climatic
and
of prehistoric time.
great types of
The
paintings
upon the
oldest Egyptian
monuments show
each bearing
us that at the
dawn
distinctly
its racial
marked as now,
the true
home
we
ried as slaves
P"iG. 12.
for
Negrc Captives
Thebes)
since
" hewers of
for their
permanence of
16.
race characteristics
wood and drawers of water more favored brethren. The Yellow or Mongolian Race.
is
the central
Mongolian Race.
Many
;
pastoral
nomads, who roam over the vast Asian plains north of the
their leading part in history has
settled habits.
this
The
latter constitute
probably .a
had developed a
so
advanced on various
lines,
but hav-
make
marked a
17.
progress.
Not
Chinese
or the Japanese
called
become a factor of significance in world history. The White or Caucasian Race and its Three Groups. The soWhite or Caucasian Race embraces almost all of the historic
Its chief peoples fall into three
nations,
groups
the Hamitic
the
HAMITES, SEMITES
AND
INDO-EUKOPEANS
TIanillrsiC
I
Sri.illi-s:
C__J
17]
19
Semitic, and the Indo-European or Aryan.*' The members forming any one of these groups must not be looked upon as kindred in
blood
the
is
bond of language.
ancient Egyptians were the most remarkable people of the
The
who
The
among
the
its
Babylonians
and
Assyrians,
Hebrews, the
Phoenicians,
the
Most
scholars re-
home
(that
is,
Mohammedan
one god)
arose
the
Hebrew,
among
peoples be-
The
dis-
They
and Romans,
all
the peoples of
modem Europe (save the Basques, Magyars or Hungarians, and the Turks), the Hindus, and some other Asian peoples,^
is
The
application of the
name Aryan
by some
The
term,
however, has been long and generally used as the equivalent of Indo-European or Indo-Germanic (cf. Schrader, The Prehistoric Civilization of the Aryan Peoples; Taylor, The Origin of the Aryans^ etc.), and is still very commonly used in the same sense by careful scholars of the highest authority. It should be carefully noted that where the term Indo-European is applied to a people it simply means that the people thus designated use an Indo-European language, and that it does not mean that they are related by blood to any other people of Indo-European speech. Physical or racial relationships
cannot he determined by the test of language. speaking African negroes in the United States
I
question of the ethnic types or races making up the population of Europe, see Ripley,
The Races of Europe. 2 The kinship in speech of all these peoples is most plainly shown by the similar form and meaning of certain words in their different languages, as, for example, the word father, which occurs with but little change in several of the Aryan tongues l.&'axi,' pater; German, Vater). (Sanscrit, /!V; Persian, /arfar; Greek, iraT-^p
;
20
18.
L18
before the
Aryan Expansion.
Long
dawn of history in Europe, the clans and to push undivided Indo-European family began to break up and
themselves
among
older
and more
civilized
peoples.
They came
Some of these tribes in the course of their wanderings found great river their way out upon the table-lands of Iran and into the
They subjugated the aborigines of these lands and communicated to them their language. These Aryan invaders and somewhat the natives, thus Aryanized in speech and probably the progenitors of the Persians and the changed in blood, became
plains of India.
expansion,
still
social relations, or
pre-
made Indo-European
in
so
blood,
part of Europe.^
1 Some scholars have sought the early home of the primitive Aryan community in southern Russia, others in the Baltic regions of Europe, and still others in central Asia in the region of the Oxus. The recent discovery (1907-1908) in East Turkestan of documents dating from about 500 A. D., and written in an Indo-Germanic language
related to those of -western Europe^ gives probability to the opinion that the cradle of the Indo-Germanic folk was the high grasslands of central Asia north of the great
lies
Altertums,
I 2,
891, 3. Aufl.
very important to note that in every case where a people of non-Aryan speech gave up their own language and adopted that of their Aryan (Indo-Germanic) conquerors, there
at
it
be correct to say that an Aryan strain permeates all or most of the groups now speaking Aryan tongues." Keane, Ethnology (Cambridge Geographical Series, 1896), p. 396. 2 This prehistoric Indo-European expansion can best be made plain by the use of an historical parallel the Roman expansion. From their cradle city on the Tiber, the ancient Romans a folk Indo-European in speech if not in race went out as conquerors and colonizers of the Mediterranean world. Wherever they went they carried their language and their civilization with them. Many iof the peoples whom they subjected gave up their own speech, and along with the civilization of their conquerors adopted also their language. In this way a large part of the ancient world became
Thus
Romanized in speech and culture. When the Roman Empire broke up, there arose number of Latin-speaking nations among these, the French, Spaniards, and Portuguese. During the modem age these Romanized nations, through conquest and colo-
nization,
have spread their Latin speech and civilization over a great part of the World. Thus it has come about that to-day the language of the ancient Romans,
New
diifer-
entiafed into
many
dialects, is
18]
21
as something past
and ended,
modern times of the peoples of Europe, that is to say, the expansion of Europe into Greater Europe and the Europeanizing of the
world,
is
in the obscurity
of the
Thus we
great
we may
call
the
drama
of history.
Past
Ripley, The Races of Europe. Keane, Ethnology and Man, Deniker, The Paces of Man. Sergi, The Mediterranean Race. Ratzel, The History of Mankind, 2 vols. Keith, Ancient Types of Man. Brinton, Races and Peoples. TAYLOR, The Origin of the Aryans. Schrader, The Prehistoric Civilization of the Aryan Peoples.
References.
and
Present.
in eastern
Europe
descended from the ancient Romans, in fact they belong to many different ethnic stocks, but because they all speak languages derived from the old Roman speech. Just as we use the term Latin here, so do we use the term Indo-European in connection with the peoples of Indo-European speech.
we
call
Latins, not
22
The
on physical characteristics, the subdivisions of the White Race are based on language
Black Race
(Ethiopian or
true
home
is
central
and
Negro)
southern Africa.
(I)
ern Asia;
The Chinese, Japanese, and kindred peoples (2) the nomads (Tartars, Mongols,
of eastetc.)
of
Yellow Race
(Mongolian)
Asia and of eastern Russia; (3) the Turks, the Magyars or Hungarians, and the Finns and Lapps, in Europ'e.^ Some consider the Amernorthern and central
a branch of the Yellow Race ; others consider them a distinct race the Red Race.
ican Indians
Hamites
Semites
White Race
(Caucasian)
PART
I.
ANCIENT EGYPT
earliest times to 30 B.C.)
POLITICAL HISTORY
Nile.
19.
The Egypt
lower course.
These
were formed
in
pa^
in seasons of flood.
known
to .the ancients
as
Lower Egypt,
reaching from the head of the Delta to the First Cataract,' a distance
of six hundred miles,
was called Upper Egypt. Through the same means by which Egypt was
the land each year
1
originally created
;
is
still
renewed and
fertilized
hence an old
About seven hundred miles from the Mediterranean, low ledges of rocks stretching first obstruction to navigation in passing up the river. The rapids found here are termed the First Cataract. At this point the divided river forms the beautiful islet of Philse, " The Pearl of Egypt," now submerged by the waters of the great Assuan reservoir. 2 The rate of the fluviatile deposit is from three tb five inches in a century. The surface of the valley at Thebes, as shown by the accumulations about the monuments, has been raised about seven feet during the last seventeen hundred years.
across the Nile form the
23
24
Greek
Nile."
historian, in
ANCIENT EGYET
happy phrase,
its
[20
Swollen by heavy
tropical rains
lower
and
in
has attained
its
By
vember the
returned to
Fig. 13.
bed,
In a few
weeks
is
and barren
abundant
hills
in the winter is
falling
throughout the
air is
so
many thousand
monuments
the country.
The southern
of
line
Egypt
the
only
just
touches
still
the
tropics
in-
climate,
Fig.
14.
(From
hem
the valley,
is
semitropical in character.
The
Thus
favored in climate as well as in the matter of irrigation, Egypt became in early times the granary of the East. To it less favored countries, when stricken by famine, a calamity so common in the East
1 At irregular intervals of a few years, however, theire occurs a real cloud-burst and the mud-built villages of the natives are literally half dissolved and washed into the
river.
21]
25
in regions
looked
The
and
21.
The
existence of
is
man
in
historic period
evidenced
by the stone implements, belonging to both the earlier and the later Stone Age, which are found in great numbers on the edges of the
neighboring desert and in the numerous graves that in places
fill
the
The flints lying on the surface of the desert are of the Old Stone Age type. Beyond what we may infer from these weathered stone implements, we know nothing of Paleolithic man in Egypt. The contents of the graves, however, belong to the
sands of the river valley.
New
the
evidences that
we
life
possess,
tell
manner
of
historic era
-that
of the
is,
men
By
fifth
millennium
B.C.
civilization.
little
much
of copper, but
seem generally
have used
rulers of historic
Egypt
that
or
common name
of Fharaoh.
The Pharaohs
(332 B.C.) are grouped in thirty-one dynasties. Thirty of these we Manetho, an Egyptian priest who lived in the third
B.C.,
century
in the
Greek language a
chronicle of
the Pharaohs.''
1 Still
The
more
earlier, possibly in
the Old Stone Age, forests grew also on the now sterile The petrified remains o^ these forests, like the fossilized
country,
these
lie strewn in places over the desert. One of from the modem city of Cairo. 2 The first ten of these dynasties comprise what is usually called the Old Kingdom (the grouping here by Egyptologists is not uniform, some including in this group only
own
now
mummified
forests
is
easily visited
26
ANCIENT EGYPT
[23
milthan half of the entire period of authentic Ipstoiy. Almost three the historic lenniums of this history lie back of the beginnings of
23 Menes and the First Dynasty (date not later than 3200 B.c.^).
.
In the
form two
states,
one
in
the
Then
First
of the
The
essential
fact
respecting
Dynasty
is
that
most of the
in
ele-
ments of the
germ, but
in
Ivory Statuette of a
First
ness,
King of the
(From
Dynasty ^
been already
Copper "was
five dynasties
in use,
though most
the eleventh anfl twelfth form what is known as the Middle Kingdom; the next five cover a period of disorder and the rule of the Hyksos, Asiatic intruders and the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth constitute what is commonly designated as the New Empire. The- remaining dynasties represent
;
;
and others
six or
more)
a period of decadence and revival, and the rule mainly of foreigners and conquerors. 1 Egyptologists are not yet in agreement as to the date of Menes. Flinders Petrie puts his reign at about 5 500 b. c. In the present edition we have adopted the Berlin dating. 2 Found by Flinders Petrie at Abydos in 1903. " Clad in his thick embroidered robes, this old king, wily yet feeble with the weight of years, stands for diplomacy and stated craft of the oldest civilized kingdom that we know" i(Petrie). "One of the greatest treasures of the British Museum." Hall
s o u
24]
27
Many
There
to the
had been worked out a calendar which remained unchanged end of Egyptian history.^ 24. The Fourth Dynasty (about 2900-2750
Builders.
B.C.)
the Pyramid
The Egypti^
architects at first
used
chiefly
crude brick,
dimensions
the
age
of
reigned at
called the
Memphis and
pyramid
are
builders,-
long after
this,
but none on
He
Fig. 16.
Pyramid. (From
"
mid, at Gizeh,
est
"the
^
great-
Though only
is
shows
;
mass of masonry
rnortal
that
a diaracter of
face
will
the
by
man."
A recent
now
to look
upon the
face of this
Khufu
(Fig.
16),
one of the
earliest
To some
1
king of
this
same
early family of
buil<iers is
also ascribed,
by some
authorities, the
Egyptologists place the introduction of this calendar in the year 4241 B.C.
about
one thousand years before Manes. 3 This pyramid rises from a base covering thirteen acres to a height of four hundred and fifty feet. According to Herodotus, Cheops employed one hundred thousand men
for twenty yeais in
its
erection.
28
gigantic
ANCIENT EGYPT
human-headed Sphinx
at the foot of the
[2S
Great Pyramid
These sepulchral monuments, for the pyramids were the tombs of who constructed them (sect. 39), and the great Sphinx are the most venerable memorials of the early world that have been
the Pharaohs
preserved to us.
in the
gray dawn of
some
was
it
respects the
And
with portrait
which during
25.
2000-
almost
valley
lost
from
view.
When
finally
the
emerges
from the obscurity of this period, the old city of Memphis, for long the residence
of
Fig. 17.
BELED.'"
the
Thebes has
taken
its
power.
Supposed portrait statue, carved in wood, of one of the overseers of the work on the Great Pyramid. This is one of the masterpieces of Egyptian sculpture
The
line of
Theban
kings,
is
one of the
bright-
est in
Egyptian history. It has been called Egypt's golden age. One of the most
in
Fayum
oasis in the
This
district consists of
a great depression,
lies
below the
The
world
of the
the
art
Europe
age represents the second great art of the earlv (thousands of years earlierl of tho - 1 ^ ""^ hunter-artists '
hL^
26]
sea level.
PERIOD OF OBSCURITY
It contains
29
By
various
was thus
greatly extended.
Hyksos (about
race from
Tribes of
unknown
Egypt and
set
up
in the valley
what was
"Shepherd Kings."
These
in-
manners
and culture of the people they had subjected. After they had
ruled in the valley probably up-
dominion
by the
Theban
kings,
whom
It is
it
they had
made
some
the
vassals.
thought by
scholars that
was during
FiG. 18.
"
The
head
[five
With
his
hand holding
waits as he has
done for
in the
to
The
rule of the
Hyksos
moment when
Nile-land derives
special imporin-
truders introduced into Egypt from Asia the horse and the war
chariot,
first
the country.
place of
27.
From
this
armaments of the Pharaohs. first importance The Eighteenth Dynasty (about 1580-1350 B.C.). The most eventful period of Egyptian history, covered by what is called the
New
the
Empire,
now
opens.
The Pharaohs
first
In the pursuit of
this object
they
made
30
numerous campaigns
ANCIENT EGYPT
in Asia.
[27
"' the Alexander of Egyptian of his wide conquests has been called extension, stretching from history," the empire attained its greatest
The conquest
brought
vast
of Syria
in
wealth
booty and
tribute to the
to
the
of
remains
the
which
form
in
the world,
owed much
His
of
its
splendor.
obelisks
el-Amarna)
and sustaining power of the sun, whose radiant energy is conceived as the sole source of life and movement in the universe, is symbolized by streaming rays, each ending in an outstretched hand. This striking emblem was an entirely new type in Egyptian symbolism
life-giving
Rome, London,
York.
it
The
and
New
And
perhaps
was the
of a religious reformer
It
time
Amenho-
tep
IV
(about 1350
B.C.),
known
who
tried
1 Or Thutmose, Greek Thutmosis. The Egyptian writing being without vowels, the form of many names is uncertain. 2 The name of this Pharaoh is connected with one of the most interesting and important discoveries ever made on oriental ground. (This was the discovery in 1887, at Tell el-Amarna, on the Nile, of several hundred letters, written in the Babylonian
""^^^-x
photograph)
27]
to
31
to establish the
and
The
was the old Egyptian sun-god, whose suggestive new symbol old human and animal emblems were cast aside was the
the
sun's
human hand
So
far
we know,
earliest
this
was
the
attempt
world
to
establish
re-
monotheism.^ The
form, however,
failed.
Amenhotep was
far in
age.
too
his
advance of
Upon
new
Tell
his death
city
the
capital
el-Amarna,
belovlr
Thebes,
was
destroyed, his
memand
Fig. 20. Detail of Relief Portraying Victory OF RaMESES II OVER THE KhETA AT KaDESH, ON the 'Orontes
" First aid " being administered to a half-drowned chieftain
infamy,
Egypt
rather
resumed
continued
the
or
heart accepted
new
creed
.its
worship of
many
gods.
to
language and script and comprising the correspondence, not only between the reigning Pharaoh and the kings of Assyria and Babylonia, but also between the Egyptian court and the Egyptian governors and vassal kings of various Syrian towns. The significance of this discovery consists in the revelation it makes of the deep hold that the civilization
of Babylon had
Hebrew invasion
of Palestine.
This means that the Hebrew development took place in an environment charged with elements of Babylonian culture. 1 See Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt (1912), lect. ix. 2 The interpretation of this religious movement which we have adopted in the text is not, it should be said, accepted by all Egyptologists. Some regard the reformer as a henotheist or monolatrist rather than a pure monotheist.*
32
28.
ANCIENT EGYPT
The Nineteenth Dynasty (about 1350-1205
and
builders.
It is largely their
[28
B.C.).
The Pharaohs
fame
in
in history.
The
great-
name
of this dynasty
that of
Rameses or Ramses
II (about
1292-1225 B.C.), the Sesostris of the Greeks. Ancient writers accorded him the first place among all the Egyptian sovereigns, and told most
exaggerated stories
of
his
conquests
reign,
and achievenjents.
His long
em-
his
name
ruler.
The
chief of
who
at this time
main the interior uplands of Asia Minor and northern Syria. We find Rameses at last concluding with them a
in the
Fig. 31.
Phalanx of the
Hittites
is
The meaning
of this alliance was that the Pharaohs had met their peers in the princes of the Hittites, and that they could no longer hope to become masters of western Asia.
It is the
opinion of
some
Rameses
II
was
in
the
oppressor of the children of Israel, the Pharaoh lives bitter with hard bondage, in mortar and in
who
is
"
made
and
their
all
brick,
manner of service in the field," ^ and Exodus took place in the reign of
1225-1215
B.C.).
1
that
his
what
son
known
as the
Merneptah (about
Exod.
i,
4.
i29]
33
pass without
29.
We
comment a long
power and splendor Egypt was tributary to Ethiopia ^ or to Assyria but, a native prince, Psammetichus by name, with the aid of Greek mercenaries, "bronze men who came up from the sea," drove out the foreign garrisons. Psammetichus
During the
latter part of this period
;
b.
c).
Owing
swords of Greek
soldiers,
Psam-
metichus was led to open the country ev;n more completely than
Fig. 22.
Brick-Making
in
The creation of these closer relations with Greece at just this when the Greeks were coming prominently forward to play great part in history was a most significant event. From this
on,
;
time
their
time
Greek philosophers are represented as becoming pupils of the and without question the learning and philosophy Egyptian priests of the old Egyptians exercised a profound influence upon the open,
The most important episode in the history of this period was an attempted invasion Egypt by sea raiders whom the Egyptian records called the " Peoples of the Sea." They were met and defeated somewhere along the Syrian coasf by Rameses III (about Cretans, Lycians, 1200 B.C.). These sea folk are believed to have been JEgean peoples etc. The Greeks it seems were at this time pressing into the Greek peninsula from the north, and were subjecting or driving out the native inhabitants of the iEgean shorelands and islands (sect. 152). A part of the raiders settled on the coast plain of Palesthe Philistines of the Bible tine and became the formidable enemies of the Israelites
1
of
34
receptive
ANCIENT EGYPT
mind of the Greek
race, that was, in its turn, to
[30
become
With the name of Necho II (610-594 B.C.), the son of Psammetithe circumnavigachus, is connected an adventurous undertaking this exploring expedition Necho is said to have tion of Africa.! For
engaged Phoenician
is
sailors.
The
feat of sailing
reason to believe, was actually accomplished ; for the historian there Herodotus, in his account of the enterprise, says that the voyagers
upon
the
Cape
good
the sun
was on
their right
hand Herodotus to
north).
it,
This feature of
to
disbelieve
is
us
fairly
The Last
lost
of the Pharaohs.
its
Egypt
to
Babylon
later
(525 B.C.)
bowed beneath
c.
Only for a
space
From about
the middle
sat
upon the throne of the Pharaohs.^ Upon the extension of the power
(Chapter
of the
Greeks over the East through the conquests of Alexander the Great
XXV), Egypt
willingly accepted
was the
seat of the
The Romans
finally
annexed the
region to their all-absorbing empire (30 B.C.). " The mission of Egypt among the nations was fulfilled
the torch of civilization in ages inconceivably remote,
it
on
West."
II.
THE CIVILIZATION
31. The Government. From first to last the government of ancient Egypt bore a sacred character. The Pharaoh was regarded as divine, as the son and representative of the sun-gdd. Three thousand years and more after Menes, Alexander the Great, after his conquest of the
1
shall
32]
35
country, thought to strengthen his position by causing himself to be proclaimed the son of the highest of the Egyptian gods (sect. 283).
was in theory absolute, but in was limited by a nobility and a powerful priesthood.* The nation seemed almost to exist for the god-king. The construction of
practice
his
laid
The
pyramid tomb, or his vast rock sepulchfr and its attached temple, under heavy tribute the labor and resources of the nation.
in kind, that
is,
and
workshop, for the ancient Egyptians did not, until late in their history, use coined money. All the salaries of officials and the wages
of
workmen were
in
government
payment of
k
The top
5)c.'?iii
Fig. 23.
is
the
same
text in hieratic
the erection of
immense
storing of the grain, wine, and cattle received by the tax collectors.
The
narrative,
building of these warehouses was, as :we learn from the Bible one of the tasks required of the Israelites " Therefore
:
afflict
And
32.
of
Writing.
One
of
the
greatest
system of writing.
By
we have
this
already
when
1 The sacerdotal order was at certain periods a dominant force in the state. They enjoyed freedom from taxation, and met the expenses of the temple service mainly from the income of the sacred lands, which are said to have embraced, at one period, one third ^ Exod. i, 11. of the soil of the country.
36
ANCIENT EGYPT
[33
was not
an improved method of writing had been vrorked out the old method discarded. Hence the Egyptian writing was partly picture
all
the
intermediate forms.
The
and another
script
:
the
and
Igter a
still
simpler form
hieratic,
and
called
by the Greeks
33.
to
Fig. 24.
demotic, that
is,
the ordi").
Egyptian Writing.
writing
^i
The key
r^
1
to the
Egyptian
The Rosetta
Q,,^
was
.
discovered
1
by
means
in 1798.
t,
which was
found by the French when they invaded This precious relic, a heavy block of
is now in the British Museum. It holds an inscription Egyptian and the Greek language, which is written in three different forms of script in the Egyptian hieroglyphic and demotic,
The chief credit of deciphering the Egypand of opening up the long-sealed libraries of Egyptian learning belongs to the French scholar ChampoUion. 34. Egyptian Literature. The literature opened up to us by the
in
and
Greek
characters.
tian script
decipherment of the Egyptian hieroglyphics is varied and instructive, revealing as it does the life and thought and scientific attainments of
Old Egypt
is
at a time
when
the
the ancient
Book of
1 The chief writing material used by the ancient Egyptians was the noted papyrus paper, manufactured from a reed which grew in the marshes and along the water channels of the Nile. From the Greek names of this Egyptian plant, byblos and papyrus, come our words Bible and paper.
(35],
37
its
among
fetters, fables, and epics on medicine and various other scientific subjects and books on ancient history in prose and in verse which fully justify the declaration of Egyptian priests to the Greek philosopher Solon:
and private
"
dren; you
all
35.
It
(MSM
Fig. 25.
1>
man
that
he
o
Two Royal Names
Hieroglyphics
It
in
possession of
was the
first
of these
anxious
the
life
concern
in the hereafter as
constituting religion.
from
Chief of the great Egyptian deities was the sun-god Ra (or Re), whom the Pharaohs claimed descent. He was imagined as sail-
ing across the heavens in a sacred bark on a celestial river, and at night returning to the east through subterranean water passages
spirit or
god of
vegetation,' but
later he' came to be invested with the attributes of the sun-god Ra.
1
See note
The
at end of Chapter XIII. twelve hieroglyphics used in writing these names have the following values
21K,
-Sail^
\e.,
[0,
(AT),
DP,
A,
'
or c-T,
:M,
With these the reader
two signs
royal,
PS,
last
will easily
word are used merely to indicate that the word is a divine, i.e. feminine proper name, and that for the sake of symmetry one symbol is sometimes
in the longer
first.
placed beneath another. The upper sign should be taken 8 Cf. Frazer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris (2d ed,), pp. 267 ff.
38
ANCIENT EGYPT
[36
trees, which die In his primitive character as the spirit of plants and year, he came naturally to be conceived and come to life again each
as the
imihortality,i
Typhon by the Greek writers, was the Satan He was the personification of the evil world, just as Osiris was the personification of the good. in the Besides the great gods'* there was a multitude of lesser deities, each nome or district and village having its local god or gods. The Egyptians believed some animals to 36. Animal Worship. be incarnations of a god descended from heaven. Thus a god was
The god
some
Upon
bull,
the
or
was
called,
a great
lamentation,
moment
Mummy
of a Sacred Bull
(From a photograph)
moment
The body
in
of the de-
and magnificence,
laid
away
a huge granite
To
kill
(p. 145) and descriptive note. Tliese great divinities were often grouped in triads. First in importance among tiiese groups was that of Osiris, Isis (liis wife and sister), and Horus their son. The
See Fig. 9
members
8
In
bulls (the
Serapeum).
cliffs just
opposite the
ancient Memphis.
bulls
number
of
immense
granite
coffins
were found.
37]
39
impiety. Persons so unfortunate as to kill one through accident were sometimes murdered by the infuriated people. Many explanations have been given to account for the existence
of such a primitive
form of worship among so cultured a people as There can be little doubt that these low
prehistoric tribes of the Nile valley.
elements in their religion were nothing more nor less than the crude
ideas
the domain
kept
of
religion
what they
of a Future Life.
Among no
real
other
after death
seem so
and hold so
among
the people of
Old Egypt.
It is difficult to give
an account of
it
and
in different places.
But the
was
that
man
survives the
again
was conceived
to
be the great
western desert, the land of the setting sun, hence the term westerners
applied to the dead;
and
still
again
its
This belief
in
a future
life,
respecting the nature of the soul's existence in the other world and
way upon the people of ancient was the cause and motive of many of the things they did when they laid away their dead.^
of
its
Egypt.
"
There
is
in ancient
Egypt
Be-
as consisting, besides the hody, of a ka, a ba (soul), a y'hw (spirit), a shadow, etc.
sides the
was only the ka, the protecting genius, which was not an element of the personality ..." (Breasted, Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt (1912), p. 56, n. 2). And so Steindorff: "In my opinion it [the ka] is not, as commonly supposed, a kind of ethereaLfacsimile or double of the man, but a guardian spirit or genius " {The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (1905), p. 122). 2 The ideas and beliefs which underlie such practices as are portrayed in the following sections are
common
What
is
of the Egyptians is that they should have retained these customs so long after their emergence from barbarism. This is to be attributed: to their extreme conservatism
(of. sect.
36).
40
38.
ANCIENT EGYPT
The
First Need of the Soul
:
[38
The
first
need
upon the preservation of the soul was the possession of the old body, soul was believed to deof which the existence or happiness of the
pend.
Hence
oils,
The
bodies of the
aromatic and wealthy were preserved by being filled with costly resinous substances, and swathed in bandages of linen. To a body
thus treated
is
mummy.
As
this
method
of em-
and
dried,
and wrapped
in coarse in the
common tombs
To
Fig. 27.
this
tians of
embalming
dead we
Profile of Rameses
of the
II
(From a photograph
mummy)
we can look upon the owe it faces of many of the ancient actual
that
Pharaohs.
the last century (in 1881) the
mummies
all
of
Rameses
and
II,
priests,
both strong faces, are so remarkably preserved that, in the words of Maspero, " were their subjects to return to the earth to-day they
could not
fail
Along with the mummy there were often placed in the tomb a number of wood, clay, or stone portrait statuettes of the deceased. The lid of the coffin was also carved in the form of a mummy. The
idea here
was
that,
if
39]
41
effort
of these substitutes.
It
was the
put
by the
artist to
make
lifelike
degree of excellence.
39. The Second Need of the Soul a Secure HabiUtion. Another need of the soul was a safe habitation. Upon the temporary homes
:
bestowed little care, but upon the " eternal abodes " of the dead they lavished unstinted labor and cost.
of the living the Egyptians
The tombs
limestone
in the
that
rim
The
lier
tains of stone
mids.
Many
of the later
Mummy
Case with
Mummy
and chambers.
In the
hills
back of
Tombs
many
40.
of these royal sepulchers that the place has been called the
" Westminster
Abbey
of Egypt."
: ,
in the
Earthly Life.
mummy,
of everything, in a
Hence
laid
all
these
away, and
from time
upon a
of gifts, the
tombs of the wealthy were often richly endowed, and upon the priest of some
neighboring temple.
42
But as
it
ANCIENT EGYPT
was only the
spirit
of,
it came wood or
[41
be believed that a
model
in
would serve
Thus
the
and drink supplied the soul with and the model of a boat
Nile.
made
possible a pleasure
sail
on the
celestial
Among
slave
the
without feet
presumably
;
women
that they
might not
servants,
and models of
duty was
to arise
and answer
called
in place of the
dead
upon
to
do work
in the
It
was
belief
that pictures
and models
real things
which
The Judgment of the Dead and the Negative Confession. But alongside these crude ideas and
41.
beliefs
woRLD.i
{After
Wiedeman7t)
in
of
sumptuous tomb, a constant supply of food and other things, there developed a belief and tonviction that the lot of the soul in the future is determined solely the life,
hy
or
evil,
whether good
lived
on
earth.
This belief found expression in the so-called Judgment of the Dead. alike must appear before the dread tribunal of Osiris, the judge of the underworld, and render an account of the deeds done in the body. Here the soul sought justification in such declarations
statuette of a workman placed in the 1 tomb along with the mummy. It was thought aiat the recital of certain magical formulas imparted life to the image. number of these tigures put the tomb supplied the deceased with servants in the other world
u
o
< a
(4
41]
as these,
43
:
is
"I
have
"I have not slain any one treacherously " "I have not slandered any one or made false accusation " "I have not reviled the face of my father " "I have not
not blasphemed "
;
;
"I have
eaten
my
we
approach
to
I
;
the hungrj*
and drink
to
athirst
The
tested
truth of
what the
its
own
behalf
of the scales
Fig. 30.
a papyrus)
symbol of
The
soul stood
light,
by watching the weighing. the soul was welcomed to the The unjustified were sent to a
to
be devoured.
This judgment scene in the nether world "forms the most instructive memorial of Old Egypt that has been preserved to us. We here learn
what sort of a conscience the Egyptian had early developed for the confession and the doctrine of a judgment date from a very remote
;
It will
Commandments
in substance
Ten
44
ANCIENT EGYPT
[42
teachers of Egypt here period of Egyptian civilization. The moral anticipated the moral teachers of Israel.^ Arts. At a comparatively 43. Architecture, Sculpture, and Minor make further notable progearly period Egyptian civilization ceased to The past was taken as a model, just as it is in China to-day.
ress.
So what
is
is,
the
third
millennium
before
Egyptian history.
ancient
some
respects, have
The Memearlier,
and the Theban temples raised by the later Pharaohs have excited the
astonishment and the admiration
alike of all the successive genera-
tions that
grandest, the
most prodigious
as-
erected
by the hand of man." In the cutting and shaping enormous blocks of the
Fig. 31.
of
hardest
re-
An Egyptian
Obelisk
is
which modern
stonecutters
" It
man
... In this judgment the Egyptian introduced for the first time in the history of the fully developed idea that the future destiny of the dead must be dependent
life,
entirely
upon the ethical quality of the earthly Breasted, History of Egypt (1912), p. 173
"^History of Ancient Eg}'pt, vol.
i,
of to
p. 498.
their
tools, to
The Egyptian stonecutters did much which they were able by some process
43]
45
best in
As we have
its
became so
The
to
change a single
temples of the
last of the
Pharaohs.
In
many
They were
Fig. 32.
Tubular
modern
Drill Hole
(beetle)
The scarabaeus they showed wonderful skill. was reproduced with lines of almost microscopic delicacy. It should be noted here that it was especially in the domain of art that the influence of Egypt was exerted upon contemporary Until the full development of Greek art, Egyptian art civilizations. reigned over the world in somewhat the same way that Greek art has
reigned
since
the Golden
Its
in-
Age
of
Greece.
f<
fj
fluence
can be traced
in
art
of
all
Mediterranean lands.
43.
The Sciences:
Geometry,
Asand
Fig. 33.
tronomy,
Medicine.
Scarab Amulet
The
cloudless
and
brilliant skies of
Egypt
And
another circumstance
the
stars
could
them
movements
of
give a very hard edge. In the very earliest times they had invented the tubular drill, which they set with hard cutting points. VSTith this instrument they did work which engineers of to-day say could not be surpassed with the modern diamond drill. See
46
the heavenly bodies.
length,
ANCIENT EGYPT
very
nearly,
[44
year,
into
five
twelve months of
thirty
festival
period of
minor changes,
Roman
Empire, and
up
to the
The Greeks accounted for the early rise of the science of geometry among the Egyptians by the necessity they were under of reestablishing each year the boundaries
obliterating old
of
their fields
the inundation
landmarks and
divisions.
The
upon
their attention
was
and success.
single
The work
of the
Greek scholars
in this field
was based on
that done
by the Egyptians.
The Egyptian
ailment
means of magical
of various kinds
;
rites
Egyptian invention.
44. Egypt's Contribution to Civilizatioij.
we
thus
see,
made valuable gifts to civilization. From the Nile came the germs of much found in the later cultures of the peoples of western Asia
and of the Greeks and Romans, and through their mediation in
of the
that
modern
world.
"
We
was the
creation
How
we
proceed
in
historic
peoples of antiquity,
1 The Egyptian scholars knew that 365 days was a period J of a day short of a year, but the conservatism of the people prevented the use of a calendar that provided for the addition of one day to every fourth year.
REFERENCES
Sayce), vol,
47
Selections from the Sources. Records of the .Past (New Series, edited by " The Precepts of Ptah-Hotep." Petrie's Egyptian Tales iii, (Second Series), "Anpu and Bata." Maspero's Popular Stories of Ancient Egypt, " Tlie Lamentations of tlie Fellah," pp. 43-i-67 and " The Shipwrecked
;
Herodotus, ii, 1-14. The student should bear in mind Herodotus' work devoted to the Orient have a very different
from that possessed by those portions of the history which Greek affairs. " The net result of Oriental research," says Professor Sayce, " in its bearing upon Herodotus is to show that the greater part of what he professes to tell us of the history of Egypt, Babylonia, and
deal prinlarily with Persia
is really
a collection of
'
marchen,' or popular
stories, current
among
Greek loungers and half-caste dragomen on the skirts of the Persian empire. After all, ... it may be questioned whether they are not of higher value for the history of the human mind than the most accurate descriptions of kings and generals, of wars and treaties and revolutions." References (Modern). Breasted, A History of Egypt, A History of the Ancient Egyptians, and DevelopTnent of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt, Maspeko, The Dawn of Civilization, chaps, i-vi The Struggle of the Nations, chaps, i-v and Manual of Egyptian Archceology. RAV^fLlNSON, History of Ancient Egypt, 2 vols., and Story of Ancient Egypt. NEWBERRY and Garstang, A Short History of Ancient Egypt. Baikie, The Story of the Pharaohs. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East (consult table of contents). Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the
the
.
.
,'
portions are antiquated). Ancient Egyptians (should be used with caution Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt. Budge, Egyptian Religion and Egyptian Ideas of the Future Life. Steindorff, The Religion of the Ancient Egyptians.
in Ancient Egypt.
2. Industrial arts: Maspero, Egyptian Archcsology, chap. v. Dwellings of the poor and of the rich Maspero, Egyptian Archcsology^ Maspero, Life in Ancient Egypt pp. 2-28. 4. The market and the shops and Assyria, chap. ii. 5. The Tell el-Amarna letters Breasted, History of Egypt, PP- 332-337) 382-389. 393 ! Light from the East, pp. 86-94.
:
CHAPTER
IV
POLITICAL HISTORY
;
45.
Country.
The Tigris and Euphrates Valley the Upper and the Lower We must now trace the upspringing of civilization in
Egypt, so in that of the Tigris and Euphrates
As
in the case of
upon the
history of
its
ancient peoples.
and
reflected, as
we
shall see,
throxighout
its political
history.
The northern
by mountain
the
The ancient Greeks gave to the land embraced by the Tigris and the Euphrates name of Mesopotamia, which means literally " the land between or amidst the rivers." The __name is often loosely applied to the whole Tigris Euphrates valley.
Note, The
picture at the
head of
this
at Babylon, as
it
appeared in i8ii.
45]
ridges.
THE
TIGRIS
49
The southern
like the
known
as Babylonia,
is,
The making
of
new- land by the rivers has gone on steadily during historic times.
The
Gulf.
lie
over a hundred miles inland from the present head of the Persian
Fig. 34.
stupendous system of dikes and canals, which at the present day, in like a network the face
The productions of Babylonia are very like those of the Nile valley. The luxuriant growth of grain upon these alluvial flats excited the wonder of the Greek travelers who visited the East. Herodotus will
not
tell
may be
doubted.
It is
not strange that tradition should have located here Paradise, that primeval garden " out of the ground of which God made to grow
every tree that
is
This
so
[46
favored plain in a remote period of antiquity became the seat of an agricultural, industrial, and commercial population among which the
arts of civilized life
old
as that of Egypt, and which ran parallel with it. 46. The Babylonian a Mixed Culture. In ancient times the part of
Akkad. The
first
inhabitants of Sumer,
the
name
of writing
and other
arts of a comparatively
laid in the
advanced
culture.
It
was
this
people
who
main the
Euphrates
valley.
south, there
came
into
Akkad
in the
north
such
Semitic immigrants
habits,
and
altogether
much less
They
retained.
47j
however, their
SI
rise to
the
is
Babylonians of history, and their mixed culture formed what known as the Babylonian civilization.
47.
The Age
of
B.C.).
When
lands,
reveals the
filled
cities like
those which
its
we
and
Italy.
Each
city
had
patron
god, and
was ruled by a
title
From
the tablets of
patient
scholars
are
slowly deciphering
the
Fig. 35.
ancient
cities.
The polit-
Oriental
ical side
of their history
more
have become
known
its
by one
city
and
cities
Of
all
Sargon I (about 2775 B.C.'), ments, we shall here mention only one the " Menes of Chaldea," a Semitic king of Akkad, whose reign
He built up a in early Babylonian annals. powerful state in Babylonia and carried his arms to " the land of
forms a great landmark
the setting sun " (Syria).
It is possible that
he even extended
his
An
kingdom "
the
first
world-kingdom known
1 The earlier date for this king, which was formerly accepted on the evidence of the so-called Nabonidus Cylinder, has been discredited by recent discoveries, which show that several of the early dynasties once supposed to be consecutive were really
contemporaneous.
52
48.
[48
Babylon:
Hammurabi and
Empire.
From
on
the
capital.
For centuries
finally
at a time the
more or
less
complete vassalage.
broken by a king
of
Babylon, a city which had been gradually rising into prominence, and which was to give to the whole country the name by which
Babylonia. best known The name of this king was Hammurabi (about 2 loo B.C.).
it is
He
the
tinited
cities
under
of
his rule
all
Babylonia, and
true
thus
of
became the
is
maker
what
known
as the Old
Babylonian Empire.
called
remarkably like
the
this oldest
system of laws
shall say something a little farther on (sect. 60). The Old Babylonian Empire Eclipsed by the Rising Assyrian Empire. For more than fifteen hundred years after Hammurabi,
world we
49.
political
and commercial
center, of an
shifting
'
known
to
us,
we
north.
Meanwhile a Semitic power had been slowly developing in the This was the Assyrian Empire, thus called from Assur
its
(Ashur),
its
Nineveh grew
to be
capital.
The
;
earlier rulers of
Assyria were
but late in the eighth century B.C. Babylonia was conquered by an Assyrian king, and from that time on to 625 B.C. the country was for the most part under Assyrian control
50]
S3
50.
Remains
by vast ramparts of
cities,
These heaps are the remains the palaces and shrines of the ancient
earth.
Babylonians.
The
them more
more
feet
above the
Upon
these
immense platforms were built the temples of the gods The country affording neither timber recourse was usually had to sun-dried bricks as the chief
building material, burnt brick being used, in the main, only for the
The
and heavy
courts
walls.
In
their
and chambers were paneled with glazed decay these edifices have sunk down
into great
heaps of
earth which the storms of centuries have furrowed with deep ravines,
giving
many
hills
for which,
some of the
earlier
visitors
to
Babylonia
mistook them,
51. Excavations and Discoveries.
nine-
teenth century
site
some mounds of
was astonished
to see rising as
(sect. 68).
the
This was the beginning of excavations and discoveries in Mesopotamian lands which during the past half century have re-
stored the history of long-forgotten empires, reconstructed the history of the Orient,
history.
54
[52
Some
most important
finds in Babylonia
The
excavation here of the ruins of the great temple of Bel brought to light memorials which prove that this city was one of the religious
centers of the old Babylonian world for
Fig. 37.
Excavation showing Pavements in a Court of the Temple OF Bel at Nippur. (After ffilprecht)
" i," was put down by Sargon I and Naram-Sin (about and the upper one, marked " 5," by the Assyrian king Ashur-bani-pal (668B.C.). The pavements are thus separated by a period of over 2000 years
626
years
Rome
period a thousand years longer than that during which has been the religious center of Catholic Christendom. 52. Cuneiform Writing. The most valuable things that have been
unearthed in Babylonia are the old libraries and temple archives. But to appreciate the import of this a word is here necessary concerning the Babylonian system of writing and its decipherment. From the eariiest period known to us, the Babylonians were in possession of a system of phonetic writing. To this system the
52]
CUNEIFORM WRITING
SS
term cuneiform (from cuneus, a "wedge") has been given on account of its wedge-shaped characters. The signs assumed this peculiar
Fig. 38.
Translation
:
Cuneiform Writing
-I
" Five
spread for
its
roof "
an angular
earlier
is
plainly
shown by a comparison of
MEANING
S6
(sect.
[53
five
They employed a
of writing
syllabary of
hundred
This
signs.^
mode
was
B.C.
in
use
among
it
was
just
such an important
civili-
cian alphabet in
its
of
all
Archives.
The
writing
material
of
the
Those holding
ing been
Babylonian Tablet
in dupliIf the
and the
by design, the removal of the outer coating would show the true text.
at once
The
tablets
in
The temple
archives found at
Fig. 41.
Contract Tablet
The Decipherment
;
of
the
Cuneiform
Just
The
Writing
as the
by means of
to the cuneiform
script discovered
by means of
(sect. 104).
trilingual inscriptions,
among
which
so-called
Rock
Credit
for
' The Persians at a much later time borrowed the system and developed purely alphabetic one, Their alphabet consisted of thirty-six characters.
into a
55]
difficult writing,
THE RELIGION
and thereby the opening up
divided
civilization, is
57
to us of the records of
a long buried
among
several scholars.^
subjects.
The
tablets
There are
mythological tablets, which hold the myth's and tales of the Babylonian gods
;
and hymns
legal
a commercial nature
tablets
and astronomical,
and mathematical
all
We
will say
just a
word
what the
and
of
the sciences
among them.
55.
The Religion.
The
earliest
and most
mankind.
At
made known
to
we
the patron
religion
feature from
spirits,
first
to
last
of the popular
spirits,
particularly in
wicked
and
is
known
or the
foretelling
of the stars.
ancient world.
'
1 Copies of trilingual inscriptions written in Persian, Susian, and Babylonianwere brought from Persepolis to Europe at the end of the eighteenth century. The clue to the decipherment of the Persian text was found by Grotefend in 1802. He identified the names of Darius, Hystaspes, and Xerxes, the word for king, and nine of the thirty-nine signs. In 1835 Sir Henry C. Rawlinspn copied a longer inscription in these same languages made by Darius on the rock at Behistun. Independently he
arrived at the
58
[S6
millennium
penitential
which breathe a
The most
ages.
lonian religion
it
later
this influence
was of a baneful
,the
character,
sorcery,
of
for
it
was
chiefly the
and astrology
the West.
which were
astrology
magic,
absorbed by
the later
borrowing nations
Thus
the
among
in
Romans and
evil
spirits,
the popular
exorcisms,
behefs
of
Middle Ages
regard to
Much
was
trans-
mitted from the East to the Western world at the same time that
came
in
from Judea.
The
beliefs
of the
Babylonians
Egyptians.
little
life;
and
it
is
no wonder
in
mind, for in general they imagined the li^ after death to be most sad and doleful. The abode of the dead (Aralu), the " dark land,"
the " land of no return,"
Bats
flitted
was a dusky region beneath the earth. light dust was upon the lintels of the souls drowsed in their places their food was
;
There was no judgment of the dead as among the Egyptians. There was no
distinction,
in
;
the the
case
of
the
great
all
multitude,'
who went
down
1
to death.
of such a psalm follow
A few lines
O my god who
May my
sins
art
my
prayer.
be forgiven,
my
[May] flowing waters of the stream wash Let me be pure like the sheen of gold.
clean.
p. 323
There was a
men
great piety.
S7]
57.
S9
Religion
Temple
among
largely
the Babylonians, as
among
an affair of the state. A chief care and duty of the king was the erection and repair of the temples and shrines of the gods.^
and
stables
were attached to
schools,
priests
many of
the temples
and
scribes.
The
courts
of
the temples
were
all
transaction of
manner
of business.
were drawn up
same deposited
for safe-keeping
An immense
we now have
Babylo-
number of these
than of
those
of
any other
like
people of antiquity.
Many
aeval
of
the
temples,
the
B.C.
He
was a great builder, and his inscriptions dwell chiefly upon his pious labors in the restoration and beautifying of the old city-temples
in the state.
The god
owned a
lands.
immense
ziggurat, or
number p^amid.
upon
6o
58.
[S8
Babylonian Genesis.
great part
of Babylonian literature
third millennium b. c.
was of Sumerian origin and dates from the In what is called the Creation Epic, which has
tablets,
been recovered
in
we have
is
told with
many variations
These
in the litera-
and Assyrians.
Sacred
Scriptures
of the
are
Hebrews.
striking
it
But there
differences
which
is
instructive to notice.
The
trast with
tales, is
the Babylonian
all poly-
divested of
theistic
elements,
is,
and
is
moralized, that
as to cause
59.
it
so told
to
of
instruction.
The Epic
had a large number of other heroic and nature myths. The most noted of these form what is known as the Epic of Gilgamesh,'
lonians
This
is
cycle of
some such place in Babylonian literature and art legends making up the epic of the Trojan War held
and
art of the
literature
Echoes of it reached the .^gean mold the Greek story of Heracles (sect. 138).
Code of Hammurabi.
Greeks.
the
In
1901-1902
set
the
French excavators
of stone
1
up by
The
is
epic
made up
One
interest
ture.
The
oldest of these
which there are several versions was discovered recently (in 1913) by Dr.
Amo
the Nippur tablets in the Museum of Archaeology of the University of Pennsylvania. The tablet holding this version is believed to date from 1850 or 1900 B.C. Sec Jastrow, Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions (1914), p. 335.
60]
6i
Hammurabi, king
lennium B.C.
to us.
It
is
(sect. 48).
This
is
known
evidently, in large
of earlier laws
The code casts a strong side light upon the Babylonian life of the period when it was compiled, and thus constitutes one of the most valuable monuments spared to
us from the old Semitic world.
It
of
husband and
slave,
wife,
master
and
of merchants, gar-
deners,
of
all
tenants,
shepherds
made
up the population
lonian Empire.
of the later principle
of the Baby-
of
deter-
for injury
was an eye
The owner
man was
heavy
fine,
required
to
pay a
provided he
knew
horns
" Hammurabi places as the headpiece of the monument containing the laws of the country
an
effigy of himself in
'
an attitude of adoration
its
before Shamash,
The
The law fixed prices and wages, the hiire for boats and wagons and of oxen for threshing, the fee of the surgeon, the wages of the brickmaker, of the tailor, of the carpenter, and of other artisans.
harboring of runaway slaves
There were also provisions forbidding under severe penalties the provisions which read strangely like
our
own
fugitive-slave laws of
was
in force in the
62
[61
was used as a textbook in the schools of the Mesopotamian lands. Probably no other code save the Mosaic or the Justinian (sect. 565) has exerted a greater influence upon human society. " As the oldest body of laws in existence," says an eminent
even after
time
it
it
study
of historic jurisprudence."
:
In
They
constellations, a
memorial of
their astronomi-
which
;
will
the heavens
moon
devised
into minutes,
and
a week of seven
days."-
Babylonians
made
consider-
tablet has
The duodecimal
and
it is
system
of the Babylonians,
from them
It
Aside from
in
letters,
the
life
Selections from the Sources. Jastrow's The Civilization of Babylonia and Harper's Assyrian and Babylohian Literature (selected
Descent
to
Hades"
(this is
one
of the
and
the Sur-
rounding Nations, pp. 313-319, "The Babylonian Account of the Deluge" (this can be found also in Smith's The Chaldean Account of Genesis, chap, xvi, and in Jastrow's The Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 443-452). The
1
This week of seven days was a subdivision of the moon-month, based on the phases new moon, first quarter, full moon, and last quarter.
REFERENCES
Code
63
Code of Hammurabi, in either the Johns or the Harper translation ("The of Hammurabi is one of the most important monuments of tlie human
race.:"
Johns). Sefeiences (Modern). Maspeeo, The Dawn of Civilization, chaps, vii-ix, and The Struggle of the Nations, chap. i. King, History of Akkad and Sumer and A History of Babylon. Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria, vol. i. HoMMEL, The Civilization of the East. Goodspeed, A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians, pts. i, ii. Peters, Nippur, 2 vols. Jastrow, The
and Assyria and Hebrew and Babylonian Traditions. King, Babylonian Religion and Mythology. Sayce, Social Life among the Assyrians and Babylonians. Perrot and Chipiez, A History of Art in Chaldcea and Assyria, 2 vols. Hall, The Ancient History of the Near
Religion of Babylonia
East, chap. v.
i.
French excavations
at
Tello
Hilprecht,
Explorations in Bible Lands, pp. 216-260. 2. American excavations at Nippur; Peters, Nippur, vol. ii, chaps, ii-x; Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands,
pp. 289-568.
lonia
3.
The temple
archives
4.
and
and Assyria,
CHAPTER V
THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE
(From an unknown date to 606
I.
B. C.
POLITICAL HISTORY
we
traced the begin-
62. Introduction.
nings of civilization
among
Euphrates.
north,
prominence a
Semitic people
were growing
the Assyrians.
this
Of
the place
in
people
we must now
kings.
form some
sort of idea.
is
The
story of Assyria
is
in the
And
detail
it
made
To
any measure
of
pillag-
countries of western
great
We
shall therefore
ability as
whose munificence
and patrons of
arts and
among
the
renowned personages
64
63]
TIGLATH-PILESER
IV ^
(745-727 B.C.).
-IV
65
63. Tiglath-Pileser
later
He
talent. The empite which had been built up by earlier kings having fallen into disorder, he restored the Assyrian power and extended the limits of the empire even beyond its former
boundaries.
this
we may
but a
cities
and
states,
own
king,
its
was ready
who,
moment
to revolt
against
suzerain,
Now
to
Tiglath-Pileser,
first to
introduce,
was the
first
states to provinces
that
is,
he put
Assyrian magistrates, or
viceroys,
upon whose
It is true
his
system perlaid
power and glory of the great kings who followed him upon the Assyrian throne, and made the later Assyrian Empire,
the basis of the
to
of Darius, Alexander,
and
Caesar.
In 722
B.C.
been commenced by
ential classes of the
and
carried
away
the
most
influ-
"Ten
(sect. 84).
The
1
among
the towns
has
as
Formerly Tiglath-Pileser III. Since the first revised edition of this work evidence to light which proves this Tiglath-Pileser to have been the fourth instead of, hitherto supposed, the third to bear this name.
come
2 2
Kings
xvii, 6.
66
of
[6S
Media and Mesopotamia, and probably became, for the most part, merged with the population of those regions. This transplanting of a conquered people was a regular governmental device of the Assyrian kings. It was done not only in order
that conspiracy
and
but also
severed,
in
of country arid
home
thus
more easily forget past and customs, and become blended with the
peoples about them.
Sargon was a
fa-
mous
builder.
Near
hills
Tigris
northa
he founded
for
named
Fig. 45-
himself;
erected
and there he
Restoration of Sargon's Palace at Khorsabad. (From Place, Ninive ei I'Assyrie)
royal residence consisted of a
royal
residence,
The
complex of
halls
and
chambers surrounding a number of courts, large and small. The stepped pyramid is a ziggurat^ or temple-tower
magnificence,"
site
the
of which
is
now marked by
the
is
of
many
of the
become as
familiar as that of
Nebuchadnezzar
The
permit Sennacherib to
tell us in his own words of his great works and military expeditions. Respecting the decoration of Nineveh, of which he was the chief builder, he writes: "I raised again all the
edifices of
Nineveh,
my
royal city
made
i6S]
SENNACHERIB
67
says
Concerning an expedition against Hezekiah, king of Judah, he "I took forty-six of his strong fenced cities and of the
:
And from
as spoil 200,150 people, old and young, male and female, together
with horses and mares, asses and camels, oxen and sheep, a count'
less multitude.
And Hezekiah
himself I shut
up
in Jerusalem, his
city to
Fig. 46.
Layard's
sled,
and
still
others
hem him
In this
in,
and
^
raising
to
prevent escape."
recital
according to the
Hebrew
his
account^ the Assyrian host was smitten by " the angel of the Lord,"'
and the king returned with a shattered army and without glory to
capital
Nineveh.
laid
Sennacherib
this
time
city of the
That
city
having revolted,
1 From the so-called Taylor Cylinder; translation by Sir H. Rawlinson (Rawlinson, Ancient Monarchies, vol. ii, p. 161). A translation by Professor Rogers can be found in 2 2 Kings xix, 35-37. Records of the Past (^<i-vi's,&t\<^s),\o\.\\,-g.')a. s This expression is a Hebraism, meaning often atiy physical cause of destruction,
as a plague or a storm.
pestilence.
'
68
[66
declares,
of Babylon."
the Sardanapalus
of
also
marked by important
it
military
operations.
Egypt having
revolted,''
he brought
punishment
for
its
hostility,
was made an
his its
cities
awful example of
vengeance
were
leveled,
and
the
whole
laid
country
All
was
the
waste.
scenes of his
Fig. 47.
sieges
An Assyrian Kelek.
(After Layard)
and
battles
he caused
kind of raft (depicted on the Assyrian monuments) used by the ancient Assyrians for floating grain, stone,
etc.,
to be
sculptured on
down
It consisted
of^
framework
by a great number of
in-
Nineveh.
These
are
flated goat-skins.
On
taken to pieces, the wood sold, on asses. Exactly the same system of transportation
pictured
panels
the
is
now
in
British
to-day.
The swimmer
in the pic-
67.
The Fall
of
Nineveh (606
B.C.).
ruler
named by
the Greek
writers Saracus
was the
last of the
now lorded
it
over
There was scarcely a state in all western Asia that during time had not, in the language of the royal inscriptions, " borne the
scarcely a people that had not suffered punishments or tasted the bitterness of enforced exile.
;
heavy yoke of
their cruel
quarter
First, wild
The
city was rebuilt by Sennacherib's son and successor Esarhaddon I (680-668 B.C.). Egypt had been conquered and brought under Assyrian rule by Sennacherib's son
Esarhaddon. Northern Arabia had also been added to the empire by him.
68]
69
state,
'weakening of the
tore Syria
south-
em
mountain
of the
on the
led
east
by the
re-
finally
Two
hun-
dred years
his
memorable
great
city
its
was a
name
II.
THE CIVILIZATION
and DisIn Assyria there are many
mounds like those in Babylonia. These mark the sites of the old Assyrian
cities
;
country
abundant,
the
Assyrians,
Fig. 48.
An Assyrian King
HIS Captives
AND
T^e
hook and
sculp-
Hence
in their
left
bridle in nose
and
lips.
The
is
Assyrian kings
a vivid
illustration of these
prophet Isaiah
put
my hook
in
and temples.
when employed, was used mainly
Isa. xxxvii,
29
Stone,
foundation of walls.
sculptor (sect.
for decorative purposes and for the Because of the freer use of stone- by the Assyrian architect and 69),. the Assyrian ruins have yielded far more monuments than the
Babylonian.
^o
[69
In 1843-1844 M. Botta, the French consul at Mosul on the mound at Khorsabad, and astonished the world
of
Sargon
II.
The
removed
to the
In 1845-1851 Layard disentombed the palace of Sennacherib and those of other kings at Nineveh and Calah (the earliest capital of the Assyrian kingdom), and
museum
Museum
Fig. 49.
(After Layard)
kings paid more attention to the royal residence than to the temples
of the gods, though they
artificial
The
great palace
acres, and
mound
is
at
Upon
this
mound
stood several
The group
of
was
often
enormous extent
and chambers
of the
i70]
peilace
71
platform at
the
great
The
galleries
The main
halls,
however, and the great open courts were "faced with' slabs of
ala-
baster, covered with sculptures and inscriptions, the illustrated narrative of the
of the wall
stiff
generally
special
and without
merit, but
artistic
some
is
of the animal
sculptures, as
The
hunting
pictures
are
Fig, jo.
particularly fine
and strong.
" There
are
animals
among
bani-pal at
The Royal Library at Nineveh. Within the palace of AshurNineveh was discovered what is known as the Royal Library, the largest and most important library of the old Semitic world, from which over twenty thousand tablets were taken. We
from the
inscriptions that a librarian
learn
col-
Catalogues of the books have bden found, made out on lection. clay tablets. Respecting the purpose of the library an inscription
says, " I [Ashur-bani-pal]
I placed
them
in
my
my
people."
The
works
;
and
sciences,
1
in
The
relations
Babylonian
may be
illustrated
by the
relations of
Rome
culture.
72
[71
by
the
for
in
made
new
In
this
and
astronomical,
and
other
works.
library
are of
The much
literary treasures
Fig. 51.
The Assyrians have been called They were a proud, warlike, and cruel race. The Assyrian kings seem to have surpassed all others in the cruelty
71. Cruelty of the Assyrians.
which characterizes the warfare of the whole ancient Orient. The sculptured marbles of their palaces exhibit the hideously cruel tortures
inflicted
is
(Fig. 52).
a fair specimen of
many
"
The
nobles,
as
many
.
as
.
had
.
revolted, I flayed
pyramid.
Three thousand of
their captives I
burned with
fire.
71]
I left
73
I cut off
among them
some
;
to
put out.
Their young
men
KiG. 52.
(From
a bas-relief)
The
them
upon imperishable
stone.
The
careful
ence to atrocities of
this character,
Fig. 53.
Lion Hunt.
(From Nineveh)
for
are inflicted
{New
Series), vol.
ii,
pp. 143
ff.
74
72.
[ 72
In his
inscrip-
enumerated as
the
he has captured.
The monuments
engaged
slaying lions, bulls,
Orient.
We
see
him
less
tracts
like that
done by
Rome
at a later time.
Rome
welded
all
civi-
which she had borrowed from vanquished Greece, so did Assyria weld into a great empire the innumerable petty warring
states
and
tribes of
in
(New
Series), vol.
v,
pp. 120-128, "The Nimrud Inscription of Tiglath-Pileser III," on military and building operations. Ibid. vol. iv, pp. 38-52, " Inscription on the Obelisk of Shalmaneser II," shows the harshness and cruelty of Assyrian warfare.
This inscription, along with many other selected translations, can also be found in Harper's Assyrian and Babylonian Literature. The Old Testament,
Nahum
iii, 18, 19; Zeph. ii, 13-15. References (Modern). Maspero, The Struggle of the Nations, chap, vi, and The Passing of the Empires, chaps, i-v. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies,
Goodspeed, A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians, Layard, Nineveh and its Remains. Perrot and Chipiez, A History of Art in Chaldaa and Assyria, 2 vols. Rogers, A History of Babylonia and Assyria, vol. ii, pp. 1-295. Ragozin, The Story of Assyria. Wincklkr, The History of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 167-310. Hall, The Ancient History of the Near East, chap. x.
vol.
pt.
i
(last part).
iii.
his
i.
2.
Explorations in Bible Lands, pp. 84-87. 3. Assyrian art: Reinach, Apollo, pp. 23-27. 4. Industrial and social life: Goodspeed, A History of the Babylonians and Assyrians, pp. 71-76. 5. royal hunting adventure: Maspero, Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, chap. xiv.
CHAPTER
VI
605
B.C.)
of
what
is
known
Em-
pire.^
At
a vassal king,
when
to thicken
pendent.
after
Babylon
filled
Nabopolassar was followed renowned son Nebuchadnezzar, whose gigantic architectural works rendered Babylon the wonder of the ancient world. Jerusalem, having repeatedly revolted, was finally taken and
75. Nebuchadnezzar II (eoS-Sei e.g.).
his
by
sacked
(sect.
85).
gold,
stripped of
to
its
sacred vessels
of silver
and
temple
itself
also carried
was given to the flames a part of the people were away into the "Great Captivity" (586 B.C.).
With Jerusalem subdued, Nebuchadnezzar pushed with all his whose investment
In striking language
describes the length and hardness
" Every head was made bald, and every shoulder was
peeled."
7i
1^
THE CHALDEAN
rival
ElVEPIRE
[75
Nebuchadnezzar sought to
tion of
Among
.9J^'
"7^
'
rU n
:^
Fig. 54.
(From
citadel of Babylon was an artificial mound surrounded with stupendous walls and crowned with the royal residence and other buildings. The upper left-hand portion of the cut shows the restored palace of Nebuchadnezzar with its three great courts. Near the center of the picture is seen the famous Ishtar Gate a double towered-gateway. Its walls were decorated with an immense number of animals in relief. The round inset shows the excavated towers. Passing through the Ishtar Gate was the great Procession Street (see note under Fig. 55). In the lower left-hand comer of the palace inclosure will be noted a vaulted structure. This is conjecturally connected by Dr. Koldewey with the famous Hanging Gardens 1
The
Hanging Gardens,-'- the quays along the The gardens and the walls were
76]
77
and
resto-
Especially zealous
He
dwells
fondness on
all
tells
how he
orna-
mented with precious stones the panelings of the shrines, roofed them with huge beams of cedar overlaid with gold and silver, and decorated the gates with plates of bronze; making the sacred abodes as " brilliant as the sun " and " bright as the stars of heaven."
IJIIjJIl^WfflSW
Fig. 55.
Babylonian Lion.
at Babylon)
was the decoration of walls with figures formed of colored enameled bricks. The figure here shown is a restoration from excavated fragments. Over a hundred such figures formed the magnificent friezes of the walls lining the great Procession Street (Fig. 54), made by Nebuchadnezzar, and leading to the famous temple of Marduk
characteristic feature of Babylonian art
76.
The
The
glory of the
New
Baby-
lonian
tains
Empire passed away with Nebuchadnezzar. Among the mounand on the uplands to the east of the Tigris-Euphrates valley
had been growing up an Aryan kingdom.
67) and the absorption of
there
At
its
we have now
Assyrian Empire
director of the
provinces,
had
German excavations at Babylon, unearthed massive ruins which he thinks may have formed the vaulted substructure of the gardens. " The reason," he says, " why the Hanging Gardens were ranked among the seven wonders of the world was that they
were
1
laid out on the roof of an occupied building" {Excavations at Babylon, p. 100). See the inscription of Nebuchadnezzar, Records of the Past (New Series), vol.
ff.
iii,
pp. 102
78
[76
grown
of this
power
the Medo-Persian.
collision
At
the head
and ambitious
and
in the open
the
Persians.-'-
With the
by Semitic
princes,
was given
into the
who were
of events
affairs of civilization.^
Selections from the Sources. Harper's Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, The East India House Inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II" (a
;
record of the king's great building operations) and pp. 171-174, " der of Cyrus " (an account of the taking of Babylon).
The
Cylin-
References (Modern).
Life in Ancient Egypt
lonia
and Assyria, and Assyrians, pt. iv. Sayce, The Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, pt. ii. WiNCKLER, The History of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 313328. KoLDEWEY, The Excavations at Babylon. Topics for Class Reports, i The outer walls of Babylon Koldewey, The Excavations at Babylon, pp. 1-6. 2. The Ishtar Gate and its wall decorations'.
lonians
.
Maspero, The Passing of the Empires, chap, v, and and Assyria, chaps, xi-xx. Rogers, A History of Babyvol. ii, pp. 297-3S1. Goodspeed, A History of the Baby-
The
makes an
incident of the
by Cyrus; but it seems that a little later (521-519 B.C.), the city, having revolted, was actually taken in this way by the Persian king Darius. Herodotus confused the two events. 2 For the temporary revival of Semitic power throughout the Orient by the Arabs, see Chapter XL-VI.
siege,
CHAPTER
VII
THE HEBREWS
77.
The
history of the
Hebrews, as nar-
rated
their
sacred
books, begins with the departure of the out of " Ur of the Chaldees.'' The stories of
Lot, of Isaac and his sons Jacob
and
and the
tribes of Israel
all
Hebrew
Scriptures with
made
The Israelites and the Canaanites. It was probably shortly the end of the rule of the Hyksos (sect. 26) that the Hebrew
life,
refugees from the Nile-land, bearing the stain of their desert and
nomadic
the Jordan.
were and the desert warriors were not able to drive out the inhabitants. So the two peoples dwelt together in the land, the Canaanites holding in the main the hill districts and the Israelites the plains. The Hebrew nation arose from the intermingling and
or Canaanite tribes, close kin of the newgomers.
strongly walled,
cities
final
city inhabitants.
This dual
life
ancestry explains
much
in the religious
of the
Hebrew
79.
people.
of the
"Judges" (ending about loso B.C.), The inwas followed by a long period of petty wars, brigandage, and anarchy. During this time
The Age
trusion into
Canaan
8o
THE HEBREWS
[80
Samson, whose deeds of valor and daring, and the timely deliverance
they wrought for the tribes of Israel from their foes, caused their
names
ages.
called
80.
to be handed down with grateful remembrance to following These popular leaders, most of whom were local rulers, are " Judges " h^ the Bible writers. Founding of the Hebrew Monarchy (about 1050 B.C.). During
the time of the " Judges " there was, as the history of the period
among
especially mon danger to which they were exposed from enemies who had come into Palestine from the from the warlike Philistines, ^.gean region about 1200 B.C.' and the example of the nations
finally to
more
the
great
states
of
exhausted
the
Orient
Egypt,
their
by
undermined by
other
clear
decline,
for the advance into the arena of world politics of another competitor
The
was changed
of
the
81.
Upon
the death of
scepter.
assumed the
all
He
built
fame
later
that the
come down from Hebrew antiquity. Such was his authorship of a large number of hymns written in a
of
82.
The Reign
B.C.).
David was
followed
for
by
his
son Solomon.
The son
p. 33, n.
1.
was a
liberal
patron of
art,
commerce, and
22 Sam.
i,
learning.
See above,
17-27.
83]
8i
He
at Jerusalem
The
dedication cereimpressive.'^
of the national
life.
For the purpose of extending his comberce Solomon equipped fleets upon the Mediterranean and the Re'd Sea.^ Remote regions
of Africa
were
visited
by
his ships,
and
their rich
and wonderful
his
products
made
and glory of
kingdom.
of
lived in tradition as
He
made curious by reports came from South Arabia to "visit him, she exclaimed, " The half was not told me." 83. The Division of the Kingdom (about 953 B.C.). The reign of Solomon was brilliant, yet disastrous in the end to the Hebrew
the queen of Sheba,
When
monarchy.
laid
In order
to-
carry on
his
vast undertakings
he had
his son,
oppressive taxes
upon
making
his people.
When Rehoboam,
He
replied
" My father," reasonable petition with haste and insolence said he, " chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with
scorpions."
Immediately
revolt,
rival
all
the
tribes,
in
and succeeded
in setting
up
to
its first
This northern
state,
became the
capital,
capital,
Kingdom of Israel the southern, of which Jerusalem remained the was called the Kingdom of Judah. Thus was torn in twain the empire of David and Solomon.
tribes
United, the
But now the land became was hence'forth the pathway of the conquering armies of the Nile and the Euphrates. Between the and ambitious monarchs about them.
spoiler.
It
See
Kings
v-viii.
Kings
ix,
26-28
x, 22.
82
THE HEBREWS
little
[S4
after the
84.
to pieces.
of Israel (9S3?-722 B.C.).
its
The kingdom
two hundred
of the
years.
Ten
Tribes maintained
its
Many
idolatrous
The cause of Yahweh of remarkable prophets, among whom century, and Amos and Hosea in the
last
The
little
kingdom was
7 2 2 b.
at
c,
when Samaria,
and 27,290 of the inhabitants, the flower of the people, were carried away into captivity beyond the Mesopotamian rivers. 85. The Kingdom of Judah (953 ?-586 B.C.). This little kingdom,
often on the verge of ruin from Egyptian or Assyrian armies, maintained a semi-independent existence for o\?er three centuries.
Then
upon the extension of the power of Babylon to the west, Jerusalem was forced to acknowledge, the suzerainty of the Babylonian kings. The kingdom at last shared the fate of its northern rival. Nebuchadnezzar, the powerful king of Babylon, in revenge for an uprising
of the Jews, besieged and captured Jerusalem
This
race
the
life
Hebrew
(586
B.C.).
empires
Babylonian,
and
Roman
which
successively held
ever,
Upon
that
their
the capture of Babylon by the Persian king Cyrus (sect. 76), monarch permitted the exiles to return to Jerusalem and restore
86]
temple.
HEBREW LITERATURE
83
Jerusalem thus became again the center of the old Hebrew worship, and, although shorn of national glory, continued to be the
sacred center of the ancient faith
Christ.
in ruins
slain,
till
Then,
was
laid
while vast numbers of the inhabitants were or perished by famine, and the remnant were driven into exile
by the Romans
Thus by a series of unparalleled calamities were the descendants Abraham " sifted among all nations " but to this day they ding with a marked devotion
of
;
faith
86.
ture,
Hebrew
Litera-
the
gious one;
ture with the
them was
merely
main
awaken-
This
ture
is
unique
litera-
contained
in
sacred
as the
books
In
known
these
Fig. 56. The Place of Wailing A well-preserved portion of the substruction walls of the
Temple
at Jerusalem,
Old or Hebrew
Testament.
in a
the calamities
and grand
all
making up
think
the checkered
life
Hebrew
literature
Greek
the Jewish
is
the
Hebrew in thought and doctrine, and supplement and crown of the Hebrew Scriptures.
essentially
84
THE HEBREWS
Besides the Sacred Scriptures, called collectively, by
[87
way
of prethe
the
it
and showing traces of the influence Whether these books possess of Persian and of Greek thought.
divine
inspiration
is
among
Protestants
still
a disputed question,
but by the
Roman
Neither must
we
fail
to
collection of
of the
in
Book;
and the Antiquities of the Jews and the Jewish by the historian J oseph us, who lived and wrote at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans under Titus (sect. 506),
(born about 25 b.c.)
War
that
is,
first
87.
little
Hebrew Religion and Morality. The ancient Hebrews made or no contribution to science. They produced no new order of
In sculpture they did nothing
;
architecture.
their
making " graven images." Their mission was to make known as the Unithe idea of God as a being holy and just and loving versal Father whose care is over not one .people alone but over all
and
to teach
justice
men
that
what God
requires of
them
is
do
God and
which has
prorace,
fruitful
ancient
Hebrews made to the younger world of Europe, and entitles them to the preeminent place they hold in
humanity.
88.
largely what
of
the history
An
his-
bequest of Israel to
was an
ideal
in
of universal peace.
The
the
when
189]
IDEAS OF
85
"
laid aside,
Out
of Zion
;
. .
shall
go forth the law, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem
shall beat their
;
pruning hooics
up sword against
This
is
the
first distinct
expression in
Hebrew
literature, or in the
literature of
any
race, of the
man and
a federated
Fig.
.57.
world.
The
lofty ideal
visions of
our
concrete
embodiment
Peace Palace
How
it
happened
the
that
was
so
be so
real
and so
it
substantial, while
among
it
Hebrews
a mystery
Micah
which
is
impossible to
penetrate."
Isaiah
ii,
3,
iv,
1-3.
86
THE HEBREWS
Sheol
[89
of the future life was lilce that of the was the Babylonian " land of no return (sect. 56), a vague and shadowy region beneath the earth, a sad and dismal place. " The small and the great wre there." There was no the same lot awaited distinction even between the good and the bad " pit." The good man was thought to all who went down into the
Babylonians.
life
earth.
But with
the moral and religious development of the nation, under the leadership
and
life
that
was finally by them that the doctrine of immortality and judgment was spread abroad in the Western world.
of a coming
Selection from the Sources. The Old Tesiam&ni, z Sam. i, 17-27, David's lament over Saul and Jonathan (see Nathaniel Schmidt's The Message of the Poets, pp. 364-367) I Kings v-viii, the building and the dedication by Solomon
;
of the
Temple
at
Jerusalem.
References (Modern).
History of the Hebrew People, ? vols. Renan, History of the People of Israel, 4 vols. CORNILL, History of the People of Israel. HiLPRECHT, Recent Research in Bible Lands and Explorations in Bible Lands in the Nineteenth
Kent,
Century (consult tables of contents). Montefiore, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by the Religion of the Ancient Hebrews. Ball, Light from the East. Budde, Religion of Israel to the Exile. Cheyne, fewish Religious Life after the Exile. MouLTON, The Literary Study of the Bible. Peters, The Heligion of the Hebrews. The special student will of course consult McCuRDY, History, Prophecy, and the Monuments. Topics for Class Reports, 1. Israel in Egypt: Petrie, Egypt and Israel, chap. ii. 2. The Song of Deborah (Judges v) Nathaniel Schmidt, The Message of the Poets, pp. 354-362. 3. Some Hebrew laws concerning the poor and the bondsman: Exod. xxii, 25-27; xxiii, 10; Deut. xv, 7-15; xxiv, 6, 10-13.
:
CHAPTER
VIII
PHCENICIANS, HITTITES,
90. Introduction.
AND LYDIANS
Three peoples served as intermediaries between and the early centers of civilization in
travel
the West.
which
they controlled,
many
Western
lands.
In the present
we
shall relate
some
which
will indicate
world.
I.
THE PHCENICIANS
91.
strip of
The Land and the People. Ancient Phoenicia embraced a little broken seacoast lying between the Mediterranean Sea and
the ranges of
Mount
Lebanon.''-
One
of the
crowned the
Mountains.
The
" cedars
of
Lebanon Lebanon
and
F^^, ^8_
Murex.
secured at
first
coast,
The
cities
Long
comers had
1 Tn the study of this chapter the maps which will be found at pages 82 and 162 should be used.
87
PHCENICIANS, HITTITES,
92. Tyre and Sidon.
to
AND LYDIANS
[92
The
They
Tyre or of Sidon, the two of supremacy in the confederation was at later by Tyre.
chief cities.
first
The
place
the eleventh to the fourth century B.C. Tyre controlled, almost without dispute on the part of Sidon, the affairs of During this time the maritime enterprise and energy Phoenicia.
From about
fame of the
capital.
little
island
Alexander the
'
city
r
1
and reduced
it
to
recovered in a measure
from
never
Fig.
59.
this
blow,
but
the
regained
Phcenician
Assyrian
Galley.
sculpture)
(From
an
of the once
great city
is
now
their
was natural that the people of the Phoenician coast should have been led to a seafaring life. The lofty mountains that back the little strip of shore-seemed to shut them out
It
to prohibit
an extension of
their land
At the same
offered timber in
gators,
abundance for
their ships.
sight of land.
to steer their
called this the
ships at night
by the polar
star,
Greeks
Phgenician Star.
We
in the service of an
94J
PHCENICIAN COLONIES
89
Gama.
One
the natives,
bought or kidnapped
mined the
for gold.
Towards the
jealousy of the
closed the
close
B.C.
the
Greek
now growing
pushed out
They then One chief object of their quest here was tin, which was in great demand on account The tin was first supof its use in the manufacture of bronze.
yEgean against the Phoenician adventurers.
into the
western Mediterrane'an,
plied
by the mines
opened
in
the
Iberian
(Spanish)
peninsula.
braved the dangers of the Atlantic, and brought back from those
districts^
of western
Along the different routes pursued by and upon the coasts visited by them, the Phoenicians established naval stations and trading posts. The sites chosen were generally islands or promontories easily defended, and visible from
their ships,
and probably even in Greece itself. and Sardinia were fringed with The shores the coast of North Africa was dotted Phoenician colonies; while Colonies with such great cities as Utica, Hippo, and Carthage.
islands
of the
^gean
Sea,
were even planted beyond the Pillars of Hercules, upon the Atlantic The Phoenician setdement of Gades, upon the western seaboard.
coast of Spain,
1
is still
Its prosperity
Probably one or
subject has
all
po&ibly
The
been and
a matter of controversy.
90
PHCENICIANS, HITTITES,
AND LYDIANS
[9S
on the mineral
products and agricultural riches of Spain.^ 95. Arts Disseminated by the Phoenicians; the Alphabet.
Com-
merce has been called the pathbreaker of civilization. Certainly it was such in antiquity when the Phoenician traders carried in their
ships to every Mediterranean land the wares of the workshops of Tyre and Sidon, and along with these material products carried also
from
the
ancient
In
truth,
we can scarcely
over-
Phoenician maritime
enterprise
distribution
arts
upon
of
the
the
of culture
among
the
Mediterranean
area.
the Phoenicians
were
its
missionaries."
fruitful
Most
of
all
among
whom
betic writing.
As
in possession of
an alphabet
Now wherever
the Phoenician
j96]
91
It
it
traders
went they carried this alphabet as "'one of their exports." was through them that the Greeks received it the Greeks passed
Romans, and the Romans gave it on In this way our alphabet came to us from the ancient East.^ It would be difficult to
to the
to the
German
peoples.
gift of the
Without
so rich
and progressive as
did.
Mediterranean lands,
after
the
most important,
were systems of
alphabetic
writing,
II.
THE HITTITES
of
96.
The Empire
the
Hittites,
Our
states
YiG. 61.
stele
Koldewey
whither
it
Nebuchadnezzar
carried as a
terranean.
and sovereignty
the Hittites,
We
whose
this
it,
was
situated
92
PHOENICIANS, HITTITES,
was one
of the great
A1<JD
LYDIANS
[97
Hittite state
with Egypt, Babylonia, and Assyria the control of western Asia. The empire finally fell to pieces, and the very memory of it was lost
W a^"
Fig. 62.
a photograph)
w^iich a branch of the great Royal Road (sect. 104) Scene on the ancient trade route crosses the Taurus Mountains by the famous Cilician Gates. This road has been a chief artery of the trade of western Asia and the pathway of armies for more than four thousand years. Its long story of peace and war will end with the completion of the Constantinople-Bagdad railroad
The importance
of
the Hittite princes for the history of culture arises from the circumstance,
Fig. 63.
The key
They
They themselves
absorbed
98]
93
They
developed an art which bore the deep impress of Assyrian influence, and worked out a system of hieroglyphic writing, probably under the
influence of Egypt.
This
is
a very
difficult script
been deciphered.
In their foreign diplomatic correspondence they used the Babylonian cuneiform script, and many clay tablets like those
of the
site of the
ancient
III.
THE LYDIANS
third people that played the
98.
Lydia
was a country
highly favored
plains of the
was a land
by nature.
embraced two
island-dotted
Hermus and
the Cayster
which
the
inland sloped
gently to the
and other
tributaries of the
streams
" golden sands,'' while the mountains were rich in the precious metals.
The
first
it
belong to Lydia;
cities.
was held by
cities,
the Greeks,
who had
fringed
with
Later, these
with
Hittite Empire.
99. Lydia a Connecting Link between the East and the West.
As
we have
and the
said, the
ancient culture because they played a part like that of the Phcenicians
Hittites.
The
cities of
They were
the
The
for the
was the
and
art of coinage,
silver; that
is,
first
to coin gold
to impress
their purity
testify to
and
silver
were
p. 214.
94
PHOENICIANS, HITTITES,
AND LYDIANS
[99
The
by the Greek
cities,
and commerce.
From Greece
to
civilization
indispensable agencies.
Selections from the Sources. The Bible, Ezek. xxvii (a striking portrayal by thie prophet of tlie commerce, the trade relations, and the wealth of Tyre), The Voyage of Hanno, a record of a Phoenician exploring expedition down the western coast of Africa (a translation of this celebrated record will be found in Rawlinson's History of Pkcenicia, pp. 389-392). References (Modern). Rawunson, History of Phanicia and The Story of Phainicia. Kenrick, Pkcenicia. Old (1855), but still valuable. Lenoemant and Chevallier, Ancient History of the East, vol. ii (consult table of contents). Sayce, The Ancient Empires of the East, chaps, iii, iv. Duncker, History
of Antiquity,
vol.
ii,
bk.
iii,
chaps,
Hittiies.
i.
xi, xii.
26-39.
Phcenician
commerce and
its
influence upon
Keller, Colonization, pp. 28-30, 38-39. i. The Tyrian purple dye Rawlinson, The Story of Phoenicia, pp. 5, 6, 27,5-282. Phoenician adventure 3. the circumnavigation of Africa Rawlinson,
The Story of Phoenicia, chap. xii. 4. Croesus and Solon jretold in Church, Herodotus, pp. 3-10).
See Gen.
xxiii,
Herodotus,
i,
29-33
7-16.
CHAPTER
IX
POLITICAL HISTORY
It
was
in
remote times,
themAryans, with
B.C., that
some Aryan
tribes, separating
from kindred
whom
northwest were called Medes. The names of the two peoples were always very closely associated, as in the familiar legend, " The law
of the
101.
tribe
the
Iranian
Medes were at first the leading people. Cyaxares (625-585 B.C.) was their first prominent leader and king. We have already seen how he overthrew the last king of Nineveh, and destroyed that capital (sect. 67). The destruction of the Assyrian power resulted in the speedy extension of the frontiers of the new Median empire
to the river
Halys
in Asia Minor.
102. Cyrus the Great (558-529 B.C.) Founds a Great World Empire.
The
leadership
of
the
Median
chieftains
was of short
duration.
A
his
their
power,
up an empire more
extended than any over which the scepter had yet been swayed by
oriental
his time.
95
96
[102
After the conquest of Media and the acquisition of the provinces formerly ruled by the Median princes, Cyru? rounded out his empire by the conquest of Lydia and Babylonia.
The Lydian
the last and
most renowned of his race. The tribute Croesus from the Greek cities, and the revenues he derived from mines, rendered him the richest monarch: of his times, so
his gold
that his
name
'
Now
of Media, which
had been
the
a-
friendly
and
allied power,
to
Lydia,
He
at once
formed an
alliance
Egypt,
own
kingdohis.
Furthermore, Crcesus
alliance with the Greek
formed an
city
of
Sparta, which
was now
his
rising into
prominence.
allies
river
the
gage of
had misjudged the strength and
the Lydians in the
But he
defeated
activity of his
enemy. Cyrus
open
field,
and
Lydia
now became a part of the Persian Empire (546 B.C.). This war between Croesus and Cyrus derives a special importance
fact that
it
from the
the
with
Greek cities of Asia, and thus led on 'directly to that memorable struggle between Greece and Persia known as the Graeco-Persian
War, the incidents of which we
1
Legend
a
tells
how
fire
how Cyrus caused a pyre to be built on which to bum made rich gifts to his shrine, put out
rain.
the kindling
by
sudden downpour of
See Herodotus,
i,
.86 f.
il03]
REIGN OF CAMBYSES
fall
97
The
of Lydia
that of Babylonia, as
has been already related as part of the story of the Chaldean Empire
(sect. 76).
his dominions.
life -in
an expedition against
surrounded by the
city.
He was
tomb stands
e.g.).
103. Reign of
sons,
Cambyses (529-522
;
left
two
He
began a
brother,
whose
feared,
influence
to
he
be secretly put to
death.
ability
father
for
CamFig. 65.
The Tomb of
slight
Cyrus, at Pasargad^
quest
and dominion.
Upon some
Cambyses set out on his return to Persia. While way home, news was brought to him that his brother Smerdis had usurped the throne (an impostor, Gomates by name, who reon
sembled the murdered Smerdis, had personated him, and actually
seized the scepter).
Cambyses in despair took his own life.'' 104. Reign of Darius I (521-484 B.C.). The Persian nobles soon rescued the scepter from the grasp of the false Smerdis, and their The first act of Darius was to leader, Darius, took the throne.
punish those
who had
Other less
98
[104
Darius
He
built
;
Susa
lasting
changes that he has been called " the second founder of the Persian
Empire "
all
The
celebrated Royal
Road
ran
from Susa through the ancient Assyria and Armenia, and across Asia
Fig. 66.
Gomates, the
false
Smerdis
Minor
over
to Sardis
and so on
^gean
at Ephesus.^
This
roai;!
must
have been
in the main merely the ancient trails, used by caravans from time immemorial, improved and better provided with relay stations. Over it couriers, changing frequently their mounts, car-
commands "swifter than the crane." This magniroad was a main artery of ancient trade and commerce for more than a thousand years.
1
See Herodotus
v, 52, 53,
105]
REIGN OF DARIUS
his
99
To commemorate
great Behistun
achievements,
Rock
smooth-faced
on the west-
had done.
And now
Asia
the Great
and
of
Egypt,
designs
of
con-
which were
to
live
destined
Fig. 67.
long
Traces of the Royal Road of Darius (From Garstang, The Land of the Hittites)
great Royal
after
he
had
passed
away.
He
determined
The
still be traced in Minor by the wheel-ruts of chariots and other vehicles worn in the surface rock. The section shown in the picture is near the old capital
Road
of Darius can
and Europe
alike.
northwestern India
known
thus by a single effort pushed out the eastern boundary of his empire
so that
it
105. Campaigns in
rope.
in
Eu^
Several
campaigns
whom we
much.
shall
soon hear
Fig. 58.
and those of
son and
(After Rawlinson)
successor, Xerxes I
(484-
464
B.C.),
who
now appear
lOO
affairs, will
[106
we come
We need now simply note the result the wreck of the city-states. plans of conquest and the opening of the great days of Greece. Persian 106. The Decline and Fall of the Persian Empire. The power and
Xerxes.
supremacy of the Persian monarchy passed away with the reign of The last one hundred and forty years of the existence of the empire was a time of
weakness and
rebel-
nations,
and
presents
nothing
claim
that
need
our
attention
in this place.
led a small
army
of
Greeks
donians
and
Macethe
across
Hellespont intent
up-
movements and
Fig. 69.
the the
I,
near
establishment of
short-lived
PEKSJii'OLis.
Macedo-
will
be related
at a later stage of
our
story.
II.
107.
Empire.
it
The
extent of
justified
the Persian
the
embraced
claim
a universal dominion.
They
as
assumed the
" the lord of
of king of kings,
men from
108]
THE GOVERNMENT
of the
fifty
loi
The population
about
million,
which
to-day.
more than
the
Of
this
number
only about
one-half
were genuine
Persians.-'
108.
The Government.
the govern-
empires
had preceded
;
it,
space of time
ject states,
that
is
consisted of a great
their
number
of sub-
own
kings and
manage
their
own
when
called
upon
We
government.
who
possessed rare
an organizer,
before
Persian
monarchy what
Assyrian
of
Tiglath-Pileser
IV had long
attempted, but only with partial and temporary success, to accomplish for the
(sect. 63).
first
The system
fact in the
made a
real
world
is
known
The main part of the lands embraced by monarchy was divided into twenty or more provinces, over each which was placed a governor, called a satrap, appointed by the
These
officials
king.
held
their
position at
the
pleasure
of
the
sovereign,
Each
in the system
Thus
was firmly cemented together, and the facility with which almostwhich was the real character of the different sovereign states could plan and execute parts of the empire under the old system
revolt,
was removed,
Zoroastrianism.
religious,
The
literature of
is
was mostly
I02
[109
The religious system of the Persians, as taught in the Zend-Avesta, known as Zoroastrianism, from Zoroaster, its supposed founder. This great reformer and teacher is now generally believed to have
is
lived
and taught about looo b.c, though some scholars place him
religion
Zoroastrianism, the
is,
first
all
that claimed
universality,
that
to
be a creed for
There was a good spirit, Ahyra Mazda, whose truest emblem or manifestation was fire. Upon high mountain tops the
as dualism.
eternal flame on
altars
fire-
was kept
burn-
Because
veneration
of
for
their
fire
the
are
ancient
often
Persians
called fire-worshipers.
Opposed
good
spirit
to
the
Ahura, or
evil
Ormazd, was an
spirit
Ahriman, who
striv-
was constantly
Fig. 70.
(From
ing
to
destroy
creations
creating
the
of
all
good
evil
things
storm, drought,
eternity these
Ahura by
pestilence, noxious animals,
weeds and
within.
man
From
in the
all
mastery; in
two powers had been contending for the present neither had the decided advantage;
the
but
evil
be forever destroyed.
The duty
vice
to
man was
to aid
He
Ahura by working with him against must labor to eradicate every evil and
frogs,
from
all
his
own
kill
noxious animals
created.
toads,
snakes, lizards
which
priests
Ahriman had
Plate VII. "The Frieze of the Archers," from the Palace Acropole de Snse) OF Darius at Susa. (After M. Dieulafpy,
This
frieze
(now
in the
It is
museum
of the Louvre)
is
of Persian art.
formed of enameled
tiles (cf.
on
p. 77)
110]
103
armed with weapons and engaged in slaying these animals as a " pious pastime." Agriculture was a sacred calling, for the husbandman was reclaiming the ground from the curse of the dark spirit.^ HO. The Judgment of the Dead. As the moral feelings of the
ancient Egyptians led
them
to create the
underworld
(sect.
41), so did
Iranian
than the
Egyptian.
The
was conceived as
itself.
being
judged
by
Upon
its
life
the soul of
who
says to him
;
conscience
was
madest
thy
me
still
lovelier
still
fairer
And
then the
less light.
one
is
who
to
Fig. 71. The King in Combat WITH A Monster Symbolizing Ahkiman. (From Persepolis)
his
:
own
"'
conscience.
She says
him
am
youth
It is
on account
of thy will
is
am
hideous and
vile."
And
led
down
into the
of the elements,
After the Zoroastrians had added to their creed the Magian belief in the sacredness there arose a difficulty in regard to the earth, water, fire, and air,
They could
nor left to decay in a sepulchral chamber or in the open air without polluting one or another of the sacred elements. So they were given to the birds and wild beasts, being exposed on lofty towers or in desert places. Those whose feelings would not allow them thus to dispose of their dead were permitted to buiy them, provided they first encased the body in wax to preserve the ground from contamination.
2
Zend-Avesta,
pt.
ii,
xxiii,
pp. 314
ff.).
104^
[111
Thus
soul
Zend-Avesta was
that
heaven and
is
hell
are
within the
human
111.
The Duty
and
of Truthfulness.
Among
battles
was
truthfulness.
As Ahura was
on
his side
truth, the
man who
must
lie,
be sincere and
ceive,
truthful.
To
lies
to dedeceit.
was
to
and
Fig. 72.
'"
The Ruins of
Persepolis
The most
his
disgraceful thing in the world," affirms Herodotus in account of the Persians, " they think, is to tell a lie." * In his
:
"
The ,boys
I
are
taught to
ride, to
to
speak the
truth."''
was
a
many
The Persian
rulers,
shaming
their
pledged word
a foreign power.'
Herodotus, i, 139. Ibid, i, 136. 8 This was in the case of the city of Barca (see Herodotus, Persians fell away woefully from this high standard.
iv,
201).
The
later
112]
ARCHITECTURE
In the
earliest times ^the Persians
118. Architecture.
ples.
Their
fire-altars
The
palace
of the
Euphrates valley the Persian kings raised their palaces upon lofty
terraces or platforms.
instead
of
brick,
and
their palaces
its
sculptured stairways,
Surmounting
of
tiie
this
Persian monarchs.
The
Numerous
light
of the
The
but in sumptuousness
changes which
of Cyrus
may be
The
residence
(359-
338
B.C.)
oracles; 86-91,
sians.
Selections from the Sources, Herodotus, i, 46-55, on Croesus and the on Cyrus and Crcesus; 131-140, on the customs of the Per-
Harper's Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, pp. 174-187, " The Large (We make no reference either here or in the following chapter to the Sacred Books of the East, for the reason that these translations are in general not suited to young readers.) References (Modern). Maspero, The Passing of the Empires, ch?i-p.\i. RawLINSON, Five Great Monarchies, vol. iii, pp. 84-539. Sayce, The Ancient
Empires of the East, chaps, iv, v. WHEELER, Alexander the Great, chap. xii. Jackson, Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran. Hall, Ancient Histoty of
the
Near
East, chap,
xii,
pp. 551-579.
i.
Benjamin,
Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies, vol. iii, chap, iii, pp. 164-247. 2. The Royal Road from Susa to Sardis Herodotus, v, 52-54. 3. The Parsees, the modern representatives of the ancient fire-worshipers: see Encyc. Brit., vol. xx (nth
ed.),.
under "Parsees."
CHAPTER X
THE EAST ASIAN PEOPLES
113.
Circle of Culture.
While
in
Egypt and
west-
ern Asia there were slowly developing the Egyptian, the BabylonianAssyrian, the Syrian, and the Persian cultures of which
we have
given
at the
some account
were developing
were
in the
cultures of the
West.
civilization in the
civilizations of
Western
we must
cast a glance
upon these
INDIA
114.
The Aryan Invasion. At the time of the great Indo-European some Aryan bands, journeying from the norththe plains of the Indus and then occupied the valley
of the Ganges.
They reached
B.C.
probably as 1500
These
by a
dark-
whom
to serfdom, or drove out of the great river valleys into the mountains
and the
who
doubtless
formed the great majority of the population, adopted the language and the religion of the invaders, " They became Aryans in all
things save in descent."
^
1 Besides the Hindus and the Chinese, the Japanese are a third important people belonging to the East Asian sphere of culture, but as they did not emerge from the obscurity of prehistoric times until about the beginning of the fiftii,century of our era, when writing
was introduced
2
into Japan from the continent, their true history period covered by the present volume.
falls
wholly outside
the
The unsubdued
known
speech.
11S]
115.
107
and
System
of Castes.
The
conflict
These were
of
(2) the
Brahmans or
priests
last
and traders
and
The
were
non-Aryan descent.
The
marked
classes
characteristics of this
The development
castes, is
known
as the system of
The
day
of ages, and
it
now
less rigid
than
in earlier times.
At the present
rests largely
on an
The Vedas and the Vedic Religion, The most important of Hindus are called the Vedas. They are written in the Sanscrit language, which is the oldest form of Aryan speech preserved to us. The Rig-Veda^ the most ancient of the books, is made up of hymns which were composed chiefly during the long period, perhaps a thousand years or more, while the Aryans
the sacred books of the
were slowly working their way from the mountains on the northwest of India across the peninsula to the Ga,nges. These hymns, the
oldest of
B.C.,
are
filled
with
of
The
powers of nature.
the oldest
religion.
when
as the Vedic
117.
of Souls.
As
into
named from
At a
Brahmans arrogated
I08^
[118
Hindu name for the Supreme Being. Below Brahma there are many gods. A chief doctrine of Brahmanism is that all life, apart from
Brahma, which
the
Brahma,
selves
call it
is
travail
and sorrow.
We
can
make
by
recalling
We
Now
Hindu regards all existence, whether in this world or in another, same light. The only way to deliverance from pain and evil But this lies in communion with and final reabsorption into Brahma. return to Brahma is dependent upon the soul's purification, for no impure soul can be reunited with the Univfersal Soul. The purity of soul required for reunion with Brahma can test be attained by living
the
in the
aloof
self-torture
hence the
asceticism of the
Hindu
devotee.
it
As
evil
great majority of
men must
lives
has been purged away from the soul and eternal repose found
in
Brahma.
for end.
He who
The
tree.
evil
a virtuous
life
is
at death
bom
into
some
higher caste or better state, and thus he advances towards the longed-
man, however,
is
caste, or perin
haps
imprisoned
some
shrub or
of Souls.
known
as the Transmigration
first
three classes
were admitted
to the
read the sacred books, and for any one of the upper classes to teach a serf
how
crime.
118. Buddhism.
In the
and reformer named Gautama (about 557-477 B.C.), but better known as Buddha, that is, " the Enlightened," arose in India. He was more
Chrisdike than any other teacher whose
us.
life
to
He was
him as being
so
doned the luxury of his home and spent his life in seeking out and making known to men a new and better way of salvation. His creed was very simple. What he taught the people was that they should
119]
109
seek salvation
that
is,
evil not through sacrifices and rites and but through honesty and purity of heart, through charity and tenderness and compassion toward all creatures that have life.
Brahman he
felt to
be an
self-torture,
Buddha admitted
all
after
Buddhism gradually gained ascendancy over Brahmanism; but some centuries the Brahmans regained their power, and by
spirit, like
his disciples to
make known
men
the
way
to salvation;
lost,
human
race.
nearly as
many
its
Mohammed
of the
During
modified,
that
new
faith,
so
modem Brahmanism
;
ancient system
as Hinduism.^
hence
it is
is
Alexander the Great in 327 B.C. that the history of the Indian Aryans comes in significant contact with that of the progressive nations of
the West.
From
and
its
that
day
to our
own
its
systems of philosophy,
its
wealth,
in
commerce have been more or less important factors universal history. Columbus was seeking a short all-sea route
to
^ Among the customs introduced or revived by the Brahmans during this period was the rite of suttee, or the voluntary burning of the widow on the funeral pyre of her husband.
no
this
[120
in the upbuilding
when he found
the
New
World.
And
part.
no inconsiderable
II.
CHINA
China was the
cradle of
120. General
Remarks
the Beginning.
a very old
civilization,
Egypt and Babylonia; yet Chinese affairs" have not until recently exercised any direct influence upon the general current of history. All
through the
later ancient
and mediseval times the country lay, vague During the Middle
to Europe under the name of Cathay. The beginning of the Chinese nation was a band of Mongolian wanderers who came from the west into the Yellow River valley,
ab-
whom
laid the
that purport to
give the history of the different dynasties that have ruled in the land
it
possible to glean
b.
millenniums
c,
not until
we
;
b. c. that
little
we
we come
to the
B.C.).
consoli-
dated the imperial power, and executed great works of internal im-
As a
Huns, he began the erection of the celebrated Chinese Wall, a great rampart extending for about fifteen hundred
miles along the northern frontier of the country."
From
Che Hwang-te=
to the
end of the
period
Or Shih Hwang-ti.
is
one of the most remarkable works of man. " It is," says artificial structure which would arrest attention in a hasty
122]
CHINESE WRITING
III
was known among the Chinese as early as 2000 B.C. The system employed is curiously cumbrous. In the absence of an alphabet, each word or idea is represented by means of a symbol,
1)
or combination of symbols
as
this,
many symbols
The number
sand.
number amounts
six.
knowledge of
five
or
The nature
of the
like
writing,
others
with which
acqiiairited,
first
we
was
are
at
^^ ^
_0_
1
'n-'^A
^
pure
picture
II).
writing
(sect.
tl
^ tH ^; 234557A
UJ
; ; ;
__.
Fig. 73.
to
their
present
form.
Showing the Derivation of Modern Chinese Characters from Earlier Pictorial Writing. (From Deniker)
line
The upper
^'
of representing
""o"
'
3,
shows the eariier forms: i, morning; mountain ; 4, tree 5, dog 5, horse 7, man
thought,
cumbrous
it
is,
and inconvenient as
third of the
is
employed
by one
human
race.
Printing from blocks was practiced in China as early as the sixth century of our era, and printing from movable types as early as the that is to say, about four hundred years tenth or eleventh century,
before the
same art was invented in Europe. 123. The Teachers Confucius and Mencius. The great teacher of not a prophet the Chinese was Confucius (551-478 B.C.). He was
or revealer
;
he
laid
;
no claims
to a supernatural
knowledge of God
or of the hereafter
little
of a future
life.
he said nothing of an Infinite Spirit, and but His cardinal precepts were obedience to parents
their and superiors, and reverence for the ancients and imitation of old paths, and thus added the He himself walked in the virtues.
1 1
[ 124
force
He
the
"What you do
The
B.C.).
He
was a
disciple of
embraced
called
in
what
The most highly prized portion of Chinese is known as the Five Classics and the
the Nine Classics.
Four Books,
Confucius.
collectively
considerable
was
collected
and edited by
bear the impress of his mind and thought, just as the Gospels teach
the
mind
of Christ.
is
filial
by
all
the sacred
is
writings
piety.
The second
custom.
great
moral requirement
conformity
It
to
ancient
would be
difficult to
Classics have
thousand years these writings have been the Chinese Bible. But
influence has not been wholly good.
The Chinese
conform
in strictly obeying
the injunction to walk in the old ways, to the ancients, have failed to
to the customs of
for themselves.
Hence
The land was filled with schools, more than a thousand years before our era. a knowledge of the sacred books was the sole passport
and public employment.
AH "candidates
for places
in
the government had to pass a series of .competitive examinations in the Nine Classics.
126.
religions in China'
Confucianism, Taoism,
is
The
He
holds
127]
to the
tianity.
13
Taoism takes
It
is
its
his name that Christ holds to name from Tao, which means
that of Chris-
Nature's
way
or method.
stitious practices.
into
There
is
is
fucianist,
and prays
Circle of
Ancient Culture.
Though
culture, the
we have
already
inti-
of the
West Asian and Mediterranean lands. What make to the -general civilization
contri-
of the
References. For India Ragozin, The Story of Vedic India. HUNTER, A Brief History of the Indian Peoples, chaps. i-vL DuTT, The Civilization of India, chaps, i-v. Rhys Davids, Buddhist India and Buddhism, its History and Literature. Hopkins, The Religions of India. Arnold, The Light of
:
Asia
(this is
For China
(this
work comprises
the historical chapters of the author's The Middle Kingdom). Go wen, An Outline History of China, pt. i, earlier chapters. Legge, The Religions of
China.
De Groot,
The. Religion
China. Martin, The Lore of Cathay. Geil, The Great Wall of China (valuable for its illustrations; the literary qualities of the book cannot be commended). Topics for Class Reports, i. The old Chinese civil service competition
i-iii, and A Histor)/ of Chinese of the Chinese and Religion in Doolitt^e, Social Life of the Chinese.
examinations: Martin, The Lore of Cathay, chap, xvii; Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, chap, xv-xvii. 2. The worship of ancestors and filial piety : Martin, The Lore of Cathay, chap, xy Legge, The Religion of China, lectii, pp. 69-95; Giles, The Civilization of China, pp. 75-77'
;
PART
II.
GREECE
XI
CHAPTER
The
ancient people
whom we
call
Greeks
called
But
this
term Hellas
Greece.
Thus
the
name
included not only Greece proper and= the islands of the adjoin-
ing seas, but also the Hellenic cities on the shore-lands of Asia Minor,
in southern Italy,
scattered
and in Sicily, besides many other Greek settlements up and down the Mediterranean and along the shores of
real
Greek
knowledge
of
the divisions
this
Long arms
Greece.
The
of Corinth, and
now
generally
known
is,
as the Morea,
was
called by
Epirus.
Northern Greece included^ the ancient districts of Thessaly and Thessaly consists mainly of a large and beautiful mountain-
walled valley.
is
On
its
a beautiful glen,
named by
sea.
Tempe,
the
The
district
114
129]
the Ionian Sea
of
DIVISIONS OF GREECE
on the west
In the deep recesses of
its
"S
forests
among which
city of Delphi,
Attica.
famous for
its
oracle
and temple
Thebes
and
in
Ares" (the Greek god of war), because, like Belgium in modern Europe, it was so often the battle-ground of the warring Greek cities. The Attic land, as we shall learn, was the true center of the artistic and
stage of
the intellectual
life
of
HeUas.
The
of
chief districts
Southern
Greece
Ar-
were
cadia,
Corinthia,
Argohs,
La-
conia, Messenia,
and
EHs.
The main
isthmus
part of
Fig. 74.
Gallery
in
the
AT TiRYNS
"Tiryns the strong-walled."
Peloponnesus to Central
Iliad,
ii,
559
Greece.
Its chief
city
was Corinth, the gateway of the peninsula, and the most important station on the great trade sea-route between eastern and
Arcadia, sometimes called "the Switzerland of the Peloponnesus," formed the heart of the peninsula. This region consists of
western Hellas.
in
plains
by
irreg-
walls.
The
movement
of the
Greek
behind the dwellers in the more open and favored portions of Greece. It is the rustic, simple life of the Arcadians that
race, left far
its
meaning of pastoral
simplicity.
^gean.
This region
is
noted as the
home
ii6
[129
Mycenae and Tiryns and holds to-day the remains of cities the kings of which built great palaces, possessed vast treasures in gold and silver, and held wide sway centuries before Athens had
made
for herself a
name and
place in history.
The
chief city of
was Argos.
oponnesus.
region
is
Laconia, or Lacedasmon, embraced the southeastern part of the Pelprominent feature of the physical geography of this
whence
*^
_'*>
'^^
K^v.
Fig. 75.
Boetticher, Olyvipia)
The
valley of the
This
district
was
ruled by
fruitful
region lying to
the west of
who
Spartans, by
whom
they were
overpowered.
a district on the western side of the Peloponnesus,
is chiefly
noted as the consecrated land which held Olympia, the great assembling place of the
of the
most famous of
the
130]
130. Mountains.
MOUNTAINS
The Cambunian Mountains form
117
a lofty wall
Branching
at
right angles to
these mountains
is
the
Pindus
On
is
highest
mountam
in the world
its
(it
is
cele-
in
beautiful mountains
with fountains
were believed
in all directions
praised for
Peloponnesus
enough
be of service
are scarcely
torrents.
Among
the
Alpheus
in Elis,
;
celebrated
of
The Ilissus and Cephissus are little streams of Attica which owe their renown chiefly to the poets. The lakes of Greece are in the main scarcely more than stagnant
Laconia.
pools, the
freshets.
In
this respect,
Greece,
to
though a
presents
"
a striking
contrast
of
Switzerland,
the
most
history of Greece
On
the
east, in
form an irregular
Il8
[133
was a very celebrated shrine of Apollo. Between the Cyclades and Asia Minor lie the Sporades, which islands, as the name implies, are sown irregularly over that portion oi the ^gean. They are simply the peaks of submerged mountain ranges, which may be
regarded as a continuation beneath the sea of the mountains of
Central Greece.
Just off the coast of Attica
is
Euboea.
is
Labyrinth and
its
Minos.
^gean
earliest
civilizations of antiquity.
To
lie
There
is
The
in
and pine
the date palm, the citron, and the orange. the north and the south,
is
midway between
and the
fig.
the
home
of the olive
The
Wheatj
and
oil
and the products and sheep have always formed a considerable part
The
hills
of Greece supplied
many
The
demonians became
skillful
workers.
The
hills
Iliad,
ii,
649.
(" currant ")
is
2 all
of
exports.
134]
silver
119
the
Land upon
to
its
the
People.
The
physical
people.
and preserve
enterprise.
Now
and
Greece
is
at
a great
number
of isolated districts,
why
is,
is
an archipelago. There
is
is
no
from the
life
tempted
quick
sea.
Hence
to
follow
what Homer
Orient
which Greece
Greek
intellect
and
versatile
early
and vigorous
thought.
The
islands
were " stepping-stones," which invited intercourse between the settlers of Greece and the inhabitants of the delightful coast countries of Asia Minor, and thus blended the life and history
the .iEgean Sea
of the opposite shores.
1
See
sect. 220.
The
of its inhabitants. But we must be careful not to exaggerate the influence of geography upon Greek history. For the root of feelings and sentiments which were far more potent than geographical conditions in keeping the Greek cities apart, see
sects.
8
154,
is
155.
That
to say, the
most and the best of her harbors are on her eastern shore. Greece
it
were, to
Italy.
120
[135
How much
trast
Greece
is
shown by
135.
The
Hellenes.
The
Romans
but, as
from
Hellen.
They were
Achasans,
lonians, Dorians,
and
These several
tribes, united
by bonds
When
lies
first rise
c,
we
Respecting
or no
cer-
little
tain knowledge.
we
shall see
how
they pictured
^gean
lands.
Curtius, vol. i, pp. 9-46.2 Grote (ten-volume ed.), vol. Abbott, vol. i, chap. i. Holm, vol. i, chap. ii. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 1-5. Tozer, Classical Geography (Primer). Richardson, Vacation Days in Greece (Dr. Richardson was for many years Director of the American School of Archaeology at Athens his delightful sketches of excursions to inReferences.
ii,
pp. 141-163.
much better idea of the physical features the formal descriptions of the geographers). Butcher, Some Aspects of the Greek Genius (for the advanced student). ManATT, ^^
teresting historical sites will give a
of Greece than
all
Days
^gean
by one
Greece
").
factors in
Topics for Class Reports, i. The nature and features of the land as Greek life and history Grote, vol. ii, pp. 1 53-1 57 Holm, vol.
:
i,
pp. 29, 30
Abbott, vol.
i,
pp.
:
19-23.
History of Greece, pp. 4, 5. Manatt, yEgean Days, chap, xvii, " Pares
Bury,
term meant scarcely more than " unintelligible folk " but later it came and contempt. 2 We shall throughout cite the standard extended histories of Greece and of Rome by giving merely the author's name with volume and page.
1
first this
;
At
to express aversion
CHAPTER
XII
The Greeks
of historic
foretime in Greece.
Though many
Greek imagination,
must make hiftiself familiar with them. First, because the historic Greeks believed them to be true, and hence were greatly influenced by them. What has been said of the war against Troy, namely, " If not itself a fact, the Trojan War became the cause of innumerable facts," is true of the whole body of Greek legends. These tales were recited by the historian, dramatized by the tragic poet, cut in marble by the sculptor, and depicted by the painter on the walls of portico and temple. They thus constituted a very
sons the historical student
vital
Greek history because recent discoveries in the vEgean lands prove that at least some of them contain a certain element of truth, that
they are memories, though confused memories, of actual events.
we have
to
tell
we
shall in
some
to a wonderful civilization
which
is
repre-
^gean
but which long before authentic Greek history opens had vanished,
leaving behind barely
In what measure
may
reflect
a real past
we
next chapter.
137. Ori^tal Immigrants.
the early
growth of
civilization
who brought
122
PREHISTORIC TIMES
[138
Thus from Egypt, legend came Cecrops, bringing with him the arts, learning, and priestly wisdom of the Nile valley. He is represented as the builder of Cecropia, which became afterwards the citadel of the illustrious
Athens.
city of
From
Phoenicia
Cadmus brought
Thebes.
is
alphabet,
city of
The
probably
this
that the
European Greeks received certain of the elements of their culture from the East. Without doubt they received thence letters, a gift of incomparable value, and hints in art, besides suggestions
science.
and
Heracles.
The
Greeks
and
traditions of
ploits
its
heroes,
were commemorated
Fig.
76.
The Laby(From
a coin)
rinth.
He
is
represented
last trans-
myth
were
made up
(sect. 59).
way
to the Greeks,
who
ascribed to their
own Heracles
the deeds
Many
of the
Greek legends
to
cluster
on
He
to
his
idealized
qualities
from the heavens to the earth and by the Greek moralists, became the personification and type of the lofty moral of heroism, endurance, and self-sacrifice in the service of others (see sect. 359).
)140]
123
He is further made to be the founder of the great maritime state in the ^Egean, and the suppressor of piracy in those waters. Some versions of the tradition make him to have
reputed father Zeus.
first
been a cruel tyrant, who kept in a structure called the Labyrinth a monster named the Minotaur (Minos-bull), a creature half man and half bull, which he fed
of Athens.
140. Theseus
and
the
Minotaur.
favorite hero
nians,
being
one of
their
legendary kings.
Among his
a youth,
When
the fatal
came round
girls,
Theseus offered
numkill-
being resolved on
Fig. 77.
"
Upon
the
his
The Athenian
in
Crete
fair-
Minotaur falling to the sword of the national hero " Baikie, Sea-kings of Crete
Minos,
fell in
and gave him a clew of thread which would guide him through the
With
this aid
Theseus was
way out
Of what actual
facts,
may be
we
shall
leam
The very
galley in which
to
religiously
preserved at Athens
124
PREHISTORIC TIMES
Minos and Theseus
[141
that of Daedalus.
him as an Athenian-born architect, inventor, and sculptor of unsurpassed ingenuity and excellence. He made statues in the attitude of walking that had to be chained to their
The
tradition represents
Skilled in architecture,
he constructed for Minos the famous Labyrinth, and a "dancingfloor " for the king's daughter, Ariadne. For aiding Ariadne in the
Theseus adventure,
fined
or,
as
some
he was
con-
by Minos
in the Labyrinth,
by ingeniously attaching wings to his body, and flew to the island of Pursuing him thither with a fleet and army, Minos met a Sicily.
tragic death in the island.
What
legend
ori-
^gean
lands
may be embodied
142.
in this
will
appear
exploits
the
the legends of
Greeks
of various
by bands of heroes.
memorable enterprises which were conducted Among these were the Argonautic Expedition
is
The
tale of the
Argonauts
told with
many
variations in the
fifty
com-
panion heroes,
moved
and
superhuman
lyre
be nailed
to a tree and
an
in
inhospitable region of
unknown
terrors.
The
expedition was
returned
successful,
origin
;
this tale
it
was doubtless an
oriental
it
nature myth
by the Greek
story-tellers
may be
the
prehistoric
Greeks or
North ^gean
and
the Euxine.
143]
143.
I2S
B.C.).
date,
H94-1184
The Trojan
and
War was an
poems,
Ilibs,
circle of tales
The
traditions tell
how
Greece
wrong,
host of a hun-
crafty
Odysseus," king of
the
Ithaca,
aged
and
many more
Nestor,
the most
Fig. 78.
The
Lions'
Gate at Mycen^
valiant
heroes of
all
HeUas.
Twelve hundred galleys bore the gathered clans across the ^gean,
from Aulis to the Trojan shores.
For ten years the Greeks and their allies hold in close siege the city of Priam. On the plains beneath the walls of the capital the warriors of
encounter.
At
first
Achilles
is
fair-
faced maiden,
who had
fallen to
him as a
prize,
is
filled
them
his aid.
At;
Patroclus
is killed
by Hector,
126
PREHISTORIC TIMES
In a
fierce
[144
combat he
it
slays Hector,
walls
body
to a chariot,
later events,
and drags
thrice
round the
These
Achilles
the
rites of
Homer.
taken through a device of the
artful Odys-
The
seus,
city
was
at last
and was sacked and burned to the ground, ^neas, with his aged father Anchises and a few devote^i followers, escaped, and after long wanderings reached the Italian land and there became
the
founder of
race.
the
Roman
What
fact
this,
is
nucleus
of
in
embodied
the most
elabo-
rate
Fig. 7q.
r^
and
.
interesting
legends,:
of the Greek
^i
the
sequel ^
of
our
The Home-coming
chieftains
of the
Gteek Chieftains.
After the
fall of
legends
hitherto
favored heroes, because they had not spared the altars of the Trojans.
Consequently
sea and land.
many
of them were driven in endless wanderings over Homer's Odyssey portrays the sufferings of the " much-
taken of the absence of the princes, and their thrones had been
usurped.
Thus
in
was murdered by the guilty couple. A tradition current among the Greeks of later times pointed out Mycenae as the place where the unfortunate king and those slain with him were buried. In pleasing contrast with the disloyalty of the queen of Agamemnon, we have
exhibited to us the constancy of Penelope, although sought by many
suitorS; during the
145]
27
the
tells
Return
of
the
Heraclidee
Legend
how Heracles
in the times
Trojan
War
ruled over
the
Peloponnesian
Achasans.
islands
As we
shall
see,
the
tradition
preserves
the
memory
of a great upheaval
and
tion of peninsular
Dorian race.
Selections from the Sources.
Thucydides
(Jowett's trans.),
i,
4, 8,
10-12
xviii,
601-
762 (the shield of Achilles). Odyssey (Palmer's trans.), xxi, xxii (Odysseus and the suitors). There have recently appeared a number of excellent source
One or more of these should be in every highthe library does not contain the original works in For this chapter pertinent selections will be found in Thallon's
if
i,
i.
Readings in Greek History, pp. 9-27. References (Modern). Cuetius, vol. Baikie, The Sea-kings of Crete, chap.
English Literature
illustrative
pp. 70-74.
Holm,
vol.
i,
chap.
x.
Gayley, The
Classical
Myths in
and
quotation and
comment
Greek heroes, including the legends of the Argonauts Seven against Thebes (pp. 265-268), and the Trojan War
Minos, Theseus, and Topics for Class Reports. 1. Tales of Crete Ariadne Harrison, The Story of Greece, chap. viii. 2. Change in the opinion Baikie, The of scholars in regard to the historical elements in Greek legends
:
i.
CHAPTER
XI fl
we saw what
embelin
Greeks of the
had
Greece.
what
which was
in its
more
before
Fig. 8o.
Greek
history.
closing paragraph
will
The
first
of the
dis-
^gean
lands of an
advanced
civilization
Homer who
believed in
make
of ancient Troy.
His
faith
was
largely
rewarded.
He
hill
where he
carried on
or settlements. In the second stratum from the bottom he found remains of such a character that he was led to believe that they were
128
147]
129
Troy of the Iliad. Besides uncovering massive walls and gateways, he exhumed numerous articles of archaic
workmanship
city
in bronze, silver,
and
second
date, as
but the sixth city from the bottom was the one whose
relics
determined by the
Troy of the tradition. These discoveries have demonstrated that in prehistoric times there really was in the Troad a city which was the stronghold of a rich and
Fig. 81.
(After Tsountas-Manatt)
powerful royal race, and they afford good grdund for the belief that the
story of the Trojan
embodies the
memory of a
We may
power and
was the
control
water passage to
regions
'
-"^
perhapB
Argonauts
the-
(sect. 1 42).
relation to this northern
Troy
in prehistoric times
same
trade that Byzantium, located at the northern entrance to the Bosphorus, held through-
to-day.
I30;
[148
confident by his
historically true
Agamemnon and
his
murdered comin
He soon unearthed
the discoveries
The most
made on
the spot
Fig. 82.
The
on a separate bronze plate which is then set into the blade. The metals used are gold and electron, a natural alloy of gold and silver. Egyptian influence on this Mycenaean art is evident from the design on the upper blade the cat chasing ducks along a river with lotus plants being a characteristically Egyptian motive
figures are inlaid
which were
sur-
and bronze
and silver, and personal ornaments of every There was one hundred pounds in wejight of gold articles alone. Dr. Schliemann believed that he had actually found the tomb and
at Troy.
This con;
but
all
are agreed that the ancient legends, in so far .as they represent Mycense
as having been in early pre-Dorian times the seat of an influential
race, rest
on a basis of actual
fact.
In a word,
149]
DISCOVERIES IN CRETE
of that
131
tomb
Homeric
laid
life
but
us."
extensive excavations at
where he
Mycenas.
first
of
J.
Troad and in Argolis, Dr. Arthur Evans, guided by Greek legends, began excavations at Cnossus
in
Fig. 83.
great terra-cotta jars were for the storing of oil and other provisions. The boxlike receptacles (of which there were a hundred or more) in the fioor were probably for the
The
safe-keeping of valuables
What
astonishing than
The excavations
extent
rebuilt.
The
last
Later excavations on
132
[1S0
a long-vanished
by
its
remains,
was
in
some
respects not at
inferior to the
contemporary
Babylonia.
civilizations of
Egypt and
rivaled in magnificence
the con-
tained
numerous
courts,
halls,
store-
rooms,
for the
royal apartments,
and rooms
humbler folk
(potters, stoneartisans)
cutters, goldsmiths,
and other
all
buU-grapplings
girls
in
which
athletes,
both
as
as they
backs,
by the furious
Fig. 84.
beasts,''
Fresco of a Young
(Cnossus)
which
of
suggest
that
recall the
Cup-bearer.
This splendid fresco was found on the palace walls at Cnossus. The colors were almost as brilliant as
Romans
Greek
were
tribute
and
gladiatorial games
the actual
basis
tales of the
Minotaur and
youths and
the Athenian
For the
first
time the
of this
maidens
Cretan
true portraiture of a
man
mysterious
Mycenaean
[Mgean] Evans
Animal
larly
and
paintings, particu-
ized
Probably we should
1 Note detail of the scroll at the end of this chapter. This scroll is taken from one of the Vaphio cups (see Plate VIII and accompanying note). The goldsmith artist is
iiso]
133
not be
among
had
supreme
excellence of the
first
work
The numerous
interest
tivity
and maritime
which
further confirmed
of Cretan
in
make
found
the
tombs of
-'-'W
the
Mediterranean
confirma-
lands.
Special
^^m
tion of the
statements of
historians
re-
the
Greek
found
Fig. 85.
walled,
which goes
show
from Egypt into Crete. noteworthy that this appearance of the horse in the records of Cnossus is synchronous with its appearance on the monuments of Egypt at the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty (see above, p. 29)
inipertation of the horse
It is
One
of the
most
Cnossus
is
the
so-called " Theatral Area," a paved space with tiers of seats on two
Some have
thought to identify
for
this structure
with the "dancing-floor" which Daedalus made Ariadne (sect. 141). With less hesitation we may
ture as the prototype of the classical
the
princess
An
of
writing,
Thousands of
Cnossian frescoes.
1
C.
H. and H. B. Hawes,
Ci-eie, the
Forenmncr of Greece
134
[151
of
history of the
^gean
world.
velopment
Civilization.
of
Mgean
to the
Until the
key
is
found
we must
rely
knowledge
of
(?)
ment
" like
of
this
newly
Also did the glorious lame god devise a dancing-plac^' unto that which once in wide Knosos Daidalos
discovered
civilization,
wrought for Ariadne of the lovely tresses." (tr. Lang and others), xviii, 590-592
/Uati
The broad
evolution
lines of this
from
the
Stone
Age up
Greek
of
century
B.C., as
from the
soil
The
^gean
islands
European
soil.
This
civilization
was
^1Fig. 87.
One
of a
number
of clay labels found by Dr. Evans in the so-called " Room of Chariot Tablets " in the great magazine (Fig. 83) of the palace at Cnossus
in the
it
plainly
was
deeply
and Mesopotamia.
race
The
earliest
home and
Its
island of Crete.
were a non-Greek
151]
ORIGIN OF
It
^GEAN
CIVILIZATION
135
of brunette type.
that: of
was
chiefly a
Bronze Age
Egypt, grew directly out of an earlier Neolithic culture, the beginnings of which are lost in the depths of prehistoric times.^ The
metal development began as early at least as 3000
B.C.,
^gean
islands,
of the
mainland of Greece.
Articles of
work found
that
at
Egypt
early
country
as
as
least
the
Sixth
Dynasty
B.C.).
(about
2500
of
activity
The memory
maritime
this
historic
times and
in
was
embodied
the
Mycenas,
and
of Crete, or were
Fig.
The So-called
"
Throne of Minos
at It is
'
The golden
Excavated by Dr. Evans in the palace It is the most ancient throne in Europe. from alabaster-like stone
cities
Cnossus.
carved
to
100
b.c.^
term Mycencean was at first applied, since Mycense seemed be its radiating point but when the discoveries in Crete showed that island to have been its earliest home, then the name Minoan^ from Minos, was suggested. Recently the term ^gean has come into very general use. Sir Arthur Evans, however, uses the term Minoan instead of Algean^ and divides the whole age (about 3000-1200 B.C.) into three periods, which he names Early Minoan, Middle Minoan, and Late Minoan, Each of these periods he again subdivides into three epochs.
this civilization the
;
To
to
136
[1S2
gener-
civilization
Greece may be
briefly stated
as follows:
tribes,
Not
later
Greek peninsula.
Achaeans.
Chief and
first
among
own
Achaean "
civi-
(about
5 00- 1
the
Homeric
bards.
B.C.,
folk
who by this
to migrate from
Achaeans and
northto the
name
JEolis.
The
was
all
the Ionia
by lonians from
Attica and
doubtiess
It
In the blood of
was
was
on
the memorable struggle between the Greeks and the rulers of the
Troy-land
(sect. 143).
Soon
allies
after
the destruction of
into
their
in-
there
came
vasion
(about
HOG
or
1000
B.C.),
force
in the
Peloponnesus.*
using folk.
These new intruders were chiefly Dorians, an ironThey were less cultured than their Achaean kinsmen, and
princes.
to the
152]
137
movement from peninsular Greede to the eastern shores of ^gean. Hard pressed or dispossessed peoples, pushing across the waters, found new homes among their kinsmen already established in ^olis and Ionia. The Dorians having conquered and colonized Crete and Rhodes, formed new settlements all along the southwestern
migration
the
On
isles,
the
on new
and ^olis and upon the neighboring altars burned afresh. The torch of
in
culture lighted
aloft.
was
almost extinguished. The Dorian conquest had ushered in here those " Dark Ages " which cover the three centuries and more
lying
truly historic
"
As the golden Achaean Age had its poet Dark Ages " have their poet in Hesiod,
spokesman of the common folk in was in this dark period of which Hesiod is the representative that, through the fusion and intermingling of races and cultures, the Greece of history was born. There is a striking and instructive parallel between these " Dark Ages " of Greek story and the " Dark Ages " of later European history. For just as in this later period two races, the Latin and the Teuton, and two cultures, the refined civilization of Rome and the ruder culture of the Teutonic tribes, mingled to form modern
poet of flesh and blood,
this evil
Homer,
the
first
so did these
great Greek
the
it
age of
iron.''
Yet
^gean
^gean and
civilization
^gean
mingled
to
form the brilliant civilization of classical Hellas. Thus "the Golden Age of Crete was the forerunner of the Golden Age of
Greece, and hence of
^
all
See sect. 337. C. H. and H. B. Hawes, Crete, the Forerunner of Greece (1911), p. z. The discovery of the long-lost .Egean civilization has given new significance not only to several of the Greek legends narrated in the preceding chapter,. but also to an alleged Egyptian tradition of "the lost Atlantis" a tale preserved in the Timaus and the Critias of " The Athenian Solon Plato. The essential part of Plato's narrative runs as follows
2
138
References.
Ilios (i88i)
all
;
cal
Schliemann, Troy and Us Remains (1875); Mycence (\Z']%)\ and Tiryns (1885). For an admirable summary of these works of Dr. Schliemann's and a scholarly estimate of the historiimport of his discoveries, see Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations.
DiEHL, Excursions in Greece (an account of the results of excavations at Mycenae, Tiryns, and on other sites in Greece). Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History, chaps, i-v (compares the Greek. legends with recent archaeological discoveries and discusses the question whether or not these discoveries may be regarded as a verification in any degree of the legends).
(sect. 200) returning from a visit to Egypt brought back a tale of a lost island-empire, a tale so wonderful that if Solon had made poetry the business of his life and had completed the story he would have been as famous as Homer or Hesiod. This old-world
story was told to Solon in the city of Sais in the Egyptian Delta. Solon had asked the
something about antiquity, and made the discovery that neither he nor any other Hellene knew anything worth mentioning about ancient times. For when he tried to Solon, impress the priests by talking about ancient things, one of them exclaimed, There you Hellenes are nothing but children,' and then related the following story
priests
' ; '
was an island called Atlantis situated in front of the Pillars of Hercules. The island was larger than Libya and Asia put together, and was the way to other islands and to a continent beyond. Now in this island there was a great and wonderful empire which had rule over the whole island, and several others and jDver parts of the continent. And these men of Atlantis had harbors and docks which were full of triremes and stores of every kind. The kings possessed a fleet of 1200 ships, and tlie royal palace which they built in the center of the island was ornamented by successive generations until it became a marvel to behold for size and beauty. And there were bulls which the kings hunted without weapons but with staves and nooses. This vast power had subjected all the parts of Libya within the Pillars of Hercules as far as Egypt, and of Europe as far as Tyrrhenia, and then it endeavored to subdue at a blow our country and yours, and the whole of the region within the straits and then, Solon, your country shone forth. She preserved from slavery those who were not yet subjugated, and generously liberated all the rest of us. But afterwards there occurred violent earthquakes and floods, and the island of Atlantis disappeared in the depths of the sea.'" This story of the lost Atlantis has been variously interpreted. It has been pronounced by some a pure creation of Plato's imagination, while others have seen in it a confused memory of a real past. As we have said, the recent discoveries in Crete
;
give the narrative a new significance. The nucleus of the story may very well have been the Egyptian recollection, much distorted of course, of the great empire of the kings of Cnossus. James Baikie {The Sea-kings of Crete (1913), p. 258) says: "The only difficulty in accepting the identification [of Plato's Atlantis with the island of Crete] is that it is stated that the lost Atlantis lay beyond the Pillars of Hercules; but doubdess this statement is due to Solon's misinterpretation of what was said by his
priest's endeavor to accommodate his ancient tradiknowledge of his own time. Almost certainly, then, Plato's story gives the Saite version of the actual Egyptian records of the greatness and the final disaster of the great island state with which Egypt so long maintained
Doubtless to the men of the latter part of the Eighteenth Dynasty the sudden blotting out of Minoan trade and influence by the overthrow of Cnossus seemed as strange and mysterious as though Crete had actually been swallowed up by the sea."
intercourse.
(Cups from
tomb
at
goldsmith's art
left to
Vaphio, near Sparta, in 1889. " The finest product of the our wondering eyes by the Achaean civilization of Greece." Rufijs B. Richardson
REFERENCES
139
TsouNTAS and Manatt, The Mycenaaii Age. Hall, The Oldest Civilization of Greece. Ridgeway, The arly Age of Greece, 2 vols. All the works thus
far cited
and
the opinions and conclusions of their authors must be tested and corrected
by the revelations made since the opening of the present century by the excavations at Cnossus and elsewhere. The following more recent works summarize and interpret the new discoveries Hall, ALgean Archeology Mosso, The Palaces of Crete Baikie, The Sea-k'ings of Crete Fowler and
:
Wheeler, Greek
Archieology, chap.
i.
i.
Summary
:
of the excavations:
:
2.
The
palace at Cnossus
Mosso,
chaps,
iv,
:
v.
3.
Bull-grappling
chap.
xi.
Aigean Archmology, chap, vii; Reinach, Apollo (rev. ed.), pp. 30-36; Fowler and Wheeler, Greek Archaology, chap. i. 5. Early intercourse between Crete and Egypt: Manatt, Aigean Baikie, The Sea-kings of Crete, chap. vii. 6. A day in Troy
art
vEgean
Hall,
CHAPTER Xiy
THE HERITAGE OF THE HISTORIC GREEKS
153.
A Rich
already
reli-
advanced
culture.
They possessed
literature,
and an
full
of promise.
We now know
earlier
that
it
was
mixed inheritance.
foretime,
It
was
in part
a transmission from
their
own
and
in part a legacy
from that
^gean
But
all
civilization
in
it
also
these non-
This
will
become
evident as
we now proceed
to
examine somewhat
in
detail this
is
different a product
shall
be convinced
call
in the
wonderful thing we
Greek
itself
a genius bom
of the union
I.
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
its
154.
The City-State;
Elements
the
the Tribe.
The
c.
centuries B.
upon Greece in the eighth and shows most of Greece proper, the shore-lands
light that falls
of Asia
Minor, and
many
cities.
Respecting
154]
THE CITY-STATE;
cities
ITS
ELEMENTS
it is
141
with
we must say
a word, for
with them
that
Greek
In the
first place,
each of these
nation.
It
munity, like a
modern
was a
city-state.
its
were aliens
pendent
we
think of inde-
So far as we know, no city in Greece proper, save Athens, ever had over twenty thousand arm-bearing citizens. In most cases each consisted of nothing more than a single
very
small.-'
walled
town with a
little
and pasture
land.
Thus
the city-state of
its
Attica with
hundred or
that
more
villages
and settlements.
if
outlying villages,
town
all
was made up of
tribal
clans,^ phratries or
families),
and
tribes
which were a
from the
age of
at first
live in cities.
It
was
only
members
is
of these groups
who enjoyed
There
is
that the
thought that the city should be small enough to enable each citizen to
fellow-citizens.
know
all
his
2 The clan was simply the expanded family for in primitive society the family as it expands holds together, being united by the worship of ancestors or of domestic divinities, whereas in advanced society as it expands it disintegrates, the several households no longer living together, but each usually going its own way. This forms a fundamental
;
between primitive and modem society. was only after a long lapse of time that the ties which bound together these primitive groups became relaxed, largely through a change in the religious beliefs of men, and that the way was thus paved for the entrance of strangers into the city. This great revolution, the greatest that ever took place in the society of antiquity, was already in progress, both in Italy and in Greece, at the opening of the historical period, and resulted finally in making property and residence instead of birth and worship the
difference
3 It
basis of civil
and
political rights
and
privileges.
142
[155
in the
these
cities
were
at first
city-kingdoms,
we must
in
like the
early city-kingdoms
we found
hi.s
the
Orient.
lute
;
In the oriental
city the
power
of the priest-king
was
abso-
servile subjects.
;
In the Greek
city the
was
limited
some measure
contained
the
self-governed.
germs
of a political constitution.
was a
vital
of growth.
Into what
it
grew we
shall see as
we
follow particulariy
We
cannot
of
we
was a member.
It
in
which he
lived,
his being.
was
which he
to
died.
Exile
was
him a
than death.
was
the sentiment
which corresponds
amongst
us, but,
being a narrower
it was much more intense. was this strong city feeling among the Greeks which prevented them from ever uniting to form a single nation. The history of Greece from first to last is, in general, the history of a great number
of independent cities wearing one another out with their never-ending disputes and wars arising from a thousand and one petty causes
rivalry, jealousy,
of
and hatred.
It is the history of
modern Europe
cities so
facul-
in miniature.
But
it
was
this
made
life in
the Greek
of the
Greek
citizen.
agora
air
human
talents
in the growing
cities
of a conservatory.
Hence
rich
phi-
and
literature and
became the precious legacy of Greece to the world at large. In a word, Greek civilization was the flower and fruitage of the city-state.
156]
143
156. Ideas of the Greeks regarding the System of the Universe. Forming another important element of the inheritance of the historic Greeks were their religious ideas and institutions. In speaking of
these
we
shall
The
early
to be, as
it
oval or circular in
form
like
shield.
Around
strength
of
the
ocean
river,''
which
of
realms
vault,
or
upon
the
Beneath
by
subterranean
passages,
was the
realm of Hades,
a vast region, the
place of departed souls.^
this was the prison Tartarus, by strong gates of brass and iron. The sun was an archer god, borne in a fiery chariot up and down the steep pathway of the skies. Naturally it was imagined that the regions in the extreme east and west, which were bathed in the near splendors of the sunrise and the sunset, were lands of delight
beneath
made
fast
Erebus, in the Homeric mythology, was a gloomy intermediate region between the
earth
and Hades.
144
and
[157
Ethio-
The
eastern region
pians, a land
loved to
were the
Isles of the
and
six
poets.
At
was a
council of twelve
members, comprising
the sea
gods and
as
many
goddesses.
father of
of light, of music,
and of prophecy
war
Hephaestus,
and the
forger
of the thunderbolts of
Zeus
the
and Hermes,
wind-god,
the
swift-footed
herald
and the
sings."
lyre
"for
"
The
by the
human forms
of
The female
ties
divini-
were Hera,
and
the
queen of Zeus
Athena, or Pallas,
who
bom
proud
jealous
the goddess of
wisdom and
Aphro-
The
cult or
sinian mysteries
158]
145
These great
give
All the celestial council, at the sight of Hephaestus limping across the palace floor, burst into
way
to fits of
"inextinguishable laughter"; and Aphrodite, weeping, moves all to They surpass mortals rather in power than in size of body. They can render themselves visible or invisible to human eyes.
tears.
Their food
brosia
their
is amand nectar
movements
swift as
light.
are
They
pain
;
may
but
suffer
death
to
can never
come
Their
abode
is
Mount
and
the
Fig. 90.
Ol3Tnpus
Hades to the Underworld her Leave-taking OF HER Mother Demeter. (After a vase painting)
In accordance with the animistic ideas of primitive man, the souls of plants were thought to descend to the underworld in the winter and to return to the upper world in the
airy regions
above
the earth.
158.
Oracle
fluence
The Delphic
and
on
its
In-
Greek
Out of this conception grew the beautiful myth of Demeter and Persephone, who as goddesses of the com came to be personifications of the yearly death and revival
spring.
of vegetation, and then by analogy as symbols (in the Eleusinian mysteries) of man's
Life
and
History.
renewed
life after
death
was the
The Greeks
visit
the earth
But even
in
human nor
divine. Hades ruled over the lower realms Dionysus was the god of wine Eros, of love Iris was the goddess of the rainbow, and the special messenger of Zeus Hebe (goddess) was the cupbearer of the celestials the goddess Nemesis was the
; ;
;
punisher of crime, and particularly the queller of the proud and arrogant; jEolus was the ruler of the winds, which he confined in a cave secured by mighty gales. There
were nine Muses, inspirers of art and song. The Nymphs were beautiful maidens, who peopled the woods, the fields, the rivers, the lakes, and the ocean. Three Fates allotted life and death, and three Furies (Eumenides, or Erinyes) avenged crime, especially murder and sacrilegious crimes. Besides these there wrere the Centaurs, the Cyclopes, the Harpies, the Gorgons, and a thousand others.
146
[158
familiar intercourse
tradition of a golden
were known as
oracles.
These communications,
it
was
believed, were
made sometimes by
their presence
Zeus,-'
Not
These favored
spots
called oracles,
oracles, 'as
a deep
the
Apollo.
Over
in
The
com-
orifice.
As
va-
Apollo
god.
of the
Pythia
priests
and put
in the
in verse.
Some
advice
;
and wholesome
that
but
many
made
turn.''
The
oracle of Zeus of widest repute was that at DotJona, in Epirus, where the priests
god
in
he made war on Cyrus (sect. 102) was told in response to his inquiry that if he undertook the war he would destroy a great empire. He did, indeed, but the empire was his own.
at the time
Thus Croesus
159]
147
a celebrity wide as the world it was monarchs of Asia and the people of Rome in times of extreme danger and perplexity. Among the Greeks scarcely
any undertaking was entered upon without the
the oracle being
first
The
will
and sanction of
sought.
this in the
Especially true
was
new
cities."
No
colony,
was
The Delphian
upon Hellenic
unity.
Rome was of
race.
mediasval Europe.
It
was the
common
to
all,
altar of the
Greek
By
Delphi drew
togeer by
of
religious
bonds
senti-
ment and
fraternity
munities of Greece,
and created,
political,
if
not a
at
least
religious,
union that
entire
Fig. 92.
embraced the
159.
Greek Runners
characteristic
Hellenic world.^
Greeks which they inherited from times was the sacred games celebrated at Olympia in Elis,
honor of the Olympian Zeus. The origin of this festival is lost in but by the opening of the eighth century
;
had assumed national importance. In 776 B.C. a contestant named Coroebus was victor in the foot race at Olympia, and as from that time the names of the victors were carefully registered, that
of the oracle, doubtless through the visitors to the shrine, kept theminformed respecting the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean, and thus were able to give good advice to those contemplating the founding of a new settlement.
1
The managers
selves
story of
For an illustration of the influence of the oracle upon Greek morality, read the Glaucus (Herodotus, vi, 86).
148
[160
their
was known as an Olympiad.^ was the only contest, were gradually added boxing, wrestling, spear-throwing, and other athletic games. Later, chariot-racing was introduced, and became the most popular of all the contests. The competitors must be of Hellenic race must have undergone special training in the gymnasium and must, morebetween two successive
To
first
over, be unblemished
tlie
gods.
Spectators from
Fic. 93.
a vase painting of
century
B.C.)
The
victor
olive; heralds
proclaimed his
name abroad
by eminent
him
as a con-
made
were erected
Olympia and
in
own
him
;
city
to
his
of one
who had
reflected immortal
honor upon
The Pythian, the Nemean, and thelsthmian Games. Besides games there were transmitted from prehistoric times the germs at least of three other national 'festivals. These were the
the Olympic
Pythian, held in honor of Apollo, near his ^shrine and oracle at Delphi
;
the
Nemean, celebrated
Just
in
honor of Zeus,
at
Nemea,
in Argolis
of
when
it
is
impos-
sible to say,
fairly opened,
The
date of an occurrence
happened
in the
first,
second,
third, or fourth
Olympiad, This mode of designating dates, however, did not come into general use in Greece before the third century B.C.
first,
year of the
etc.
161]
that
is
149
and
by the
had
assumed a national
features of the
character,
life
to be
prominent
common
them was
of the Greek
As
presentation of
a religious duty
a Greek mode
and
skill,
the
of worship.
of Hellas.
immense influence upon the social, religious, and literary They enkindled among the widely scattered Hellenic
literary taste jand
states
all
enthusiasm
for into
the four great festivals, save the Olympic, were introduced, sooner
During the
festi-
The
of
and strung
to the
power
afforded the sculptor living models for his krt (sect. 324),
the Olympic games," says Holm, "
sculpture."
we
became great centers of traffic and exchange during the progress of the games. They softened, too, the manners of the people, turning their thoughts from martial exploits and giving the states respite from war for during the season in which the religious games
;
were held
it
was
all
sacrilegious to
engage
in nailitary expeditions.
They tended
timents.
also to
keep
alive
common
In
drew the
states into a
common
character upon
162.
and religious life.^ The Amphictyonic Council. Closely connected with the
the so-called Amphictyonies, or "leagues
reli-
of
By
games had degenerated and lost much of their origiThe Olympic games, having been suspended since the fourth
century of our era, were revived, with an international character, in i8g6, at Athens.
ISO
[163
These were
associations
number of cities or tribes for the celebration of religious rites at some shrine, or for the protection of some particular temple. Preeminent among such unions was that known as the Delphic Amphictyony, or simply The Amphictyony. This was a league of twelve of the subtribes of Hellas, whose main object was the protection of the
Another of
its
purposes was,
by humane
The
follow-
members
of the league
it
'"
:
We
will not
off
from running
water,
war or in peace if any one shall do so, we will march against him and destroy his city." This was one of the first steps taken in the
practice of international law.
The Amphictyons waged in- behalf of the Delphic god Apollo a number of crusades, or sacred wars. The first of these occurred at
the opening of the sixth century B.C. (probably about 595-586), and
was carried on against the Phocian towns of Crissa and Cirrha,^ whose inhabitants had been guilty of annoying the pilgrims on their way to the shrine. The cities were finally taken and leveled to the ground. Their territory was also consecrated to the gods, which meant that it was never thereafter to be ploughed or planted, or in any way devoted to secular use.
163. Doctrine
religious ideas,
of
Divine Jealousy.
Several
religious
or
semi-
historic
Greeks from
life,
their conceptions of
and
fail
supplied
to
them so often with motives of action, take notice of them here. Two of these
that
we must
life
not
as
all
long-
at last
They
164]
151
like
themselves.
his extraordinary
Greeks became
put
a different interpretation
of the great
upon the
facts.
They
To
the Greeks
life
and joyous a thing that they looked upon death as a great calamity. Moreover, they pictured life after death, except in the
case of a favored few, as being hopeless and aimless.''
Fields,
The
Elysian
away
;
delight
but these were the abode only of the great heroes and
The
great
spirit existed as
rites of sepulture.
III.
165.
which the Greeks brought out of their dim foretime was their
guage.
At
was
most perfectly elaborated languages by human lips. Through what number of centuries this language was taking form upon the lips of the forefathers of the hisalready one of the richest and
ever spoken
toric
Greeks,
It certainly
bears testimony
Homer makes
A laborer on earth
Some man
of
mean
152
166.
[166
The Mythology of the Greeks. Another wonderful possession of the Greeks when they first appeared in history was their
mythology.
All races in the earlier stages of their development are
beauti-
that
and
lively
an imagination.
This mythology exercised a great influence upon the
life
and
Their
religion,
Fig. 94.
(From
a sarcophagus
art, and their history were one and all deeply impressed by this wonderful collection of legends and myths. Some of these stories
to
poets
others
still
suggested
and
the
painter;
and
others
Greek
history to
many an
flexible
The
rich and
into epic poems whose beauty and perfection are unequaled by the similar productions of any other people. These epics transmitted from the Greek foretime are known- as the Homeric poems (the Ilmd and the Odyssey), to which reference has already been made.
wrought
168]
153
Neither the exact date nor the authorship of the Homeric poems
is
known
at
Greeks
all
that
it
is
They were a
upon the
litex-ary life
In the
in
a certain inherited
skill.
"The
Homeric poetry was, indeed," says Professor Jebb, " instinct with the promises of Hellenic art. Such qualities of poetical thought, such forms of language, announced a race from which great artists
might be expected to spring."
This prophecy
''
we
and
Praxiteles.
ii,
1-490 (council of
References (Modern).
vol.
ii,
Curtius,
vol.
ii,
Grote
(ten-volume
ed.),
pp. 164-194 ; vol. iii, pp. 276-297. Holm, vol. i, chaps, i, xi, xix. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 65-73. CouLANGES, The Ancietit City, bks. i-iii. Fowler,
The City-State of the Greeks and Romans, chaps., i-iii. DiEHL, Excursions in chap, vii (on the Grecian games). Seymour, Life in the ITomeric Age. Topics for Class Reports, i. Delphi and the oracle Richardson, Kim/wm Days in Greece, pp. 24-33. ^- '^^^ Olympic Festival Gardiner, Greek Athletic
Greece,
: :
Sports
and Festivals,
chap, ix
Percy Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History, The Home Life of the Ancient Greeks, cha-p.vm.
: ;
Demeter and Persephone, and the F.leusinian mysteries Frazer, Spirit of Com and of the Wild (The Golden Bough), vol. i, chap, ii Fairbanks, Mythology of Greece and Rome, chap, vi, pp. 171-183 Gayley, Classic Myths (consult index). 5. The Greek doctrine of "divine envy." Consult Herodotus (Rawlinson's trans.) by index under " Croesus," Polycrates," and " Artabanus."
the
;
"'
"When
i,
the Hellenes created the Epos, they were already Greeks i.e. the chosen Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Primitive Greece,
;
p. 7
CHAPTER XV
EARLY SPARTA AND THE PELOPONNESIAN LEAGUE
1
cities
of the
was
situated in the
Eurotas,
and took
it
its
name
stance that
center of most
acropolis).
was built upon tillable ground, whereas the Greek cities consisted of a lofty rock (the
as she
But Sparta needed no citadel. Her situation, surrounded was by almost impassable mountain .barriers, and far removed
sea,
from the
to
was her
it
sufficient defense.
have thought
and degenerate
times.
And
an
of
enemy
is
the
camp
fires
of an invading army.
was divided
The
population of Laconia
The
in race
and language.^ They formed but a small no period numbering more than
men
The
who
class,
were probably the subjected pre-Dorian inhabitants of the land a mixed ^gean-Achasan population. They are said to have out-
in
to one.
They were
allowed to
retain
54
170]
IS5
class was composed of slaves, or serfs, called number of these were laborers upon the estates of the Spartans. They were the property of the state, and not of the individual Spartan lords, among whom they were distributed by lot.
The
and lowest
larger
Helots.
The
felt
These Helots had practically no rights which their Spartan masters bound to respect. It is affirmed that when they grew too numerstate,
their
Fig. 95.
Sparta, with the Ranges of the Taygetus in the Background (From a photograph)
deliberate
(sect. 172),
in
order
might be lawful to
them.
The young
to
Spartans,
at night
if
we may
kill
were required
go out
and
any
came across. Often they would range about the and make away with the strongest and bravest they could find.^
Helots they
1 "
fields
Once, when they [the Spartans] were afraid of the number and vigor of the Helot was what they did They proclaimed that a selection would be made of those Helots who claimed to have rendered the best service to the Laceda^monians in war, and promised them liberty. The announcement was intended to test them it was thought that those among them who were foremost in asserting their freedom would be most high-spirited, and most likely to rise against their masters. So they selected
youth, this
:
who were crowned with garlands and went in procession round the they were supposed to have received their liberty but not long afterwards the Spartans put them all out of the way, and no man knew.how any one of them came 2 Plutarch, Lycurgus, xvii. by his end." Thucydides, iv, 80 (Jowett's trans.)
about two thousand,
;
temples
IS6
171.
the
first
EARLY SPARTA
The Legend
of
[171
Lycurgus.
Of
Olympiad we have no
certain knowledge.
Peace, prosperity,
the
a
to tradition,
named Lycurgus.'
Legend represents Lycurgus as having fitted himself for his great work through an acquaintance, by converse with priests and sages, with the laws and institutions of different lands. He is said to have
studied with zeal the laws of Minos, the legendary lawgiver of Crete,
tradition
which doubtless
Moses, learned
in all the
Upon
tioa
and Sparta we
Crete,*^
to
have become,
wisdom
of the Egyptians.
still
follow the
tradi-
his learning
strong
party. After much opposition a system of laws and regulations drawn up by him was adopted by the Spartan people. Then, binding his countrymen by a solemn oath that they would carefully observe
his laws during his absence,
It is
exile.
But
circum-
were
in the
political institutions of
Sparta
main the
a small
lation.
band of conquerors
in the midst of
its
large
and subject
populaws
Spartan Constitution:
;
the
Kings;
the
Senate;
the
General Assembly
The
so-called constitution of
joint kings, a
The two
at
consuls
Rome
1
(sect. 401).
One
falls
The
date of Lycurgus
somewhere
c, probably
near
its close.
Thucydides
(ii,
lo)
largely
173]
LAND, TRADE,
AND MONEY
;
157 was
to subvert the
The power
it
And
this,
losing the
odium of absolute
The Senate
duties of the
body seem
to
and a
legis-
lative character.
No
until
he had reached
The General Assembly was composed of all the citizens of Sparta By this body laws were made and questions of peace and war decided; but nothing could be brought before it
over thirty years of age.
save such matters as the Senate had previously decided might be
entertained
by
it.
all
fighters,
not talkers
discussion.
The board
drew to
well as
itself
persons, elected in
was composed, as we have noticed, of five some way not known to us. This body gradually
of the powers and functions of the Senate, as
many
much
Plutarch says
had
hands
of the rich,
made a
and a smaller
It
and
is
not probable that there ever was such an exact division of landed
property.
The Spartan
theory,
it
is
true,
>
seems
to
every free
man
among
the Spartans.
In
158
EARLY SPARTA
all.
[174
'J'he historian
Eduard Meyer
rationally
venthe
and
subject population
made
state in Hellas,
all.
all their
Iron was
made
the sole
money
This money,
its
as described
in proportion to
value that
amount needed to make a trifling purchase required a yoke of oxen to draw it. The object of Lycurgus In instituting such a curthe
rency was,
we
its
Of
like
which required that the timbers of the roof of every house should
be
worked only with the ax and the doors with the saw
to discourage ambitious display.
alone.
This was
174. The
Common
Tables.
The most
=peculiar,
perhaps, of the
to correct
,
common
meals.
In order
the extravagance with which the tables of the rich were often spread,
Lycurgus
at public
is
said to
afl
eat
and common
It
was
part of
Every
citizen
was required
pay
to contribute to these
common
meals
a certain amount of
if
flour, fruit,
sacrifices;
dis-
any one
failed to
franchised.
kings, was
return-
excused from
common
mess.
One
wife, but
l.The real truth about this iron money is simply this the conservative, nontniding Spartans retained longer than the other Grecian states^e use of a primitive medium of exchange. Gold and silver money was not introduced into Sparta until about the close
:
when
In attributing the establishment of the early currency to Lycurgus the Spartans simply did in this case just what they did in regard to their other usages.
money system
absolutely necessary.
175]
159
main of
a blacli broth,
is
now he understood
in battle
Any
life
on such
fare
*as this.''
Every male
did not
if it
seem
likely to
and useful
citizen,
was condemned
to be exposed in a
charge of public
The aim
of the
entire course
toil
was
to
make a
nation of soldiers
who
should contemn
tiishonor.
poems were
recited
stirred to
deeds worthy of
The art of rhetoric was despised. Only poems that warmed the blood and record. The Spartans had a profound con-
literary
expression.
Boys
speak
it,
"silent as statues."
the
As
Plutarch puts
little
m6ney
value
and
short,
Wordy
But while the mind was neglected, the body was carefully trained. In running, leaping, wrestling, and hurling the spear the Spartans acquired the most surprising nimbleness and dexterity.
At the Olympic
off
But before
all
things else
pain, unflinchingly.
He
was the Spartan youth taught to bear was inured to the cold of winter by being
river reeds.
forced to pass through that season with only the light dress of
summer.
Sometimes he was
l6o
EARLY SPARTA
to bear pain bravely.
[176
him
as to cause death.
to the
usage.
If one
was caught, he was severely punished for having been so clumsy as not to get safely away with his booty. This custom, as well as the
fortitude of Spartan youth,
is
familiar to
all
of
the
beneath
his tunic, allowed the animal to tear out his vitals without betraying
himself by the
movement
of a muscle.
the long military supremacy of and resolute warriors of Sparta among the states of Greece abundantly attests. The most important 176. The Spartan Conquest of Messenia. event in Spartan history between the age of Lyqurgus and the
commencement of the Persian wars was the long contest with Messenia, known as the First and Second Messenian wars (about
743-723 and 645-631 B.C.). Messenia was one of those
like Laconia,
districts
Dorians.
what was
the
The outcome
condition of
defeat of the Messenians and their reduction to the hard and the Helots of
Laconia.
According to
tradition the
Tyrtasus,
spirits
final victory to
a poet named
who, at a
critical
by
his inspiring
war
At
many
of the better
class of
to
177]
i6i
Some
of the fugitives
existing city of
the
Thus Sparta secured possession of Messenia. From the end of Second Messenian War on to the decline of the Spartan power
century B.C., the Messenians were the serfs of the
part of
the jPeloponnesus
All the southern
in the fourth
Spartans.
was now
After
Spartan territory.
177. Sparta
becomes
Head
of
Peloponnesian
League.
advanced steadily
the other
of
until
all
states of the
cities
Achaea.
The
Elis,
virtual
management
of
the
Olympic games,
at
was in her hands. Through these national festivals her name and fame were spread throughout all Hellas. She now, as head of a Peloponnesian league, ;began to be looked to even by the Greek cities beyond the Peloponnesus as the natural
Olympia, in
leader
and champion of the Greeks. Having now traced in brief outline the rise of Sparta to supremacy in the Peloponnesus, we must turn aside to take a wider look over Hellas, in order to note an expansion movement of the Hellenic race which resulted in the establishment of Hellenes upon almost
every shore of the then
known
world.
Thucydides (Jowett's
(beginning of each section). Thallon's Readings, pp. 87-112; Fling's Source Book, pp. 54-75Davis's Readings (Greece), pp. 103-111 References (Modern). Curtius, vol. i, pp. J75-25'S. Grote (ten-volume ed.),
lo, i8
;
vol.
ii,
pp. 259-377.
Abbott,
vol.
i,
chaps, vi-viii.
Holm,
vol.
i,
chaps, xvxvii.
History, chaps,
viii, xi.
Oman,
History
of Greece, chaps, vii, viii. Bury, History of Greece, chap. iii. Topics for Class Reports, i. Argos and King Pheidon: Holm, vol. i, chap, xvii, pp. 202-208 Bury, History of Greece, chap, iii, pp. 139-144. 2. The Helots of Laconia Thucydides, iv, 80 Plutarch, Lycurgus, xxvii Grote, vol. ii,
; :
chap,
vi,
pp. 291-298.
1 Argos was a Dorian city in Argolis which, under her celebrated king Pheidon, held, befpre the supremacy of Sparta, the leadership in the Eeloponnesus.
CHAPTER XVI
^
I.
(About 750-600
b.c.)
Greek history marked by great activity in the establishment of colonies. This expansion movement of the Greek race forms an important chapter
constituted a period in
The
inciting causes of
Greek colonization
at the period
named'
were various.
One was
cities of the
homeland
merce.
"^
their trade
and comwealth,
Thousands
to offer
way
political unrest
The
growth
who
naturally desired to
the
have a part
oligarchs,
in the in
government, brought
this
who
most
all political
authority.
now
whose
the
all
orders
=alike,
created a large
dis-
contented
who were ready to undergo the privations attending founding of new homes in remote lands if only thereby they
hfe.
are not concerned in the present chapter with the earlier emigration from
We
continental Greece to the islands and eastern shore-lands of the jEgean (sect, 152). 2 By the homeland, as we here use the term, we mean the western shore of Asi?
162
GREECE
AND THE
loiiiaa
I
GREEK
ff
COJLOXIES
^ciO
Dorian
OiJtcr
'
.".n
00
200
iOd
r,ii(
Grtdi nuces
Stii/cmeiilfl
|_J
179]
163
less impelled
many
of the
to
embark
in the
under-
takings.
To
lands of the
West present a
peculiar attraction.
To
all
in the Peloponnesus.
We
their first
and again
who
just"
The
history
Greek colonies would be unintelligible without an understanding of the relation in which a Greek colony stood to the city sending out the emigrants. There was a fundamental difference between Greek colonization and Roman. The Roman colony was subject
to the authority of the
mother
city.
zens or semicitizens of
Rome.
all
parent
city.
political
still
city
The
fire
on the
altar of the
bome by
of the
and
two
cities
were
members
religion
same though a divided family. Thus by the ties of were the mother and the daughter city naturally drawn into
close
sympathy.
1 Besides these independent colonies, however, which were united to the mother city by the ties of friendship and reverence alone, there was another class of colonies known as clenichies. The settlers in these did not lose their rights of citizenship in the mother city, which retained full control of their affairs. Such settlements, however, were more properly garrisons than colonies, and were few in number compared with the independent
64
The
[180
mother country
the affectionate
is
to the prominent
objects
and about
their
as
homes from which they had gone out prompted the New England colonists to reproduce in the new land the names of places and objects dear to them in the old, so did the cherished remembrance of the land they had left lead the Greek emigrants
of the
to give to the streets
memory
hills
of their
new
city
180.
was simply " a home away from home." The Condition of the Mediterranean World Favorable
Colonizing Movement.
The Mediterranean
movement
lands were at
this time,
say during the eighth and seventh centuries B.C., in a most favorable
state for this colonizing
of the Greeks.
in
The
cities
of
Greeks
This
It should
be
noticed,
new
west of
Sicily,
colonization.
The
The
great
kingdoms of
had not yet
later
arisen,
times,
Lydia,
still
Persia,
or were
;
inland
bar-
while the
whose
territories
in culture
and were
So between the
181]
165
old
became what an
Greece clinging
to the
181.
nizing
The Chalcidian
An
early colotriple
Here a
On
broken shore
cities,
many
colonies
thirty-two
owned her
as their mother
became known as
and gold
Chalcidice.^
One
Greek
colonists
was the
deposits.
The immense
slag
The
hills,
too,
since in
many
was
scarce.
The Chalcidian
the course
in large
upon
was,
Through them
culture.^
it
ruling class,
this
It
was
circumstance which, as
to
did,
we
shall
learn,
gave special
later
historical
significance
the
Macedonian conquests of
times,
making
them, as
it
barbarians.
second region
full
prising
commercial
cities
and the Bosphorus, together with the connecting " the vestisheet of water known to the Greeks as the Propontis bule of the Pontus." These water channels, forming as they do
ing the Hellespont
the
Greek
1
was
a colony
of Corinth.
2 Thus the colony of Stagira became the birthplace of the great philosopher Aristotle, who, through his father's relation as physician to the Macedonian court, was selected as the tutor of the prince Alexander (sect. 278).
I66
[ 183
Here was founded, among other cities, Byzantium (658 B.C.). The was built, under the special direction of the Delphic oracle, on one of the most magnificent sites for a great emporium that the ancient world afforded. It was destined to a long and checkered history.
city
The
tale of the
Argonauts
142) shows that in prehistoric times the Greeks probably carried on trade with the shores of the Euxine. The chief products of the
region were
fish,
grain,
and
cattle,
besides
and
iron.
The fisheries formed the basis of a very active and important trade. The fish markets of the Ionian cities of European Greece and of Asia Minor, in which fish formed a chief article of diet among the
poorer classes, were supplied in large measure by the products
these northern fisheries.
cereals that
in the
of
So
large
in
wheat and
otHer
we may
call this
same sense
that
Euxine was
slaves,
one
of
the "
first
hunters' land
Greek
life.^
slave-
sultans
we may
of a (?ommerce which
active twenty-five
hundred years
Eighty colonies in the region of the Euxine are said to have owned
Miletus as their mother
city.
The
became
astir
so crowded
with Greek
cities,
with Greek
home
country.
When
the
memorable
retreat
sighted,
the
waters of the Pontus, they seemed to feel that they were already
home
1 "
(sect.
265).
For those commodities which are the first nedessaries of existence, cattle and by the districts around the Pontus in greater profusion and in better quality than any other" (Polybius, iv, 38). Along with these " necessaries " Polybius names honey, wax, and salt-fish as " luxuries,"
slaves, are confessedly supplied
184]
167
At same time that the tide of migration was flowing towards the north it was also flowing towards the west and covering with a deposit of Greek population the Ionian Islands and the coasts of southern
the
Italy
and
Sicily.
The group
known
Magna
formed an important region of Greek colonization. Corinth, as was natural from her position, took a prominent part in the establishment
of colonies here.
Corcyra.
unfilial,
most important of her settlements was its mother city was very and a quarrel between them was one of the immediate causes
of the
One
The
of the Peloponnesian
War
(sect. 249).
i68
[185
station to
The
Italy,
and
was by the
way
Magna
Grscia.
At
this
time
Italy, with the exception of Etruria on the western coast, was occu-
pied by tribes that had made but little progress in culture. The power of Rome had not yet risen. Hence the land was practically open to settlement by any superior or enterprising race.
Ruined
Temples at
P^STUM
Paestum was the Greek Posidonia, in Lucania. These ruins, which stand today on a desolate plain, form the most noteworthy existing monuments of the
early
Greek occupation
of southern Italy
Consequently
it is
became so
Greek
cities
as to
become known
tant
city
as
Magna
Grcscia
(Great Greece).
Here were
B.C.); the
life
;
of Taras, the
Tarentum
of the
Romans (708
of
citizens,
Sybarite,
meaning a voluptuary
its
'
the
schools of philosophy
7
1
and
its
victors in the
Olympic games
5 b. c),
was the
habit,
he [Plutarch]
send out
invitations with
toilet-
a year's notice, in order that the ladies might have time to prepare a splendid
Mahaffy,
The
Silver
Age
p.
384
186]
169
Upon
was the
its
city of
Cumse
sibyl.
oracle
and
Near Cyme was Neapolis, " the new city " (Naples), probably a colony of Cyme, situated on one of the most picturesque bays in Europe. All this shore was the scene of cultured Greek life and activity long before Rome was anything more than a cluster of rude hill-villages.
Italy.
The
springs
Magna
from
their relations to
the early
Romans
received
many primary
Greek
The
island of
About the same time that the southern part of the peninsula was being filled with Greek colonists, this island was also receiving a swarm of immigrants. Here was planted by the Dorian Corinth the city of Syracuse (734 B.C.), which, before Rome had become great, waged war on equal terms
Upon the southern shore of the island arose Acragas (Agrigentum), " the fairest of the cities of men," which became, after
with Carthage.
most important of the Greek cities in Sicily. was the most disorderly and tumultuous part of Hellas. It was the " wild West " of the Hellenic world. It was the land of romance and adventure, and seems to have drawn to itself the most
Syracuse, the
Sicily
spirits
and
strife existing
among the Greeks. To the grounds among the Greek colonists themselves
That part of Gaul which touches the Mediterranean where the Rhone empties into the sea was another region occupied by Greek colonists. Here were established several colonies, chief among which
was Massalia (about 600
the advent of these the Alps
B.C.),
the
modem
Marseilles.
It is
from
Greek
colonists, rather
by the
Roman
upon foundations
laid
by the Greeks.
\yo
[187
In the seventh century B.C. the Greeks, in obedience to the commands of the Delphian Apollo, founded on the African coast, nearly
opposite the island of Crete, the important colony of Cyrene, which
became the
of
metropolis
district
large
Coin of Cyrene
was
"'
characterized
as
The
clitnate
has changed
greatly
since the
Greek period. In the Nile Delta the Greeks early established the important
This colony was at the height of
it
station
of Naucratis.
its
prosperity in the
The
history of
dis-
persed Hellas
is
would be unin-
should
we
lose sight of
of
the
history
of
Europe
century
Fig.
the
seventeenth
Coin of Corinth
knowledge of
cause of
Greater Euro|^.
rivalries,
In colonial interests,
and
jealousiejs
we
many
its
the homeland.
Indeed, in
influence
upon the social arid intellectual development movement which we have been tracing
189]
171
which
may
lands
well be
many
and upon so many shores of both the Old and the New World. The Greek colonies were the outposts and radiating centers of Greek
civilization.
Through them
at
many
and Thrace,
life
the
neighboring barbarism.
II.
THE TYRANNIES
Greek
said.
(About 650-500
e.g.)
189.
The
^
latter
what has been called the " Earlier Age of the Tyrants,"
a
of
whom
The
let
Jliaif
(ii,
203-206)
says, "
one
The
rule of rriany
is
king,
-^ him
to
whom
Zeus has
But by the dawn of the historic period, the patriAchaean Age had, given place, in almost all
little later,
just
Homeric monarchies had been superseded by oligarchies, were these in many of the Greek cities superseded by tyrannies.
so
By
Some
of the
rulers,
us.
all
name
implies
among
time or another
The causes
rule
that in so
many cities
overthrow of oligarchic
single person
were
1 For a hundred years after the expulsion of the tyrants from Athens (sect. 203) there were no tyrants in Greece proper, and for a great part of this time there were no tyrants anywhere in the Greek world. In the fourth century b. c. tyrants arose again, particularly in Sicily. This distribution in time of these rulers leads some historians to divide the
and a
later age.
1/2
various.
in the
ity
[ 190
By
and
arbitrary
The
which they
for
their
authority
the oligarchs,
to
undermine the
influence of
the
intelligence
and wealth of
and
and
desire to
partici-
ambitious
as
member
of the aristocracy,
who had
the champion of the people, and who, aided by them, had succeeded
in overturning the hated
government of the
oligarchs.
The
tyrants sat
upon unstable thrones. The Greeks, always lovers of freedom, had an inextinguishable hatred of these despots.^ Furthermore, the odious vices and atrocious crimes of some of them caused the whole class
to
so
much
so that tyran-
nicide (that
rule,
short-lived,
They were
usually violently
oli-
cities preferred
democratic.
fell
of a tyrant,
was very
had been
so
to drive
"
'
tyrant
'
involves
possible
ihe idea of everything that is wickedest, and includes every injustice and crime to mankind." 'Polybius, ii, 59
191]
173
Athens, as
shall see,
she for a time rested, became the representative and the ardent
champion of democracy.
191.
B.C.).
To
profitable
distorted
later
ably odious to
itself.
We
shall therefore
here simply give in brief form the story of two or three of these
unconstitutional rulers,
of their class.
as fair representatives
Among
(625-585
According
to
He
to
Thrasybulus
is
said to
envoy to a
broken
off
field of grain,
have
themselves above
Then, without a word, he dismfesed the messenger. The man, returning to Periander, reported that he had been able to secure from Thrasybulus not a single word of advice, but told how
the others.
singularly
he had acted
those citizens
others.
many
men.
and
literary
serving in
affairs in
iier
tliis
institutions
policy was to strengthen her own: influence in these cities by prelilie her own, and by keeping the control of their public
174
[192
192. Polycrates, Tyrant of Samos (535-522 B.C.). Another tyrant whose deeds were noised throughout the Hellenic world, and the vicissitudes of whose career left a deep impression upon the Greek
imagination,
by overturning through
many of
cities
Samos
in the
way
so
common
own
Polycrates conquered
fleet that
was the
largest
any Greek
state
had up
to that time
collected.
court,
to
which he
invited,
among
other persons
o"f
fame and
learning, the
who seems
to have
enjoyed to the
inspired
full
life
sang
so
voluptuously of love and wine and festivity that the term Anacreontic
has
come
be used to characterize
all
poetry overredolent of
these themes.
The
friend
astonishing
prosperity of
of
his
Periander awakened,
and
ally,
who became
convinced
that
such
felicity in
gods
(sect. 163),
must awaken the envy of and accordingly broke off his alliance with him.
of
the
The
and put
Amasis.
Polycrates was
enemy
of
his,
by
The
fits
upon Greek
civilization
some
bene-
which, perhaps, could not have been so well secured under any
Thus the tyrants, through the connections which they naturally formed with foreign kings and despots, broke the isolation in which the Greek cities up to this time had lived. Pheidon of Argos
tyrant of the better class
was
193]
kings
175
and Polycrates, as we have seen, was the friend and ally of These connections between the courts of the and those of the
rulers of oriental countries
opened the
their
cities
commercial
example, Periander
the congenial
atmosphere of
was given a great impulse by the public buildings and works which
many
of
their capitals,
or of winning the favor of the poorer classes by creating opportunities for their
Thus
it
happened
tyrants
of
was a period marked by an unusually rapid advance of many the Greek cities in their artistic, intellectual, and industrial life.
political
In the
to
Greece.
By
they
to
democracy.
They were
another
way
civilization.
in the
way
if
us,
did
government
rule
in the
Greek
As we have
by a
the Greeks,
ment and made them extremely watchful of their freedom. The bare suspicion that any person was scheming to make himself a tyrant was often enough to insure his immediate expulsion from the city or the
infliction
of
Selections from the Sources. Herodotus, iv, "150-153, 156-159 (on the part taken by the Delphic oracle in the founding of Cyrene). Thallon's Readings, chaps, ii, iv; Davis's Readings (Greece), pp. 99-102, 114-117.
176
References (Modern).
ed.), vol.
i,
chap. xxi.
Oman,
Bury,
History of Greece, chap. ii. ICeller, Colonization, pp. 39-5* For the tyrannies Grote (ten-volume ed.), vol. ii, pp. 378-421. Holm, vol. i, chap. xxii. Fowler, The City-State of the Greeks and Romans, chaps, iv, v.
;
Mahaffy,
pp. 99-101.
Iv,
Civilizaiion,
" Polykrates."
:
The
Curtius,
i,
pp. 439-441.
3.
z.
Relations of a colony to
oracle and
mother
city
:
Curtius, vol.
pp. 496-500.
The Delphic
Greek colonization
Herodotus,
iv,
150-153,156-159; Curtius, vol. ii, pp, 49, 50. 4. Tales of the tyrants Cypselus, Polycrates, and Periander: Herodotus (consult index).
CHAPTER
XVII
The Beginnings
of Athens.
Four or
five miles
from the
sea,
little hill,
many
in
fifty feet
above the
level of the
The
security afforded
by
this
eminence doubtless
settlers of the Attic
by the early
Here a few
buildings, perched
all
the world.
The Kings
of Athens.
by kings,
Greek
line.
city-state,
thus making
the villagers
Athenian
their
The annexed
and
their social
minor
offices
and
religious institutions.
whomsoever
effected,
laid
the basis
of
the
greatness of Athens.
it
How much
Thebes.
the union
meant
for Athens,
is
how
stood related to
the history of
shown by
Athens
held to Attica,
1
Thebes
was not an unusual thing for the Greeks to create a other hand t6 destroy one by separating it into villages.
It
17.7
178^
[196
in
constant bickerings and wars with them. 196. The Archons. By the dawn of history the real power in the Athenian state had slipped out of the hands of the royal family and
had come
into the
The
A little
whom
was
the king
in a subordinate posi-
tion
one, stand-
Athenian
old
state.
The
mon-
Homeric
197.
of the
The
Council
Areopagus and
in
The Bema, or Orator's Stand, on THE Pnyx Hill, Athens.^ (From a photograph)
at
This council
life.
was a purely
aristocratic body.
Its
members
The duty
and
to
its
of the council
was
were duly
observed,
appeal
historic
There was no
from
power
is
Athenian
state. the
of a general
('EKxATyo-ta, Ecdesia), in
those
who
served
in the
placq,^
1 So called from the name of the hill "Apeios iri.'^ai, " Hill of Ares," which was the assembling place of the council. It was " in the midst " of this hill that the Apostle Paul stood when he made his eloquent defense of Christianity (see Acts xvii, 22-31). " The meetings of the Ecclesia in early times, until the construction of the Theater of Dionysus (sect. 320), were held on a low hill to the west of the Acropolis, supposed
198]
179
The
nobles, or
Eupatrids.
of Attica,
it
is
As
already shown,
all
political authority
was
hands.
Beneath the nobles we find the body of the nominally free inhabitants.
Many
of
living in a condition
little
removed
paid
They
and
together with their wives and children, might be seized by the proprietor
and sold as
slaves.
little
farms, but at
we
money
lenders.
Thus
people were
filled
for revolution.
It
was prgbably
of their
own
order, to write
and cus-
a definite
The laws
as published were
very severe.
severity
of
the
Death was the penalty for the smallest theft. This Draconian laws is what icaused a later Athenian
were
written, " nof in ink,
but in blood."
made them
in their
unwritten form.
to be identical w.ith the so-called I'nyx Hill of to-day. On the Pnyx Hill may be seen a platform mounted by steps, the whole cut out of the native rock (Fig. 99). This rock pulpit is believed to be the celebrated Bema of the Athenian orators. 1 Taking advantage of the unrest in the state, Cylon, a rich and ambitious noble, had just made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the supreme power (the Rebellion of Cylon,
628 or 624
2
II.
c).
and customs of the city had been unwritten, and hence alone administered the laws, could and often did interpret them unfairly in favor of their own class. The people demanded that the customs should be put in writing and published, so that every one mfght know just what they were
Lip to this time the rules
the ICupatrid magistrates,
who
(cf. sect.
406).
l8o
[200
in Draco's work.
He
did
way
who were
struggling with
measures of
Once more,
best.
as in the
man
to
be remodeled as he might
held in high esteem by
deem
all
Solon, one
Men
re-
354), a
man
Athenians on account
was
He
the misery
He
canceled
all
had pledged
his
liberty,
and
set free
sold into
men dragged
off in chains to
be sold
as
payment of their debts, Solon prohibited the practice of securing debts on the body of the debtor. No Athenian was ever
slaves in
after this sold for debt.
Such was the most important of the economic reforms of Solon.' His constitutional reforms were equally wise and beneficent. The
Ecclesia, or popular assembly,
was
at this time
composed
of
all
those
persons
that
is
who were
to say, of
the
members
The
fourth
the
and poorest
class,
Solon opened
them the
An
whereby
"
the
who
henceforth not
only elected them, but judged them in case they did wrong.
constitution of the judicial courts out of the
The
the
whole people
'
was
1 According to some authorities Solon gave further relief to debtors by annulling all debts secured on land and by remitting a part of other debts. 2 " It is doubtful whether Solon first instituted, or merely availed himself of the divisions of the citizens into the four classes," Greenidge, Roman Public Lif'
(1901), p. 151
See
sect. 242.
201]
secret of
PISISTRATUS,
TYRANT OF ATHENS
It is his title to
i8i
fame
in
Four
Hundred.^
before
made
good
citizenship.
He
forbade
evil
forbade
women
before
to
it;
go about
forbade
a wagon with a
;
light carried
him a trade
and decreed
any one
his citizenship
day, Plutarch
Athens and went abroad. Following the tradition current in his makes him to have visited Croesus (sect. 102), and to
All this
have had with him the famous discussion on what constitutes true
happiness.'
sible to
is
it
is
hardly pos-
Croesus contemporaries, but Plutarch thinks that so good a story ought not to be given up " because of so-called
rules of chronology."
e.g.).
The
many
persons.
These
became
bitter
Moreover, the
reformed constitution failed to work smoothly. Taking advantage of the situation, Pisistratus, an ambitious noble and a nephew of the
lawgiver Solon, resolved to seize the supreme power.
This
man
called himself
'"
inflicted
1 2 s
This council replaced an earlier one consisting of four hundred and one members.
Plutarch, Solati, xxi, xxii.
i,
30-33.
82
[202
been thus set upon by the nobles, because of his devotion to the people's cause. The people voted him a guard of fifty men. Under
cover of raising this company, Pisistratus =gathered a
force,
much
larger
seized the
Acropolis, and
made
city,
Though
the tyranny.
him the
city
pros-
He may
Greek
tyrants,
an
as
we have
strengthen themselves by
Pisistratus doing.
means
of foreign alliances.
This we
find
He
giving at
Through these various connections states. made firmer his position both at home and abroad, while the same time a wider range "to the growing fame of
field
But before
all
else
was the
many
others
gods and of
art.
He
established
and matrons as a
in
to
honor of Dionysus
and began
resources
at
remained
Hadrian,
to
unfinished
the
of
the
Roman emperor
carried
completion.
Nor
did Pisistratus
fail to
in respect to the
patronage of
He
tie
is
An
annual festival in honor of the same patron goBdess continued to be celebrated was known as the Lesser Panatheneea.
j203]
183
the
first
and
is
Homeric poems
and
form
an
critically edited.
These poems
English people.
of the
He
is
added
to the embellishments
Lyceum, a
resorts
of
the
poets,
philosophers,
the capital.
203
Athens (sio
Pisistratus,
The two
At
sons of
they
rule.
Hipparchus, having
inFig.
100.
The Athenian
friend
and
some
both
slain,
others,
planned
assassinate
the tyrants.
Hipparchus was
to
commemoration of the
tion of the tyrant
assassina-
Hipparchus
as
Hippias.
Harmodius
tyrants,
and Aristogiton,
after
was put
to death.
We
trated
This
in
is
well
illus-
raised
honor
(Fig. 100),
their
deed was
84
[204
disposition of
The
effect
upon the
Hippias.
His
rule
city,
in the
way
from
his merits
champion.
in his
He
hands he used
to
more
by Solon.
his
One
of the
most important of
who had
effected
in
city,
and
also upon
many
resident aliens
made such
radical changes
been
205. Ostracism.
Among
the
other
innovations
or
institutions
as
By means of
this process
excited
be
thousand
1 The population of Attica comprised originally four tribes {<pv\al) membership in which was based on birth. In place of these four tribes Clisthenes formed ten new tribes in which he enrolled all free native Athenians, including, it would seem, many resident aUens and emancipated slaves. These new tribes, which were practically geographical divisions of Attica, were each made up of a number of local subdivisions called demes, or townships. The demes constituting any given tribe were scattered about Attica. The object of this was to break up the old factions, and also to give each tribe some territory in or near Athens, so that at least some of its members should be within easy reach of the meeting place of the Ecclesia. Fifty men chosen by lot from each of the ten new
tribes constituted a
new Council
of Five
of the old
made in the organization of the army. In place of strategi, or generals, who commanded the forces of the four old tribes, ten were now elected, one by each of the ten new tribes.
(sect. 200).
A few years
new
tribes
the four
generals
206]
185
was a decree of banishment. The name of 'the person whose banishment was sought was written on a shell or a piece of pottery, in Greek ostrakon
(oa-rpaKov),
The design
some came
rival
of this institution
a usurpation as that of
whence the term ostradsm. was to prevent the recurrence of such Pisistratus. It was first used to get rid of
his return.
had reason to
to
be employed, as a
simply to
settle disputes
between
Thus
political
No
The power that the device of the jJeople was not always wisely
most
patriotic
hands of
and some of the ablest and statesmen of Athens were sent into exile through
used,
the influence of
for the
aristocratic
was
these demo-
irmovations.
The Spartans
him
to
power.
their purpose,
because their
allies
We
shall
stitution, 13-19.
Selections from the Sources. Vi,\sikkq.ts.,SoIo^. A.-r.istotle, Atkenian ConThallon's Readings, pp. 113-145'; Davis's Readings (Greece),
Or possibly the
any person
six
thousand
2
citizens.
The
was
The
institution
short-lived.
B.C.).
was resorted
Peloponnesian
bolus
admitted to be the meanest man in Athens. This, it is said, was regarded as such a degradation of the institution, as well as such an honor to the mean man, that never thereafter did the Athenians degrade a good man or honor a bad one by a resort to the measure.
The people
86
References (Modern).
ed.), vol.
ii,
Curtius,
iii,
XV.
The
which were written before the discovery of the Aristotelian treatise, must be read in the light of the new evidence. Holm, vol. i, chaps, xxvi-xxviii. Allcroft and Masom, Early Grecian History^ chaps, xii xv. Cox, Lives of Greek Statesmen, " Solon," " Peisistratus," and " Kleisthenes." Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Constitutional History, chap, vi, sects. 13. Oman, History of Greece, chaps, xi, xii. Bury, History of Greece, chap, iv, sect, iv chap, v, sect. ii. Seignobos {Wilde ed.), History of Ancient Civilization, chap. xii.
;
Youthful readers will enjoy Harrison, Story of Greece, chaps, xvi-xviii. Topics for Class Reports, i. The environment of Athens: Tucker, /;/ in Ancient Athens, chap. ii. z. Story of Solon and Croesus Plutarch, Solon,
:
Tucker, Life in Ancient AiAens,cha,p. xiii. 4. Dwelling-houses: 6u\ick, TAe Life of ike Ancient Greeks, chap. iii. 5. The occupations of farming and herding: Gulick, The Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap. xvii. 6. The Athenian vase trade (" One of
3.
:
xxvii, xxviii.
phenomena in the history of ceramic art is the absorption market of the world by Attic wares.") The Annual of the British School at Athens, No. xi, pp. 224 ff., " The Distribution of Attic Vases " Fowler and Wheeler, Greek Archeology, pp. 471-506.
the most interesting
of the
:
CHAPTER
XVIII
:
207. The Real Cause of the Persian Wars, In a foregoing chapter on Greek colonization we showed how the expansive energies of the Greek race, chiefly during the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.,
The
first
promising expansion
movement was
first
cramped by the
rise of
on the
table-
^gean
cities
of Asia
to
overwhelm
in like
manner
Here must be
sought the real cause of the memorable wars between Hellas and Persia.
To understand, then, the character and import of the contest which we are approaching, we must now turn from our study of the rising
giant
of Greece in order to cast a glance at this colossal empire whose shadow was thus darkening the bright Hellenic world, and whose steady encroachments upon the Greek cities threatened to leave the Greeks no standing room on the earth. As we have already watched from the standpoint of the oriental
cities
we
shall
here
which concerned
feel
an
absorbing interest.
208. Conquest
It will
by Cyrus
be recalled that the Persian Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great (sect. 102), and that among the states=of Asia Minor which he
187
88
[209
brought under
cities
The Greek
of the Asian coast which had formed part of the Lydian king-
dom
that
soon realized of what serious concern to them was the revolution in Asia Minor from Lydian to Persian
hands.
to join
him
in his
war
against Croesus^
but
all
except Miletus, satisfied with the easy conditions which that king
listen to
kind.
sub-
Upon
all
cities
Cyrus refused
however,
their gates
time,
In a short
were reduced
to submission.
Many
their old
colonies of Western
together with
islands
became subjects of the Persian king. The retained the management of their own affairs, under such govtribute,
and
army
of their master.
the
Thus ^gean,
home
world.
209. Conquest of Phoenicia, Egypt, Csrprus, and Cyrene by Cambyses (529-522 B.C.).
pressed
still
Under Cyrus' son, Carrjbyses, the Persian power more heavily upon the Greek world.
first
Cambyses
their galleys
brought the
cities
were ordered
To
when
collected
was added a large contingent of ships furnished by the Asian Greeks, who were thus compelled to assist their master in reducing to slavery
the rest of the world.
con-
to the already
210]
189
into
his fleet, Cambyses marched his army from Syria Egypt and, as already stated (sect. 103), speedily brought that country under his control. The conquest of Egypt drew after it the
Supported by
colonies of
Cyrene and
of
all
now
sub-
Greeks who
in the
Mgean
But
it
West
that
The year
nessed the
his
and the
virtual destruction of
The dominion
a
piratical sea
power;
critical
was scarcely more, it is true, than was a Greek state, and might have
proved, in the
in the
^gean
wave
of conquest which
now
of
cities
European Greece.
211. The Scythian Expedition of Darius I; Conquests in Europe
(513?
B.C.).
The growing
was
by the passage of the Bosphorus, about the year 513 B.C., by an immense Persian army led by Darius in person, whose purpose was the subjection of Thrace and the chastisement
intensified
of the Scythians, old foes of the Asian peoples, inhabiting the lands
north of the
The outcome
was the
and Macedonia, together with important islands in the northern ^gean, to the Persian Empire, and the advance of its western
frontier to
the passes of
the north.
go
The
[212
yEgean was now in the posThat sea which had so long been the arena of Greek activity and Greek achievement had become
Moreover, through the loss of the Helles-
pontine regions the Greeks were cut off from the Euxine, which had
come
to
212. The Rise of the Persian Power in the East Synchronizes with
the Rise of the
that the
Power
of Carthage in the
West.
At
the yoke of the Persians, and the liberty of the cities in the home-
land was being threatened with extinction, "the Greeks in Sicily were
The power of Carthage was rising, and the Greek cities of Sicily were just now engaging in a doubtful contest with her for the possession of the island. Thus all round the horizon threatening clouds
were darkening the once bright prospects of the Hellenic world.
It
was, indeed, a
critical
moment
Greek
race.
As Ranke
was
in
the
course
of
its
vigorous
development."
Selections from the Sources.
a glimpse into the
Herodotus,
i,
152, 153;
iv,
137
(will afford
thought of the times). Thallon's Readings, pp. 147-154. References (Modern). Cuetius, vol. ii, pp. 135-193. Grote (ten-volume
iii,
ed.), vol.
pp. 399-491.
Holm,
vol.
i,
chap.
xx(ii.
Oman,
History of
Greece,
Cox, The Greeks and Persians, chap. iii. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 229-241. Harrison, Stojy of Greece, chap, xx, pp. 220-228. Topics for Class Reports, i. Culture of the Asiatic Greeks: Holm, vol. chap, xxiv, " Growth of Greek Philosophy, Literature, and Art in Asia Minor." i.. The sea power of Polycrates and its end Curtius, vol. ii, pp. 160-172.
pp.
1
18-140.
i,
Consult
map
after p. 98.
CHAPTER XIX
THE PERSIAN WARS
(500-479 B.C.)
the Burning
The Greek
cities
could neither long nor quietly endure the loss of their independence.
b. c.
men.'-
The Athenians sent twenty ships to the Sardis was taken and laid in ashes.
Defeated in
battle, the
sequences.
on
fire."
he asked, Herodotus
w ho
being informed, called for his bow, and placing an arrow on the
string,
shot
upward
into the
sky, saying as
he
let
fly
the shaft,
" Grant,
Zeus, that I
the Athenians."
when
his
him
" Master,
B.C.).
De-
by
draw as many
1
The
191
192
success.
[215
threatened the
its
destruction
Persian power in
all
those
regions where
The
collected for
The
slain,
children
The
nians.
When,
fall
of the
city,
there was
pre-
drama
entitled the
Capture of
were moved to tears, Emd afterwards fined the author " for recalling to them their own' misfortune." They also
the presentation
o'f
They
the Greek
burned,
harried.
their
The
lost
first
The
world,
and bearing
in vas-
The
their part
wounds
ward again
all
and
cities,
in great prosperity
^
but
was
of
for
time past."
215.
(492
B.C.).
and punished, Darius determined to forestall all further trouble from the European Greeks by incorporating Greece in the Persian Empire. Accordingly he sent heralds
to the various
Greek
states to
demand
ear.th
Persian
required
We
Curtius, Grtechische Geschkhtc (6th ed,), vol. i, p. 629. follow Eduard Meyer in bringing this embassy into connection with the
(vi, 48)
expedition of 492 n.c. instead of that of 490 B.C. Meyer believes Herodotus is wrong in connecting it with the second expedition.
216]
193
but the Athenians and Spartans threw the envoys of the king into
pits
and wells and bade them help themselves to earth and water. large land and naval armament was now fitted out and placed
under the
command
for earth
subjugation of the
the
cities that
demand
had not only refused to comply with and water, but had further violated the sanctity
expedition was unfortunate.
of ambassadors.
The
The
land forces
the fleet
hands of the barbarians of Thrace, and was wrecked by a violent storm off Mt. Athos (492 B.C.).
of
216.
Darius (490
B.C.).
Undismayed by
this disaster,
By
an army had been mustered for the seconii attempt upon Greece.^
armament was entrusted to the command of the experienced and Artaphernes, but was under the guidance of the. traitor Hippias (sect. 206). Transports bore the army from the coasts of Asia Minor over the ^gean towards the Grecian shores. After receiving the submission of the most important of the Cyclades, and capturing and sacking the city of Eretria upon the island
This
generals Datis
of Euboea, the Persians landed at
from Athens.
Here
is
edged by a crescentPcntelicus.
Pames and
Upon
of
ground the Persian generals, acting upon the advice Hippias, drew up their army, flushed and confident with their
this level
recent successes.
217.
The Battle
of
Marathon (490
B.C.).
sur-
passing efforts to avert from their city the impending destruction. Instead of awaiting behind their walls the: coming of the Persians,
they decided to offer
them
battle in the
ppen
field at
Marathon.
a fleet run-
for aid.
1 It is
The
Greeks
impossible to reach any certainty as to the 3size of the Persian army. The by any ancient authority is 210,000, while the estimates of modem military experts and historians vary from 200,000 to 20,000. This last number is the
estimate of
Eduard Meyer.
194
was now shown. In
which
is
[217
was
in Sparta,
from Athens.
Now it so happened that it lacked a few days of the full of the moon, during which interval the Spartans, owing to an old superstition, dared not set out upon a military expedition.^ Nevertheless,
they promised
aid,
Athens
after
all
was
The
')
If j\/y
218]
195
After a delay of a few days the battle was begun by the Greeks
suddenly charging
and thrown into disorder by the onset, the Persians were driven
with great slaughter to their ships.
tells
Miltiades,
news of the victory to Athens. The a few hours, but so exhausted that, the people pressed around him to hear the news he bore, "he
city in
life
"
The
round
army could return from Marathon. Miltiades, hills of the movements of the
little
Marathon.
The
next morning
when
by the same
shore.
Thus
for a
was
to
time dissipated.
the heroes
who had
The
hundred and ninety-two Athenians who had fallen were buried on the field, and an enormous mound of earth was raised
over them.^ 218. Results of the Battle of Marathon. The battle of Marathon reckoned as one of the " decisive ibatties of the world." It
in the history of
is
justly
humanity.
The
its
battle decided
all
repression of
all its
incentives
The modem
owes its origin" to Marathon Herodotus malces the loss of the Persians 6400.
"
196
[219
The
story of
human
freedom.
its
We
cannot conceive
vital-
what European
izing
would be
it
like
elements contributed to
especially by
certainly
modem
Greece became as a
province
freemen had
inflicted
army
of the Great
the
spell of the
Persian
name and
destroyed forever
The
The
to themselves.
The consciousness
They
From
the
battle
Marathon dates the beginning of the great days of imperial Athens. V219. Themistocles and his Naval Policy. At this time there came prominently forward at Athens a man whose genius, aided by favor-
ing circumstances,
state.
was
man, who,
song, did
" he
knew
an ambitious man,
While
the battle of
whom
to majie a great one." He was " the trophies of Miltiades robbed of sleep,"
many among
the Athenians were inclined to believe that Marathon had freed Athens forever from the danger
was clear-sighted enough to was only the beginning of a tremendous struggle between Hellas and Persia, and the signal for still another and more formidable invasion of Greece by the barbarians. Hence
perceive that that battie
their
22Q]
navy, which they
only reliable
OSTRACISM OF ARISTIDES
had begun
97
Ostracized
in this policy
by
Aristides, called
the Just, a
man
of the
most scrupulous
if
integrity,
who
feared that
to
The
was
thousand votes were cast against Aristides, and he was sent into
exile.
Fig. ioi.
(British
Museum)
It is related that
in the assembly,
an
peasant,
who was
a stranger to Aristides,
name
As he
;
name upon
the
shell,
man what
"I
do
know him
but I
am tired
of hearing
him
Greek
city,
These
ships, as
we
shall learn
I
at this
Circumstances happily concurred in the advancement of Themistocles' plans. Just time there was a large sum of money in the treasury of the city, which had been derived from the public silver mines at Laurium, in the southeastern part of Attica. This money was about to be divided among the citizens Themistocles persuaded them to
;
devote
it
198
[221
news of the disaster at Marathon been carried to Darius than he began to mal-ce gigantic preparations to avenge this second defeat and humiliation. But in the midst of these: plans for the punishment of the presumptuous Greeks his reign was cut short by death, and
his son
Urged on by
by exiled Greeks
though at
at his court,
who sought
and ruin of
tions
enter into a contest with the Greeks, at lepgth ordered the prepara-
begun by
his father to
For eight years all Asia was astir with the work of preparation. Levies were made upon all the provinces that acknowledged the authority of the Great King, from India to Macedonia, from the regions of the
Oxus
to those of the
Upper Nile. From all the maritime states upon demanded vast contingents of war galleys,
While these land and sea forces were being gathered and equipped,
gigantic
works were
in
march
of the coming
ruined
by the destruction of
Athos
(sect.
215).
his undertaking
of a
work was in progress upon the Here Europe was being bound to Asia by a double
more
gigantic
bridge
of
boats,
probably
at
strait
is
about
in width.
in the hands of
By
the
spring
of
B.C.
long-talked-of
expedition were
about completed,
and
in
the
fall
222]
of that year
199
which had
Xerxes upon
his
way
to
Sardis,
army of
Just
invasion.
as
to
march from
Sardis,
news was
brought to him that the bridges across (he Hellespont had been broken by a violent storm. Herodotus relates that Xerxes was
this intelligence,
The
out obediently the orders of their master, and as they lashed the traitorous and rebellious waters cursed them " in non-Hellenic and
blasphemous words."
882. Disunion
Startling
of
the
Greeks;
rumors of the gigantic preparations that the Persian king was making to crush them were constantly borne across the ^gean
to
the ears of
'Finally
came
intelligence
that
be done to
Something must now meet the impending danger. Mainly through the exerto begin his march.
Greek
cities
was convened
only a small
unite their
cities
Corinth in the
fall
of 481 B.C.
jealousies,
and party
spirit,
number
be brought
to
of aristocratic
was divided by party spirit. The government were almost invariably friends of
cities.
friends
Persia,
because the Persian king looked with more favor upon aristocratic
than democratic government in his subject Greek
the sake of a party victory, the oligarchs
Thus, for
were ready
to betray their
in courage,
to
and
was
by
its
But
in
convention at
barbarians.
It
upon
stout
resistance
to
the
at first decided to concentrate a strong force in the at that point to dispute the
Vale of
;
Tempe, and
but
20Q.
this place
[223
made The Spartans were given the chief command of both the land and the naval forces. The Athenians might fairly have insisted upon their right to the command of the allied fleet, but they patriotically
invaders was
Thermopyte.
waived
sake of harmony.
With the
first
indications
at
480
Mai' Illustkating
points
Herodotus,
dramatic of
Herodotus
with exaggeration doubtless, that for seven days and seven nights the
bridges groaned beneath the living tide that Asia was pouring
into
Europe.
Upon an extended
Xerxes drew up
on the European
shore,
his vast
army
for revie^^
count
224]
201
completed,^ the immense army, attended along the shore by the fleet, marched forward through Thrace, and so on toward Greece. 224. The Battle of Thermopylffi (480 B.C.). Leading from Thessaly into Central Greece is a narrow pass, pressed on one side by the sea and on the other by rugged mountain ridges. At the foot of the
cliffs
name
of the pass,
At
this
point, in
congress,
was
offered
resistance to
Persian army.
soldiers
and about
thousand
allies
from
pass.
fell
As
at just this time, and as no one thought that the fight at the pass would be decided so quickly as it actually was, this handful of men was left unsupported to hold in check the army of Xerxes until the
festival
by an attack
Xerxes
summoned them
was, "
to give
up
their arms.
Come and
take them."
way was
repulsed
Ten Thousand
waves from a
cliff.
According to Herodotus, the land and naval forces of Xerxes amounted to men, besides about 2,000,000 slaves and attendants. It is certain that these figures are a great exaggeration, ^\'idely different estimates have been made by modern historians. Eduard Meyer puts the land forces at 100,000 and the naval forces at 150,000 to 200,000. These numbers take no account of camp followers. For a scholarly discussion of the question, see T/te Classical Journal, vol. .a (1914-1915), a paper entitled "Thoughts on the Reliability of the Classical Writers, with Special Reference to the
2,317,000
Size of the
2
Army
of Xerxes," by Dr.
John A.
Scott.
(vii,
This
is
zo6).
Modem
observation of the festival days was a mere pretext, and that the real reason they and
the other Peloponncsians
since the Athenians
on whom the duty of providing the land forces chiefly rested, did not send a larger force to the pass was bewere on the water
cause
2
was their selfish policy to make the real stand against the enemy at the Isthmus. This body of picked soldiers was so called because its number was always kept up
it
to ten thousand.
202
[225
by name, " the Judas of Greece," rendered unavailing all the bravery of the keepers of the pass. This man, hoping for a large reward, revealed to Xerxes a bypath leading over the mountain to the rear of
the Greeks.
The
startling intelligence
was brought
to Leonidas that
Realizing
no longer be
held, the
most of the
;
allies
now
with-
drew from the place while opportunity still remained but for Leonidas and his Spartan companions there could be no thought of retreat.
Death
in the pass, the defense of
to them,
was
but,
all
them.
The
next
day, surrounded
by the Persian
With them
The
fight at
all
The Greeks felt that all Hellas had gained great glory on that day when Leonidas and his companions fell, and they gave them a chief place among their national heroes. Memorial pillars
Grecian history.
tions
marked for coming generations the sacred and epitaphs told in brief phrases the
fallen,
Among
memory
had
go
tell
1
we
lie
here
in
obedience to their
commands
lay
to
Athens now
first
open
to the invaders.
thinking
across
of their
own
safety,
defenses
the
Isthmus of
Corinth.
Counsels were
1
now
divided.
The Delphian
striving to liold the pass, the Greek fleet, head of the island of Euboea, was endeavoring to prevent the Persian fleet from entering the strait between the island and the mainland. Here for three days the Greeks fought the Persian ships (the battle of Artemisium), and then, upon receipt of the news that the pass was lost, retreated down the Euboean straits, and came to anchor in the gulf of Salamis, near Athens.
his
men were
226]
declared,
203
"When everything else in the land of Cecrops shall be Zeus grants to Athena that the wooden walk alone shall remain unconquered, to defend you and your children." The oracle
taken,
was believed
to be, as was declareii, "firip as adamant." But there were various opinions as to what was meant by the
"wooden
walls,"
Some thought
meant
wooden
palisade
but
Themistocles (who,
oracle)
is
thought,
may have
The
women and
Salamis. The aged were carried out of the country All the towns of Attica, with the capital,
fleet at
A few days afterwards the upon the deserted plain, which they rendered more desolate by ravaging the fields and burning 'the empty towns. Athens shared the common fate, and her temples sank in flames. 226. The Naval Battle of Salamis (480 B.C.). Just off the coast of
were thus abandoned to the conquerors.
Persians entered
Attica, separated
lies
from the mainland by a narrow passage of water, Here lay the Greek fleet, awaiting the
hasten on the attack before dissensions should
Persian attack.
divide the
To
Greek
gem.
He
was ready
attack
tion to
on the
no condi-
He
From
The Persian
destroyed."^
was broken
to pieces
decisive.
bum
hundred
protect
them
The
mostly triremes.
204
[227
strong
escort
made an ignominious
With the opening of the spring of 479 B.C. Mardonius sent an embassy to Athens, promising the Athenians many things
side.
The
Athenians'
reply was, " While the sun holds his course in the heavens,
we
will
Upon
receiving
this
his
camp
in Thessaly,
marched
south,
Here the Greeks confronted him with the largest army they had ever gathered.' In the battle which followed (the battle of' Platasa), Mardonius was
slain
and
his
army with
great losses
was put
to flight.
Upon
the
same
day,
tradi-
The Spartan
Pausanias was
in chief
command.
229]
205
fitting sequel to the one at Platsea had freed European Greece from the presence of the barbarians
in
the Hellespont
and the
islands."
^gean
were now
liberated,
mother
The
glorious issue of
war caused a general burst of joy and Greece. Poets, artists, and orators
the
all vied with one another in commemorating the deeds of the heroes whose valor had warded off the im-
exultation throughout
pending danger.
ides^
for
fought at
at
^schylus, who had Marathon and perhaps Salamis and Platsa, erected an
'
FiC. -102.
HOPLITE, OR HeAVY^,
eternal
his
monument
in
literature
in
Persians^
which,
eight
years
after
the battle,
spectators,
artist
was presented at Athens before twenty thousand many of whom had had part in the fight and the great
;
Nor
had been effected without the intervention of the gods in their behalf.
'"A god," sang Pindar, "hath turned
over Hellas."
1
Upon
On
the very day of the battle of Salamis, according to tradition, Gelo, tyrant of
who had arranged Greeks in the West at the same time that the Persians made their attack in the East. So that was a memorable day for Hellas. 2 Simonides of Ceos (556-467 B.C.). ^ This is the only Greek drama presei'ved to us which^deals with contemporary history,
Syracuse, gained a great victory in Sicily over the Carthaginians,
with Xerxes to attack the
206
statue of Athena,
at
[229
field
signal
to lay a
yoke upon
Hellespont.
Lastly, to Apollo at Delphi
was
gratefully
The
gift
was
in the
form
twisted snakes.
Upon
the
cities
and
in the war.
Eight
centuries after
was
Roman emperor
there
it
Msckylvs,
v,
The
A Memorial
Battle of
pre-
Herodotus,
OF THE
49-54
(Aris-
Plutarch,
The1
Plat^^la
and
Aristides.
54-
Constantinothe
227; Davis's Readings (Greece), pp. 130-198; Fling's Source Book, pp. 98-143.
352.
that supported
vol.
iii,
ii,
pp. 201-
pp. 492-521
vol.
chaps,
i-vi.
Abbott, vol. ii, chaps, i-v. Holm, Cox, The Greeks and the Persians.
i,
"The
c\i.2.^^.
Battle of Marathon."
iii-viii
Church,
readers).
Pictures
Story,'
(for youthful
Teachers will find valuable topographical material in GkundV, The Great Persian War. Topics for Class Reports, j. The Delphic oracle given the Athenians at the beginning of the Persian War: Herodotus, vii, 140-143. ;;. The trireme: Gulick, The Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap, xv, pp. 199-205. 3- Themistocles in council and in battle at Salamis Plutarch, Themistocles, xi-xv.
:
CHAPTER XX
THE MAKING OF THE ATHENIAN EMPIRE
(479-445 B.C.)
230.
The Rebuilding
of
Athens
(478-477 B.C.).
who had found an asylum at ^gina, and other places returned to Athens. They found only a heap of ruins where their city had once stood. Under the lead
barbarians from Greece, the Athenians
Salamis,
of Themistocles, the people with admirable spirit set themselves to
homes and
the
erecting
new
walls.
The
rival
states of the
ceedings of
most jealous
interest.
The
lest,
captured, should
become a stronghold
But the
Athenians persisted in their purpose, and soon had raised the wall
to
that the
work
of
restoration
strengthened.
the sea
That Athens' supremacy depended upon control of plain to all. Consequently the haven town
was surrounded with walls even surpassing in strength the new walls of the upper city. The Pirseus soon grew into a bustling commercial
city,
few years after this Themistocles fell into disfavor and was ostracized (471 B. c). bent his steps to Susa, the Persian capital. King Artaxerxes appointed him governor of Magnesia in Asia Minor and made provision for his wants by assigning to three cities the duty of providing for his table one was to furnish bread, a second wine, and a third meat. Plutarch relates that one day as the exile sat down to his richly loaded board he exclaimed, " How much we should have lost, my children, if we had not been ruined " He died probably about 4G0 B. c.
1
He
finally
207
2o8
[231
Soon
states, in
effectively the
work
set
yet in the
power of the Persians, formed a league known as the Confederacy of Delos. Sparta and her Peloponnesian allies were excluded from
the league on account of the treachery of the Spartan Pausanias,
in
command
all
cities of
cities
^ohs, almost
Mgean,
the
of Chalcidice, together with those just set free along the Hellpspont
alliance.
The
league was
states,
was chosen as the first president Matters of common concern were to be in the hands of a congress convened
Aristides
the
cities.
At
Delos, also,
in the
common
was
to
make
contri-
bution according to
ability.
What
money should be
Aristides, such
was left at first entirely to the decision of was the confidence all possessed in his fairness and
and so long as he retained control had cause for complaint.
of the
incorruptible integrity;
The formation of this Delian League constitutes a prominent mark in Grecian history. It meant not simply the transfer
Sparta to Athens of leadership in the maritime
It
land-
from
affairs of Hellas.
meant
that
all
at Corinth in 481 B.C. had come to naught. It meant, since the Peloponnesian Confederacy still continued to exist,
alliance
formed
was
itself.
The Confederacy of Delos laid the basis. of the Athens. The Athenians misused their authority
league,
imperial power
of
as leaders of the
232]
the union
allies
209
their
in the following
The
different
members
From
it
the
first,
Athens
that each
member
pay-
After a while,
to
make
money
ment
in lieu of ships,
to her own navy. Thus the armed their master. Very soon the restraints which Athens imposed upon her allies became irksome, and they began to refuse, one after another, to pay the assessment in any form. Naxos, one of the Cyclades, was the But Athens had first island to secede from the league (466 B.C.). no idea of admitting any such doctrine of 3tate rights, and with her
powerful navy forced the Naxians to remain within the union and to
other
in the case of
Naxos happened
in the case of
the confederation.
By
.the year
Samos
former
members
of the league
Lesbos,
449
b. c.
only
Chios, and
all
still
They
alone of
the
allies
named
the
transferred
common
Delos to
original purpose,
were
beginning to spend
it,
the
treasure
were
their
own
revenue.
Thus what had been simply a voluntary confederation of sovereign and independent cities was converted into what was practically an absolute monarchy, with the Attic democracy as the imperial master.
Thus did Athens become a " tyrant city." From being the of the Greek cities she had become their enslaver.
liberator
2IO
[233
most prominent
Pericles.
of the
Athenian leaders at
this
time were
Cimon and
Cimon,
whom,
after
the expulsion of
of the
Greece, was
intrusted the
command
armaments designed
to wrest from
them the
coast.
islands of the
He
the friend
^gean and the Hellenic cities of the Asiatic was the leader of the aristocratic party at Athens, and of Sparta. He was broad-minded, and his policy was the
maintenance
leadership
ity of
Cimon
at last declined
and he was
ostracized.
As
persuaded the Athenians to push to completion what were known as the Long Walls (about 457-455 B.C.), which united Athens to the port of Piraeus. By means of these great ramparts
235]
211
were con-
command, Athens
At
the
same time
that Pericles
was making
influence
in Central Greece.
As Athenian
of
strove to counteract
Thebes and by
bitter.
lend-
The
It
was
ended by what
known
at the
as the
Peace of
By
had formed,
its
revolted subjects.
The
real
meaning of the truce was that Athens gave up her amempire and was henceforth to be content
Plutarch, Arisiides and Cimon. Thucyd90-93 (tells how Themistocles outwitted 'Sparta). Thallon's Readings, pp. 241-268; Fling's A!!<?r? 5oo^, pp. 144-159. References (Modem). Curtius, vol. ii, pp. 353-459- Grote (ten volume
Selections from the Sources.
i,
IDES,
pp. 330-437. Abbott, vol. ii, pp. 243-41 S- Holm, vol. ii, chaps, viiAllcroft, The Making of Athens, c\v2i^%.vm-,-:i.. OM.A.ii, History of Greece, chaps, xxii-xxiv. Bury, History of Greece, chap. viii. Cox, The Athenian Empire (earlier chapters) and Lives of Athenian Statesmen, " Aristeides,'' " Themistokles," " Pausanias," " Kimon." Greenidge, Handbook of Creek
ed.), vol. iv,
xiv.
vi,
i
.
sect.
5.
The
walls of
Pirasus
Bury,
History of Greece, pp. 330-332, 377. 2. Aristides the Just; his ostracism: Harrison, The Story of Greece, pp. 317-321. 3. The treachery of Pausanias:
built
probable that Cimon began the work on these defenses. The ramparts were about two hundred feet apart, and were between four and five miles in length.
They were twelve feet thick and thirty feet high, and were defended by numerous towers, which, when Athens became crowded, were used as shops and private dwellings.
CHAPTER XXI
THE AGE OF PERICLES ^
(445-431 B.C.)
The
=
During
this
And
There was peace between the Eastern Greeks and the Persians, as well as between the Western Greeks and the Carthaginians. The
rising city of
Rome,
too,
was
at
Thus
cen-
Roman
ernperor Augustus.
marked the Golden Age of mark the Golden Age of Athens.^ The epoch, as we here limit it, embraced less than the lifetime of a single generation, yet its influence upon the civilization of the world can hardly be overrated. At this time Athens was the center of
that later period of peace
artistic,
and the
Greek
world.
During the short period defined, it nourished the youth or the maturity of more great men (among them
in
Hellas."
the statesman Pericles, the artist Phidias, the historians Herodotus and
to a single people
of
1 This designation is a very elastic one by it is often meant tlie whole period marlced by the influence of Pericles, say from the assassination of the statesman Ephialtes in 461 B.C. to the death of Pericles in 429 B.C. and again it is employed to
;
designate the entire period of Athenian ascendancy from the battle of Plataea outbreak of the Peloponnesian War.
2
to the
Lloyd, The
Age
of Pericles, vol.
ii,
p.
in.
212
237]
PERICLES
Among
called
all
213
237. Pericles.
it is
the distinguished men of this age Such was the impression he left upon after him the Periclean Age. Pericles was
man
of illustrious ancestry.
He
ties
As
the
thrill
life
and
did
The
never
trivial
at-
not appeal
him.
He
men
of
and
scholarship.'^
He
in
was
the
reserved
and
rarely
spoke
Ecclesia, "
tarch,
the
Salaminian
"
for
great
crises."
His
lofty
and impressive
eloquence and severe and dignified bearing won for him the title of " the
Fig. 104.
Pericles
Olympian."
So great was
his influ-
was
in
name
man.
the rule of a
single
Yet
Pericles' authority
was simply
He
by the
art
238.
fountain of
1
The Demos. The people were at this period the source and all power. The reforms and revolutions of a century and
Plutarch, Pericles.
state trireme
services.
214
[239
more had finally removed all restraints up^n the will of the Demos/ and that will was now supreme. Every matter which concerned Athens and her empire was discussed and decided by the popular assembly. Never before in the history of the world had any people enjoyed
such unrestricted
time,
political liberty as did the citizens of
Athens
at this
edge of public
of government.
The
than the
aver-
age
member
was
of the
House
of
Commons
is
in his day.^
As a
rule every
citizen
acted
upon
assumption, as
all
and were
these in the
filled
army and
ballot or
life
navy, which
by
open
voting.
this
The
of Athens at
Ecclesia.
was the
There
the
httle
Swiss cantons.
It
or dele-
In the Periclean
Age
all
were forty regular meetings during the year, and special meetings when there were urgent matters to be considered. The usual attendance at
this period
Peloponnesian
War
it
was probably about five thousand during the was difficult to get together this number. For
;
quorum
The
At a
later time
met
in the great
Theater of Dionysus.
Any
first.
one, after
citizens
certain officials
over
fifty
Only such
2 8
By the term Demos (the people) is meant the whole body of Athenian citizens.' Cited by Mahaffy, What have the Greeks done for Modem Civilization ? p. 208.
See above,
p. 184, n.
i.
240]
LIMITATION OF CITIZENSHIP
body
do
215
The
voting was
usually
was by
ballot.
If
contained anything
was
illegal
or contrary to
some
existing law, he
was
liable to
The Athenian
lar
Ecclesia
or mythological allusion,
rary leaders or events,
was probably the most mentally alert popuEvery happy historical every reference, however veiled, to contempo-
And
it
was a
critical
audience withal.
The merest
in
an uproar.
to
Demosthenes'was once
one of
when he chanced
mispronounce a word
his addresses.
We
decisive, influence
must now speak of a matter which had a most important, perhaps upon the fortunes of Athens. Just a few years bewhich we are dealing, Pericles had
The passing
policy of the
of this law
marks a most
'-significant
change
in
the
Athenian
state.
Up
it
to this time
most
Greece
of a:liens or semi-aliens,
tributed largely to
and
was
make Athens strong and to give her the imperial among the states of Hellas. Aside from the formalike the later
union
Achasan League
(sect.
301),
it
was
Athens could hope to unite into a real nation the various cities she had brought under her rule. It was the policy which Rome was just now adopting, and by steady adhesion to which she was to make of the multitude of Italian cities and tribes a
the sole pohcy through which
The ground
of
privileges
2i6
Probably
[241
of
it was impossible for Athens to play in history the part Rome. The feeling of the Greek for his own city was too strong. But we cannot help asking ourselves when we see Athens thus aban-
doning the
liberal principle
far,
what might
have been her future had she only steadily adhered to her earlier policy and kept her gates, as Rome did hers, wide open to strangers,
full
citizens.
We
Pay
of the State.
It
was a
fixed
idea of Pericles and the other great democratic leaders of this period
that in a
distribution
of political rights
among
all
all
an equalization
of the
means and
equal participation by
and
intellectual enjoyments.
political
By
and
was thought
that the
rich over
the poor would be destroyed, and class envy and discord banished. In promoting these views Pericles and his party carried to great
payment
to the
for the
services.
Thus
salaries
were attached
vaHOus
of which were
citizens
originally
unpaid positions.
under the
stitution,
earlier system,
men
;
of
means and
leisure.
There was
payment
fleet,
had served
his country
citizens
At a
later period
that
innovations
later,
led
the practice of
all
tickets
to
the
242]
theater^
THE DICASTERIES
217
democracy we
shall say a
word a
little
farther on.
The outcome
citizen of
was
War
almost every
Athens was in the pay of the state. Aristotle says that more than twenty thousand were receiving payment for one kind
of service or another.'^
242. The Dicasteries. Among the services just enumerated for which the citizen received a payment from the state was that rendered by the Athenian juryman in the great popular courts.
Athens
we must pause
upon them.
of thirty years of
service six
Each year there were chosen by lot from those Athenian citizens age and upwards who had volunteered for jury
thousand persons.'
;
One thousand
divisions
of this
number was
held in reserve
sections of five
were
called dicasteries,
full
or jurymen.
five
Although the
still
a dicastery was
hundred,
the usual
on any given case was between two hundred and four hundred.
Sometimes, however, when an important case was to be heard, the
jury
business of the
arising
numerous
cities
All cases
between subject
cities, all
various classes and magistrates supported by the public funds are given as follows: 6000 dicasts, 1600 bowmen, 1200 horsemen, 500 senators, 500 harbor guards,
2
The The
who charged
sailors,
50 city guards, 700 domestic magistrates, 700 foreign magistrates, 2500 hoplites, 4000 the crews of zo watch ships, 2000 sailors forming crews of ships employed in col-
lecting tribute,
8
together with
jailers
and other
officers
Collectively
known
as the Heliisa.
21 8
[243
in the
was
and
finally,
indeed,
all
dependent
states,
in these courts. in
them
was increased
our money.
citizen of the
to three obols, a
it
sum
one obpl per day but later this equal to about eight cents in
;
This,
poorer
When
of the
a case was to be
dicasteries,
this
The average
nian
Athesitting
enjoyed
jury.
on a
As Lloyd
in
wonderfully
his
with
humor."
The
Fig. 105.
influence of the
nian
character
was
They
fostered certain
traits of the
The
was
final.
annulled.
"The
arts
wake
of victory
and
it
wisdom and
The
Periclean
Age
The
felt
an impulse to
tiire,
artistic
effort
were
alike
by
architecture, sculpstirring
and painting.
1
p. 604.
243]
219
its
had
center in
was
Athens having achieved such a position as she now held, the city should be adorned with monuments that would symbolize the power and glory of her empire, and at the same time fittingly express the
nation's gratitude to the
vouchsafed.
Nor was
it
gods for the favor and protection they had difficult for him to persuade his art-loving
countrymen to embellish their city with those wonderful creations which even in their ruins excite the admiration of the world and
still
was
Greece.''
The most noteworthy of the Periclean; structures were grouped upon the Acropolis. Here was raised the beautiful Parthenon, sacred to the virgin goddess Athena. The architects of this building were
the celebrated sculptures of the frieze and were designed by Phidias. These wonderful figures mark the perfection of Greek art. Within the temple was the
;
Ictinus
and
Callicrates
the pediments
of Marathon,
whose
made,
glittering
Near by stood the from the spoils spear point was a beacon to the
it
is said,
As
were erected the magnificent propylaea, which have served as a model for similar structures since the time of Pericles.
olis
At the western end of the southern precipitous side of the Acropwas constructed the Odeon, or Music 'Hall. This building was
intended for the musical contests held in connection with the Panathenaic festivals.
Xerxes, which
eastern end of
The roof was in imitation of was a part of the spoils of the field this same side, just at the foot of
At
the
the Acropolis,
is
was
believed to
considerable
portion of
the
money
allies
needed for the prosecution of their great architectural and art under-
1 This was not the famous stone theater that dates- from the century after Pericles. For additional details concerning the art matters here dealt with, see Chapter XXVII.
J20
[244
Athens with
money was
woman
to these
But
Pericles'
answer
money was
enemy
at a distance they
had a
the
pleased.
right to
use
they
money
as
contributed
also
to
make
history, philos-
Erechtheum. (From
The Erechtheum was
Pericles,
on the
site of
may
had
be
truly
with the other buildings on the Acropolis, at the time of the Persian invasion
history
its birth,
was a contemporary of
Pericles.
He
was
home
for a time
that
brilliant
company
And
it
was
his great
B.C.,
Wars.
of
it
at a public festival,
fitting that
he read
portions
It
was
Herodotus read
their devotion
his praises of
them,
he
and
for
1
War
of Liberation,
"it
was
The reason
that
he was the
245]
historian,
221
among
A
yet a
name
of Thu-
The
tale is that
Thucydides while
his father to
moved the boy to tears, and to the resolve to become an historian. The story will help us to remember that though Thucydides' famous history was written in the generation following that of Pericles, still it was the influences of that brilliant age that molded the mind and
inspired the genius of the great historian.
is
Athens
in the
Age
of
of Pericles.
The Greek
at
home
The
this
parts.
and teacher
in philosophy of Pericles.
All that
we need
spirit that
respecting oracles,
is thact he represented the true had been awakened in Ionia, and held views omens, and the gods w;hich were far in advance
In connection with Anaxagoras must be mentioned the name of At the opening of the
human
teachers,
had
on
entered
young manhood.
and
We
shall
later,
Athens.
Judged by
for
spiritual standards
he was a greater
but,
man
whom
his age
is
named
as
we
own
age,
aside
spirits,
knew him
not.
unfairly,
be regarded as belonging to a class of teachers of uncertain reputation just now coming into prominence at Athens, and of whom we
222
[246
The Age
of Pericles
witnessed a
new movement
in education.
Up
gymnastics.
than
this
elementary instruction.
There was now a growing demand for something more To meet this demand there came
higher
in
life.
But
city,
to get
on
in
Athens,
or,
man had
to
be
his
art of speaking.
taught
Their lecture-rooms
and
old.
new
its tendencies.
They
scoffed at
many
masses, and said things that tended to unsettle the religious faith
the young.
old-fashioned
dislike which
and pious
It
was
this feeling of
distrust
and
we
one of
the
to
the condemnation
(sect. 266).
is
much
these teachers.
Thus
gave to the form of expression made the Athenian speech the most
perfect that
fection of language
was ever formed on the lips of men. The exquisite perand style of Thucydides, Demosthenes, and Plato
more
effective
agency of the
higher
was the supreme embodiment of the spirit of By the opening of the epoch it was already a great
1 Croiset, J-fisioiy
From
p. 283.
248]
223
the energies
had received
was represented by the powerful tragedies of .^schylus, who It was his genius that incited
(496-406
it
We
clean
Age
powers of the
and those of the famous writer of comedy, Aristophanes, were ripening. " It was, however, the intellectual and social tendencies of the
following epoch that they represented.
We
must
narrative of
events.
And
first
we
to
it
cast a glance
in order
note in what
was prepared
Pericles
was soon
to
Under
speeches
(sect. 251),
made soon
War,
in
which
he recounts the resources of the Athenian Empire, Pericles says to " There is not now a kipg, there is not any nation his fellow-citizens
:
in the
you can launch out to sea." was no empty boast. The ^gean in truth had become an Athenian lake. Its islands and coast lands, together with the Hellespontine region, formed virtually an Athenian empire. The revenue ships of Athens collected tribute from more than two hunjuncture
And
this
dred Greek
cities
cities.
It
of Hellas
was
to
seemed almost as though the union of the be effected on an irnperial basis through the
new
imperial
power was
resources
of
of material
and
intellectual
exhibited.
the material
and the
facts of the
Euripides (480-406 B.C.) Aristophanes (450-385,5.0.). For further biographical philosophers and writers mentioned in the above paragraphs, and for some comments on their worlcs, see Chapters XXVIII and XXIX.
1
;
224
of empire.^
[248
fection possible to
But there were elements of weakness in the splendid imperial structure. The Athenian Empire was destined to be short-lived because the principles upon which
it
155).
this feeling.
Pericles himself
The
so-called
confederates were
the
To
To
cities
trial.''
that
states
-regarded
is,
the
patriotic
party
in
these dependent
Hellenic
liberties,
Athens
the
destroyer
first
of
favorable
moment
to revolt
and throw
off the
the Athenian
Had
in
an equal union,
allies
as head of the
federated Greek race she might have secured for Hellas the sovereignty of the Mediterranean,
and the
history of
Rome
might have
first
Athenian Empire
Athens and Sparta known as the Peloponnesian War, the and chief incidents of which we
shall
next rehearse.
1 "The average ability of the Athenian race [was], on the lowest possible estimate, very nearly two grades higher than our own that is, about as much as our race is above that of the African negro. This estimate, which may seem prodigious to some, is confirmed by the quick intelligence and high culture of the Athenian commonalty, before
;
whom
literary
works were
recited,
and works of art exhibited of a far more severe charby the average of our race, the calibre of whose
at the contents of a railway bookstall."
;
gauged by a glance
Galton,
342 quoted by KiAi, Social Evolutit>n,c\af.'^" The subject cities were allowed to maintain only their lower courts of justice; all cases of importance, as we have seen (sect. 242), were carried to Athens, and there decided in the Attic tribunals.
ed., 1887), p,
Am.
REFERENCES
Selections from the Sources.
225
Thucydides,
;
Plutarch,
Pericles.
the character of Pericles). Thallon's Readings, pp. 268-293 (Greece), pp. 207-2151 Fling's Source Book, pp. 159-172.
Curtius, vol. ii, pp. 460-641. Grote (ten-volume pp. 438-533. Abbott, vol. iii, chaps, i, ii. Holm, vol. ii, chaps, xvXX. Bury, History of Greece, chap. ix. Cox, The Athenian Empire and Lives Pericles, of Greek Statesmen, " Ephialtes " and " Perikles." Lloyd, The Age
References (Modern).
ed.), vol. iv,
of
vol,
cles
ii,
chaps,
the
and
BuTLER, The Story of Athens, chap. vii. Abbott, PeriGolden Age of Athens, chaps, x-xviii. Grant, Greece in the Age of
xli, xlii.
Pericles,
chaps, vii, viii, xii. Mahaffy, Survey of Greek Civilization, chap. v. Cotterill, Ancient Greece, chap. vi. Topics for Class Reports. 1 The public buildings of Athens Reinach, Afollo, chap, vi; Fowler and Wheeler, Greek Archceology, pp. 144-150, 155157. 2. "A Day in Athens"; Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, chaps, vi, vii; Bliimner, The Home Life of the Ancient Greeks, chsi^.v, pp. 'iT)-20i. 3. Trades and manufactures Gulick, The Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap, xviii, pp. 227Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, 238. 4. Various classes of the population chap. iv. 5. Civic duties of citizens Guhck, Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap. xvi. 6. Private dwellings and furniture Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, chap. v. Religion of the average Athenian: Tucker, Life in 7. Ancient Athens, chap. xi. 8. The things seen in a walk about your own city which remind you of the contributions of Greece to our civilization.
.
CHAPTER XXII
THE PELOPONWESIAW WAR THE SPARTAN AND THE THEBAN SUPREMACY
;
I.
B.C.)
the
in
known
had foreseen the coming storm: " lowering from the Peloponnesus."
"I
descry war," he
said,
One immediate
on the their mother
commercial
side of the
city Corinth.
The
real root
Both were
enterprising
and both wished to control the trade of the islands and the coast towns of Western Greece. The motive of the Athenians for interesting themselves in this quarrel between mother and
daughter was to prevent any accession to the naval power of Corinth
fleet of
to
make
of the
by the Athenians.
colony, but
it
With
seconded by other
states that
had causes of complaint against Athens, appealed to Sparta, as the head of the Dorian alliance, for aid and justice. The Spartans, after
226
TIaly
and Sicily
1
i
PKLOPONMiSLV^
431
IS.
A\
All
loniaus
C.
Doriaiis
.Roman Domain
_L
IS
LoDsllurte
Eal
250]
227
injustice,
was indorsed by
them
all
their might."
B.
c).
A Peloponnesian
campaign against
With invasion imminent, the inhabitants of the hamlets and abandoned their homes and sought
capital.
and near.
From
the walls of the city the Athenians could see the flames of their
men
The
citizens
on account of
an
living
an imitation of
1
their virtues.
Respecting the speeches which Thucydides introduces so frequently in his narrahe himself says " As to the speeches which were made either before or during the war, it was hard for me, and for others who reported them to me, to recollect the exact words. I have therefore put into the mouth of each speaker the sentiments proper to the occasion, expressed as I thought he would be likely to express them, while at the same time I endeavored, as nearly as I could, to give the general purport of what was actually said" (Thucydides, Jowett's trans., i, 15). To insert in their text made-up speeches was the practice of all the ancient historians. Concerning the custom, the historian Polybius (xii, 25 z) says: "To select from time to time the proper
tive,
:
is
art."
228
It
[251
described
who
had on
is
Pericles
was chosen
to
this occasion.
was pronounced
institutions
The speaker took advantage of the occasion to describe the to which Athens owed her greatness, and to picture
died.
the glories of the imperial city for which the heroes they lamented
had
He
first
whom
they had
and
to
of those
institu-
Athenian government, he
rich
power and greatness. The was a democracy for all the citizens,
;
There was freedom of intercourse and of action among the citizens, each doing as he liked and yet there was a spirit of reverence and of respect
alike,
and poor
participated in
its
administration.
for law.
Numerous
from
toil
festivals
relaxation
for
all citizens.
the world.
The speaker praised, too, Athens' military system, in which the citizen was not sacrificed to the soldier, as at Sparta and yet Alliens was alone a match for Sparta and all he,r allies. He extolled the
;
intellectual, moral,
and
which were
be
"'
and declared
all
their city to
the
other
cities.
excavated on the Acropolis of Athens. Dr. Charles Waldstein inscription containing the names of those who had fallen in battle, which record was placed in some public spot in Athens or on the Acropolis. Our Athene-Nike would then be standing in the attitude of mourning, with reversed spear, gazing down upon the tombstone which surmounts the grave of her brave sons." As to the possible connection of this relief with the funeral oration of Pericles, Dr. Waldstein says " Though I do not mean! to say that the inscription which
thinks that this sculpture
A bas-relief recently
it
surmounted referred immediately to those who had fallen in the campaign of 431 n.c, I still feel that the most perfect counterpart in literature is the famous funeral oration of Pericles as recorded by Thucydides."
Mourmxg Athena*
(From a photograph)
252]
229
existing
in the
world
Homer
to perpetuate her
had
is
set
up everywhere
eternal
monuments
"
Such
men
them
should gladly
and self-devotion of
the dead,
inscriptions
were not the graves and "for the whole earth is the
Finally, with
sepulcher of famous men," and the memorials of them are " graven
not on stone but in the hearts of mankind."
words of
comfort for the relatives of the dead, the orator dismissed the
Thus
of their state,
and picture
to
be.
Their
them and
them
self-devotion
the graves of the fallen to whatever destiny the gods might have ordained " (Curtius).
With new courage turned they from their homes, and went forward to meet
in ancient
the
Peath
of
Pericles
all
those
virtues
for
upon
broke
the
return
once more into Attica and ravaged the land anew, giving to the
fliames
previous year.
The
walls of
hostile
army; but
foe.
terrible
its
and added
horrors
See Thucydides,
ii,
230
to
[253
of war.
The
mortality was
away.
frightful.
One
was swept
life
of
Athens during
all
The plague had previously robbed him of his sister and his two sons. The death of his younger son Paralus, the last of his family, had bowed him in grief,
these dark days, a victim to the disease.
and as he
boy,
life, it is
he gave way
to his feelings in a
is
reported
to
to
honored remembrance
Athens
War
the Athenians
geance upon the Mytileneans, and the Spartans upon the Platseans.
On
both sides the war was waged with the utmost vindictiveness and
cruelty.
Thus
in the
year 428
b. c.
With the
rebellion suppressed,
as-
was
in the
sembly.
proposed that
should be
the
slain,
and the
in number,
sold as slaves.
This
the
By
their
hasty resolution.
called, the
hurriedly
start.
The
The second
ing than the
first
decree,
1
254]
revolt
231
of the
more unrelenting and cruel same year that the Athenians wreaked such vengeance upon
and
put to death
site
all
were torn down, and the was given to citizens of Athens.^ were the. Spartans. In the summer
their allies captured the city of
women
as slaves,
and
turned the
254.
The Surrender
general
affair at
of
named Demosthenes,
Messenia.
to dislodge
seized
and
In the course of
siege
(Sphacteria),
were so unfortunate as
to
fleet.
After
made a
They must now either surThey decided to surrender. Among those giving themselves up were over a hundred Spartans, some of whom were members of the best families at Sparta. The surrender of Spartan soldiers had hitherto been deemed an
numbered.
render or die.
" Nothing which happened during the war," declares Thucydides, " caused greater amazement in Hellas for it was uniincredible thing.
;
versally
their
The
was the
revelation
it
made
of the
had given
These
settlers
were cleruchs (p. 163, n. i). They did not cultivate with their own these were tilled by the native Lesbians, who paid the new
;
232
[255
It
to Pylos
we
B.C.). After four more years of became weary of the war. Negotiations for peace were opened, which, after many embassies back and forth, resulted in what is known as the Peace of Nicias, because of the prominent The treaty part that Athenian general had in bringing it about.
fifty years.
Some
of the
allies
of the two principal parties to the truce were dissatisfied with so the
it,
and
wat went
on.
Sparta refrained
but even
allies
Melos (416
B.C.).
The matter
that especially
which
is
^gean, with
not at this
tirrie
The
Athenians
expedition
at once
So they sent an
The demand,
if
we may
of
the gods
we
envoys speak,
" For
" and of
men we know,
will. first
it
by a law
of their
by
us,
who have
to
all
upon
it
we
did but
inherit
and
shall
bequeath
time."^
The
Thucydides (Jowett's
trans.), v, 105.
257]
ALCIBIADES
they had enjoyed for seven centuries.
city of
233
according to their
So the
in
land,
and
help, the
All the
men were
into slavery.
The
island
out
from Athens.^
257. Alcibiades.
It
becomes necessary
new
Demos,
this
Alcibiades,
who
played a most
from
was a young man of noble and of aristocratic associaHe was versatile, brilliant, and
but unscrupulous,
reckprofligate.
resourceful,
less,
and
He
was a pupil
His astonish-
of Socrates, but
he
Athens talking
Yet
Fig. 107.
Alcibiades
traits
seemed only
to attach the
people
more
he possessed
all
those personal
which make
men
popular
idols.
was unlimited.
He
it
was able
with apprehension
Timon gave
Doubtless Thucydides
in
would have
and
=i
wicked conduct of the Athenians and the awful disaster that befell them striking illustration of the workings of the law of Nemesis (sect, 342),
in Sicily
234
[258
his impolitic
for
did,
Go
on,
my
your prosperity
as
will
crowd."
And
it
we
shall see.'^
The most
prosperous
inciting of
city
The
by the Athenians, which was quite in keeping with their usual way of doing things but a few days after their first vote, a second meeting of the Ecclesia having been called for the purpose of making arrangements for the
enterprise seems to have been taken lightly
;
equipment of the armament, Nicias, who was opposed and give up the
Athenian debate.
Nicias stated the reasons
tion should
at
to the under-
why he thought
His
first
be abandoned.
home
with
revolt,
point
was
punished
able
moment
to
to rebel
was
cities
watching for a
it
favorfor
such as to render
very unwise
them
force.
present
empire before
new one
in the
Western world.
still
great
that
gaps
in their ranks
made by
real intermission
The speaker then proceeded to pay his attention who was the real instigator of the whole movement.
to the citizens of experience
to Alcibiades,
He
appealed
and mature judgment not to allow grave public affairs to be thus toyed with by this harebrained youth, and those like him, with whom he had filled the benches of the assembly.
He appealed to them, by a fearless raising of their hands, to from Athens the greatest danger that had ever threatened the
1
avert
city.^
gee Thucydides,
vi,
258]
235
in
had
was
evident that the veteran general had not carried his audience with
him.
He was
leader
The
replied
the
war
party,
as
has
already
appeared,
his
Alcibiades.
to
He made
Nicias
in
telling the
himself
the
mouthpiece of
party,
was and
closed
by
must maintain
that enterprising
and aggressive
their imperial
their empire.
To
of inaction
position.
to give
up
he
said, in lifting
Athens to a
power and glory. With Sicily conquered, the Athenians would without doubt become lords of the whole Hellenic
Alcibiades evidently had the ear of the meeting.
this,
world.
Nicias perceived
and
of
tfie
changed his
and
in
This speech produced just the opposite effect upon the meeting
from that which Nicias had hoped. The vastness of the enterprise,
armament needed, as pictured by seemed to captivate the imagination of the Athenians, and they were more eager than ever to embark in the undertaking. The
the magnificent proportions of the
Nicias,
youth as a
sort
of
pleasure
and sight-seeing
excursion
among
mind of
taking
others
;
their
own
in the
matter or
were carried away or were silenced by the enthusiasm of the and so it came about that, almost without a dissenting voice,
236
[259
259. The Departure of the Expedition from the Pireeus (415 B.C.). The day of the departure of the Athenian fleet ^ from the Piraeus was one of the great days in ancient Athens. It was yet early morning when the soldiers and sailors poured down from the upper " The entire city into the harbor town and began to man the ships. population of Athens," says Thucydides, who must have been an
alike, to
made
was
raised,
to
sea.''
ships
fore-
were
lost to sight.
seen the fate of the splendid armament, their anxiety would have
was
sailing
out of the
Pirasus,
never to return."
260. The Recall of Alcibiades
the Traitor."
Alcibiades,
;
ment, was
who was one of the generals in command of the armasummoned back to Athens to answer a charge of impiety.'
and
there,
all in his
power
The
was
all
They
Syracuse;
(413 B.C.).
the Retreat
the
End
of the
Tragedy
The
affairs
But the
1 It
arrival of
After some
sailors.
Thucydides,
8 Just
had a
upon the eve of the departure of the expedition, the statues of Hermes were grossly mutilated. Alcibiades was accused of having hand in the affair, and furthermore of having mimicked certain sacred rites.
261]
237
severe fighting in which the Athenians lost heavily, they resolved to withdraw their forces from the island while retreat by the sea was still open to them.
Just as the ships were about to weigh anchor, there occurred an of the moon. This portent caused the greatest consternation
eclipise
among
had
man who
the advice, the
full faith in
omens
and. divination.
He
sought
now
They pronounced
upon omens more completely undo a people. depended absolutely upon their immediate retreat. The delay prescribed by the diviners was fatal. It seems the irony of fate that the Athenians, who more than any -other people of antiquity had learned to depend in the management of their affairs upon their own intelligence and judgment, should perish throtigh a superstitious regard for omens and divination. Further disaster and a failure of provisions finally convinced the
reliance
Never did a
The
way
out
by sea or by land.
failed dismally.
An
There was now no course open save retreat by land. Making such preparations as they could for their march, they set out. " They were," says Thucydides, whose words alone can picture the
'"
in
a dreadful condition
not like an army, but like the fugitive population of a city captured
after a siege
;
and of a great
less
city,
too
who were
was
The
prisoners, about
around Syracuse, in which prison pens hundreds soon died of exposure and starvation. Most of the wretched survivors were finally sold into
slavery.
The unfortunate
of
put to death.
The tragedy
centuries
the
Sicilian
expedition was
now
ended.
Two
Sicily
was again
to
238
[262
War
Syracuse,
and commanding position known as Decelea, in Attica, only fourteen miles from Athens. This was a thorn in the side of Athens. Secure
in this
stronghold, the
all
terror
this
almost
The occupation by
the Spartans of
strategic point
of the Peloponnesian
the Decelean
known
as
With most admirable courage the Athenians, after the great diswork to retrieve their seemingly irretrievable
Forgetting and forgiving the past, they recalled Alcibiades
illustrating what
fortune.
spoiled
"They
but cannot
live
without him."
Alcibiades
But he
could
not undo
he had done.
He
his
command,
sought
Finally,
at
fleet
was
(405
it
surprised
B.C.).
The
number
of four thousand,
is
said,
were put
their bodies.
Among
state
cap-
ture
was the
despairing
night,"
spread up the
""
Long Walls
slept."
into the
upper
city.
"
That
says Xenophon,
1
no one
Some
263]
239
Some
upon a
total destruction
of the
city.
The
Spartans, however, with apparent magnanimity, declared that they would never consent thus " to put out one of the eyes of Greece."
The
lest,
was
their fear
The
resolve
lives of the
on the docks, and then began the demolition of the fortifications, the work going on to the
music and dancing
;
accompaniment of
sians,
festive
upon
The dominion
Athens was
at
menting upon the results of the Peloponnesian War, "never were Never were exile and so many cities captured and depopulated.
. . .
slaughter
civil
more
strife."
war or brought about by Greece never recovered from the blow which had
frequent, whether in the
Athens was merely the wreck of her former self. The harbor once crowded with ships, was now empty. The population of the capital had been terribly thinned. Things were just the
of Piraeus,
reverse now of what they were at the time of the Persian invasion, when, with Athens in ruins, Themistocles at Salamis, taunted with being a man without a city, could truthfully declare that Athens was
Now
marks of the
Sites
240
[264
degrees in morality, while the vigor and productiveness of the intellectual and artistic hfe of Hellas were impaired beyond recovery.
The achievements
the
of the
true,
Greek
intellect in the
;
century following
war were,
it is
wonderful
what the Hellenic mind would have done for art and general culture had it been permitted, unchecked, and under the favoring and inspiring conditions of liberty and self-government, to disclose all that was latent in it.
we may
believe,
II.
one genera-
War
Greek
Greek
states.
was
cities
deprived them.
At Athens
the demotheir
in
stead.
The
who
administered
rule,
this gov-
constitution,
somewhat
The Expedition of the Ten Thousand Greeks (401-400 B.C.). One most memorable episodes of this period of Spartan supremacy was the famous expedition of the Ten Thousand Greeks. Cyrus,
265.
of the
brother of the Persian king Artaxerxes II, and satrap in Asia Minor,
feeling that
his
From
various quarters
named
265]
241
Minor and across the and Cyrus had penetrated to the very heart of the Persian Empire before, at Cunaxa in Babylonia, his farther advance was disputed by Artaxerxes with an army numbering, it is said, eight hundred thousand men. In the battle
Meaopotamian
The march
Persians,
won
the day
The March of the Ten Thousand Greeks The Greeks, them back
in a hurried night meeting, chose
to their
new
generals to
lead
homes.
The
was Xeno-
Under
Greeks made one of the most memorable retreats in all history. They traversed the plains of the Tigris, and then, in the midst of the
winter season, crossed the
snowy passes
column reached the top of a mountain ridge whence the waters of the Euxine appeared to view. A great shout, " Thalatta f Thalatta!"
(The seal the
seal), arose
among
and spread back through the column, the soldiers, weary with their seemingly
242
[266
The Greeks had struck the sea at Greek colony of Trapezus (now Trebizond), made their way home.
is
later expedition
did
by revealing
to the
Greeks the
feeble was
how
While
Xenophon was
yet
away on
we have
to death
already referred
(sect.
246)
the
trial
and condemnation
by the Athenians
of their
antiquity.
" Socrates
is
guilty of crime
as
first,
gods
whom
;
new
is
divinities of his
own
the
The
in
penalty
death."
We
man
object
such
a prosecution
free-thinking, and
freedom-loving Athens.
But
his prosecutors
were moved by
other
his
was now an old man of seventy years spent as an uncompromising teacher of truth and righteousness had made many personal enemies. He had exposed by his searching questions
the ignorance of
he
Socrates during
many
thereby
many
lasting resentments.
Socrates, again,
Athenian democracy
way
the
He
favored,
and
method of
though the
selecting magistrates
lot
men
all
But
B.C.
267]
243
tended to discredit
that Alcibiades
to
The
fact
and
Critias
disciples of his
was used
The
teachings.
citizen court (sect.
242) com-
posed of over
to secure
hundred
jurors.
Socrates"
made no
serious attempt
any unbecoming appeal to his judges for clemency. After he had been
pronounced
guilty,
and when
name
he said that
life at
the
He
finally,
proposed a penalty of
mini."
The
dicasts, irritated
happened
was pronounced
sail
on
its
city
to death while
led to prison,
upon those
life.
his
thoughts during
all
his
When
at last the
his departure
End
of the
Spartan
Supremacy. The crimes against the' liberties of the Greek cities with which Sparta began the years of her supremacy were repeated, as
she
period.*
One
of
her worst
1 Critias 2
(sect. 264).
:
of fixing the penalty in an Athenian court was this the accuser named a at penalty (in this case the prosecutor had named death) and then the condemned was liberty to name another. The jury then chose between the two.
The way
8 <
A mina was
During eight years of this period the chief cities of Greece, aided by the Persians, against carried on a tedious struggle, known as the Corinthian War (395-387 B.C.), left Sparto's Sparta. The war was ended by the so-called Peace of Antalcidas, which supremacy in European Greece unimpaired.
244
crimes,
[257
the
Spartan garrison in
it.
this perfidious
befall
and high-handed
act,
and looked
Sparta as a retribution.
And
led
single-handed.
The Spartan
citadel
by an
uprising
by Pelopidas, a Theban
in Boeotia.
Spartan
The Thebans met the invaders at Leuctra. The Spartans had no other
thought than that they should
gain an easy victory.
the
military
But
genius of the
had
the
prepared
for
a startling surprise.
Hitherto
Greeks
had
and comparatively
posing
twelve
lines,
thin
op-
ranks
The
solid
in
a phalanx,
fifty
deep, on the
of his battle
drawn up
With
It
motion
first.
wave
"
and
of the
enemy "as
the day
the beak of a
was won.
Of
the
killed.
The manner
and
in
arrived
permit
of the
26S]
245
"The
in
lost
relatives
dejected looks."
When we
Athens upon the night when the news of the disaster at ^gospotami
was received
(sect. 262),
we
The moral
It
that of
any
was the
first
its
fairly
numbers
it is
(the
true,
been annihilated
but
annihilation
is
not defeat).
Consequently the
The
prestige of Sparta
was destroyed.
(371-362
b.:c.).
Her
leadership
was
brought to an end.
268.
From
the victory of
Theban supremacy. The year after that battle Epaminondas led an army into the Peloponnesus to aid the Arcadians against Sparta. Laconia was ravaged, and for the first time Spartan women saw the smoke of the camp
Leuctra dates the short but
brilliant
period of
fires
of an enemy.
into Messenia.
The emanci-
from
their
and Messenia, which for three hundred years had been a part of Laconia (sect. 176), was separated from Sparta and made an independent
state.
The
proclamation of
new The
the
walls
Messenian
exiles,
world to rebuild their homes in the homeland. This emancipation and restoration of the Messenians forms one
of the
most
interesting transactions in
Greek
history.
Two
years
victor in
246
[268
How
was received in Messenia is not recorded, but we probably should not be wrong were we to imagine the rejoicings there to have been unlike anything the Greek world had ever seen before. But, moved by jealousy of the rapidly growing power of Thebes,
Athens now formed an
nesus.
alliance with her old rival, Sparta, against her.
Upon
On
this
memor;
Epaminondas
slain,
b.
he himself was
Thebans once more to victory but and with him fell the hopes and power of
led the
Thebes (362
c).
now
lay in
state of exhaustion or
of helpless isolation.
Thebes had broken the dominion of Sparta, but had exhausted herself in the effort. There was now no city energetic, resourceful,
unbroken
in spirit
at the time
than at just
moment;
for the
Greece.
In a succeeding chapter
we
power, and
tell
how
But
first
we
for a
moment from
the
of the
cities
Selections from the Sources. Plutarch, Aldbiades. Thucydides, ii, 3546 (the funeral oration of Pericles) vi, 8-23 (the debate in the Athenian assembly on the proposed Sicilian expedition). Xenophon, Anabasis, iii, 2 (a speech of Xenophon to his soldiers). Plato, Apology (the bearing of
;
Socrates before his judges). Thallon's Readings, pp. 293-557 (Greece), pp. 218-255 Fling's Source Book, pp. x;i,-^?>^.
!
Davis's Readings
some of her
Athens had indeed made herself the center of a new confederacy and had recovered old possessions, but she was, after all, only the shadow of her former self.
REFERENCES
References (Modern). CuRXius.vols.iii,
viii.
247
(ten-volume
ed.), vols,
iv.
GioxE
v-
chaps, iii-xii. Holm, vol. ii, chaps, xxi-xxviii; vol. ill, chaps, i-xiii. Bury, Histoty of Greece, chaps, x-xiv. Cox, History of Greece, vol. ii, pp. 104-594 and Lives of Greek Statesmen, " Kleon,'' " Brasidas,"
Abbott,
vol.
iii,
"
Demosthenes," and " Nikias." Creasy, Decisive Battles of the World, chap, ii, "Defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse, B.C. 413." Sankey, The Spartan and Theban Supremacies. Topics for Class Reports! i. The Athenian army and navy Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, chap. x. 2. The condemnation of the Athenian generals see any comprehensive history of after the battle of Arginusae (406 e. c.) Greece. 3. " Festivals and the Theaters " Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, chap. xii. 4. " An Athenian trial " Tucker, Life-in Ancient Athens, chap. xiv. Grote, vol. vii, pp. 140-172. 5. The trial and condemnation of Socrates
:
CHAPTER
XXIII
Lay Waste Hellenic Sicily. Shortly after army before Syracuse (sect. 261),
Greek
cities,
came
army
of
one hundred
thousand men.
One
Throughout a
was
virtually uprooted.
As we
bloom of prosperity
the
this
in
Tyrant
of
Syracuse (405-367
B.C.).
The
alarm,
afforded the
Dionysius,
man
of low birth,
named
His career as despot of the city was long and remarkable, embracing a period of thirty-eight years. Reducing
the free
of
Greek
cities
both in
Sicily
and
in
Magna
Graecia to a
state
built
up an empire which
to that
included
position
nearly of
of Western Hellas.
so
The
life
in
his hands.
The
state of constant
apprehension in which he
lived
248
271]
is
249
illustrated
He
died a natural
the throne
and tfansmitted
power
to his son,
who ascended
271. Timoleon the Liberator (344-336 B.C.); the Golden Era of the
Sicilian
Greek
Cities.
The young
all
ability of his
was a troubled
of the Sicilian
filled
with
Most
The
Fig. 108.
Coin of Syracuse
to harass
the
island.
among
the people
was
Under
embassy
their
mother
The city, for help to free themselves from the tyrant Dionysius. appeal, and sent to the succor Corinthians listened favorably to the
of the
man who
the
home had shown his love for liberty by consenting to death of his own brother when he attempted to make himself
tyrant of Corinth.
Arriving at Syracuse, Timoleon quickly drove out the tyrant and restored the government to the people. He also expelled the despots
1 A courtier named Damocles having expressed to Dionysius the opinion that he must be supremely happy, the tyrant invited him to a sumptuous banquet, assigning to him his own place at the board. When the courtier was in the midst of the enjoyments
bade him look up. Turning his eyes towards the ceiling, Damocles above his head. was horrified at the sight of a sword, suspended by a single hair, dangling " Such," observed Dionysius, " is the life of a tyrant."
of the table, Dionysius
250
[271
who were
Under
began
to
fill
with inhabitants.
from
all
quarters.
Corinth,
own daughter
At one time ten thousand emigrants sailed together for Sicily. This great influx of population, and the new and unwonted courage and energy infused into the people by the beneficent measures of Timoleon,
brought to Hellenic
prosperity.
his great
Sicily
and
work of freeing and repeopling Sicily accomplished, his authority and retired to private life. He died in the year 336 B.C., loved and revered by all the Sicilian Greeks as their liberator and benefactor. The golden age of the Sicilian Greek cities came to an end shortly
With
Timoleon resigned
after the death of Timoleon,
third cen-
Magna
Gragcia,
had been
story
we
shall
in later chapters.
Hellas,
Having made this hasty review of the course of events in Western we must now return to Greece -proper in order to trace
vol. ix,
iii,
chap.
xi.
Oman, History of
chaps, vii-xi.
Sicily,
History of
Sicily,
Freeman,
x, xi.
History of
interest-
chaps,
x, xi,
chaps,
An
ing brief treatment of the rule of Dionysius the Elder will be found
in
Bury,
i.
European
Bury, History of
in
Sicily:
Greece,
pp. 664-666.
Monuments
of
Greek
civilization
Richardson,
Vacation
Days
CHAPTER XXIV
THE RISE OF MACEDONIA REIGN OF PHILIP
:
II
(359-336 B.C.)
new
to play
affairs of the
Greek
This state
258).
The peoples of Macedonia were for th? most part mountaineers who had not yet passed beyond the tribal state.'^ They were a hardy,
warlike race, possessing the habits
looked
Greek and were backward in culture, they were upon as barbarians by some of their more refined city
were generally conceded
The
to
They claimed
this claim
and
Greeks,
Olyrripic
who had
games
will
be
recalled,
accorded only to
Their efforts to
inter-
those
who
ancestry.
among
cities
their
subjects,
combined with
Greek
251
252
[273
rose to
known
as Philip of
Macedon.
in
He
was a man
of preeminent
ability,
of wonderful address
and military
Thebes.
chieftain.
at
This episode
had a marked
influ-
among
the Thebans,
and
was
in the companion-
consummate
is
military tactician
and commander
that Philip
pha-
The Macedonian
which Philip
said to
modification of the
Theban
phalanx
that
won the day at Leuctra and again at Mantinea. Nor was this all. Besides the knowledge of military
Thebes an
insight into
affairs
which
his enforced
poli-
Greek
With
his
kingdom
settled
and consolidated
(355-346 B.C.).
at
home,
Philip's
states.
War
Greek
cities
of
Chalcidice.
Meanwhile he was
in
the following
way
acquiring a
commanding
of Greece proper.
to secular use
sdme
end of the
First Sacred
War
(sect.
of soldiers
first five
drawn up sixteen
with
ranks projected beyond the front of the column, thus opposing a perfect thicket of spears to the enemy. On level ground and supported by strong cavalry it was irresistible. A Roman consul once declared that he "never beheld anything more alarming and terrible " (Polybius, xxix, 17). 2 In this quarter he founded the well-known city of Philippi. This was the first
pikes so long that those of the
which the Gospel was preached. The preacher was the Apostle Paul, in obedience to a vision in which a man of Macedonia seemed to stand and pray, " Come over into Macedonia, and help us " (Acts xvi, 9).
city in
European
275]
to the
BATTLE OF CH^RONEA
Delphian Apollo. Taken to task and heavily fined for
253
this act
by the other members of the Delphian AmpKictyony, they took possession of the temple
large force of
to
in the
maintenance of a
mercenary
"impiety,"
Philip,
quickly sub-
one of
their cities
were
broken up into
itants
villages,
were forced
had
taken
to
undertake to
shrine.
The
was given to
also
Philip,
upon
whom was
position he
at the
The
had
now
it
to
make
himself master of
all
Greece.
Demosthenes
few
at
who seemed
designs of Philip.
of his
stir
With
all
the energy
(Vatican
Demosthenes Museum)
up the Athenians
" If thy power, Demosthenes, had been as great as thy spirit never had Hellas bowed before the Plutarch Macedonian sword."
with fierce
denunciation that
name
to
all
writings characterized by bitter criticism or ^violent invective. Moved by the realization of a common peril and by the persuasion
Demosthenes, the Athenians and the Thebans, in spite of their immemorial enmity one towards the other, now united their forces
of
1
254
and met Philip
field
[276
allies,
with heavy
loss.
It is of interest to
on
of
this
memorable
field
began
of
all
the
Macedonian
?]
"
The drama
;
[shall
we
call
it
tragedy
(338 B.C.]
Philip
Plan to Invade
Asia.
Soon
tution,
convened
at Corinth a
consticities
council of the
At
this
drafted
Philip,
members
was not
so
much
Greek
cities as to secure
meditat-
The
Thousand Greeks
undertaking.
(sect.
feasibility of such an
the^
The
congress (337 b. c). Every Greek city was to furnish a contingent for the army of invasion. Philip was chosen leader of the expedition,
and commander-in-chief of the war forces of Greece. All Greece was now astir with preparations for the great
prise.
enter-
By
the spring of the year 336 B.C. the expedition was ready
into Asia,
his
:
to
when
his
during the
festivities
daughter,
his
to
Philip
by
son.
He
by consolidating
But the
277]
255
Had
not Hellenic
been thus incorporated with the Macedonian system, then the wide conquests of Alexander would have resulted in no more
civilization
Attila or a Tamerlane.^
It
Greece
was Hellenic institucustoms, and manners, the Hellenic language and civilization,
It is this
short-lived
Macedonian
in universal history.
Orations on the
from the Sources. Plutarch, Demosthenes. Demosthenes, Crown (this masterpiece of Demosthenes has been called
of extinct Athenian
;
Fling's Source
References (Modern).
Grote
iii,
(ten-volume
ed.), vol.ix,
Holm,
vol.
chaps, xiv-xix.
Hogarth,
(first part). BuRV, History of Greece, pp. 681-737. Oman, Histoiy of Greece, pp. 490-520. Allcroft and Masom, Decline of Hellas, pp. 32-104. CuRTEis, Rise of the Macedonian Empire, chaps, i-viii. Pickard-Cambridge,
of Macedon
Demosthenes.
Topics for Class Reports, i. The youth and training of Demosthenes: Pickard-Cambridge Demosthenes, chap. i. 2. Imperialism vs. Home Rule or was Demosthenes' policy of opposition to Philip wise ? Mahaffy, Problems in Greek History, chap, vii, " Practical Politics in the Fourth Century."
;
Mongol
or Turanian conquerors.
CHAPTER XXV
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
(336-323 B.C.)
378.
The Youth
of
Alexander
Formative Influences.
Alexander
was only twenty years of Those traits of temper and mind which marked his manhood and which fitted him to play so great a part in history were foreshown
to his father's throne.
in early
youth
if
we may
The
mount or
to approach, but
little
in
moment by
command which in after years gave him mastery of the world. The spirit of the man is again shown in the complaint of the boy when
news of
his father's victories
came
to
him
his
will
playmates, "
my
me
to do."
earliest
whom
doubtless he
to trace his
the
was taught
model
his
in all things.
The
prince's
inseparable companion.
Aris-
whom
Philip persuaded to
become
the
young prince a
256
279]
257
in later years.
in
For about Macedonian throne, Alexander thwarting conspiracies and suppressing open revolts
tribes
While the young king was campaigning against some barbarian on his northern frontier a report was spread in Greece that
he was dead.
called
The Thebans rose in revolt and upon the Athenians to join them. Deto unite with
the
Thebans
from
"the
the foreigners.
Before
Greek
cities
had
certed action,
front of Thebes.
was captured.
sparing
As a warning
only the
to the other
temples and
the
house of the poet Pindar, and sold thirty thousand of the inhabitants into slavery.
of the largest
cities
scheme
in
all his
All
all
now
lay
open
to
258
of
its
[281
authority
and
tribes
of the Macedonian.^
said, six
upon
it
defeat.
The king ^
Susa
himself escaped
another
from the
field,
to his capital
to raise
army
to
to the
command
to
cities
and prevent
used
either
The
memorable
It
still
remains,
When
was taken
warning
after
were
slain
thousand
sold
terrible
After the
fall
of Tyre the
sur-
Gaza resisted stubbornly, but three months the city was taken and its inhabitants
With the
cities
were sold as
fleets of
slaves.
The
exchanged masters.
of the
this to
While in Egypt, Alexander founded at one of the mouths Nile a city named, after himself, Alexandria. Ranke declares
l.At Gordium, in Phrygia, Alexander performed an exploit which has given the
world one of
its favorite apothegms. In the temple at this place was a chariot to the pole of which a yoke was fastened by a curiously intricate knot. An oracle had been spread abroad to the effect that whoever should untie the knot would become master of Asia. Alexander attempted the feat. Unable to loosen the knot, he drew his sword
and cut
it.
difficulty.
cutting the Gordian knot, meaning a short way out Darius III (sumamed Codomannus), 336-330 B.C.
of a
EMPIRE OF
ALEXANDER THE GR
About 323 B.
March
n
C.
of
AlexQnder;=^^Sflf
-"?"
^".
'
50 100
200 Scale
ofTlliltfl.
45
Longflude
Autlu/niies.
W. SiegUn,
50
Alias
Andquus
from
Grpenulch
5.
EMl'IKK OF
ALEXANDER THE GB
Al>oiit3'23B..
nijircli of Alexauiler.- ^.^
^
him
50 inn
200
300
'^" o
Scale of Mlk'B.
284]
259
The city became the meeting and the West; and its importance through many the farsighted wisdom of its founder.
less
worthy enterprise of the conqueror was his expedition to the Libyan desert, where were a celebrated
Ammon. To
gratify his
own
conceit, as
new
oriental subjects,
and
especially to qualify
himself as the legitimate successor of the divine Pharaohs (sect. 31), Alexander evidently desired to be declared of celestial descent. The
priests of the temple, in
out that the oracle pronounced Alexander to be the son of Zeus and
the destined ruler of the world.
It
allied
284.
The Battle
of
Arbela (331
B.C.).
marched eastward. At Arbela, not from the ancient Nineveh, his farther advance was disputeji by
if
we may
field,
The
and
later
It
was treacherously killed by an attendant. of Arbela was one of the decisive combats of
history.
West, between Persia and Greece, and prepared the way for the
spread of Hellenic civilization over
all
western Asia.
From
the field
its
gates to
him without opposition. Susa was next entered by the conqueror. Here he seized immense quantities of gold and silver,
He also found here and sent the treasure of the Great King. back to Athens the bronze statues of Harmodius and Aristogiton* (sect. 203), which had been carried off by Xerxes at the time of the
invasion of Greece.
1
So Arrian,
Hi, i6.
it
to haye
of Alexander
who
26o
[286
From Susa
where he secured a treasure more than twice as great as that found at Susa. Upon Persepolis Alexander wreaked vengeance for all that
Greece had suffered at the hands of the Persians.
inhabitants
Many
of the
slavery, while
was given
to the flames.^
conqueror but as
an oriental
all
assumed the pomp and monarch, and required the most obsequious homthe Persians.
He
age from
who approached
him.
much
and from
this time
on
to his
them against
his
power and
(sect. 284),
life.'^
B.C.).
After the
the
east,
death of Darius
Alexander led
his
army towards
many
now
known
some
home
of the primitive
Aryan community).
it
Alexander wished
to be-
come master
of the
Throughout these remote regions Alexander founded numerous cities, several of which bore his own name. One of them is said to have been built, wall and houses, in twenty days. These new cities were peopled with captives, and by those veterans who, because of
fatigue or wounds,
swift campaigns.
1 Diodorus, xxvii, Plutarch, Alexander, xxxviii and Arrian, Anabasis, iii, 7 agree that the palace was burned to ashes. Read Dryden's Alexander's Feast. 2 For complicity in one of these plots Alexander put to death one of his
; ;
18, all
ablest
his
generals, Parmenio,
apd
own hand
287]
CONQUESTS IN INDIA
who had saved
his life at the Granicus.
;
261
Both
after
the deed
of the
Hindu
Kush subdued and settled,^ Alexander recrossed led his army down into the rich and crowded plains
Here again he showed himself
of
to
invincible,
many
extend his conquests to the Ganges, but his soldiers began to murof the length and hardness of their campaigns, and he
mur because
reluctantly
One of these he named Alexandria, after himself; memory of his favorite steed -the mettlesome
and
still
another
at
Lahore contains
many
cities
relics of
Greek
art
of these Macedonian
and camps.
to bind these distant conquests in the
this, it
288. Rediscovery of the Sea Route from the Indus to the Euphrates.
It
To do
was
water communication between India and Babylonia. Now, strange as it may seem, the Greeks had no positive knowledge of what sea the Indus emptied into, and only a vague idea that there was a
to the Euphrates."
known
had been
lost,
and
needed to be rediscovered.
So the conqueror Alexander now turned explorer. He sailed down the Indus to its mouth, and was rejoiced to find himself looking out
Holm Ale}tander was great because he was able to repent." out of the conquests of Alexander in central Asia lasted for about two centuries after his death. Traditions of the conqueror still linger in the land, and coins and plate with subjects from classic mythology are frequently turned
1 "
up
at the
8
present day.
According to Arrian, when Alexander reached the Indus he at first thought that he had struck the upper course of the Nile, The presence in the river of crocodiles like those in Egypt was one thing that led him to this conclusiOH {Anabasis, vi, i).
262
[289
He
himself, with
the larger part of the army, marched westward along the coast.
His
march thus
now
Baluchistan, a region
frightful with
Here, to
his un-
bounded
joy,
and thus " rediscovered one of the most important maritime routes of the world," the knowledge of which among the Western nations was never again to be lost.
from the Indus
To
and
discoveries, Alexander
which
power
of
human
endurance.
As
the
now
this
He
proposed to make
of his dominions for the reason that such a location of the seat of
to
promote
his plans,
which aimed
at noth-
Not
only
of
inter-
Common
whom
he encouraged
magnificent
1
gifts.
to
tlie
present century."
Wheeler, Alexander
no European
is
it
down
290]
THE MUTINY AT
B.C.).
QPIS
Not
all
263
the old soldiers of
particularly since in
Alexander approved of
place.
his plans
and measures,
His Macedonian
veterafts especially
that
he should
They
to
among his
veterans,
made
to the
mutinous
soldiers a speech
listened to before.
He
recalled to their
minds how
mankind.^
By
tlje
soldiers
was completely
subdued, and with every expression of contrition for their fault and
commander they begged for forgiveness and Alexander was moved by their entreaties, and gave them assurances that they were once more his companions and kinsmen. The reconciliation was celebrated by a magnificent banquet in which more than nine thousand participated.^ 291. The Death of Alexander (323 B.C.). In the midst of his vast projects Alexander was seized by a fever and died at Babylon,
of devotion to their old
323
not
B.C.,
let
His
soldiers could
him
The watchers
of the palace
Arrian, Anabasis,
vii, 9, 10,
was soon after this meeting that Alexander's dearest friend, Hepha:stion, died at Ecbatana. Alexander indulged in most extravagant expressions of grief. He caused a funeral pyre to be erected at a cost, it is said, of 10,000 talents ()i!i2,ooo,ooo), and instituted in memory of his friend magnificent funeral games. He even ordered the tops of the towers of the surrounding cities to be cut off, and the horses and mules to
a It
264
hundred
[292
their dying
couch of
was taken
to Alexandria, in Egypt,
a golden
coffin,
His ambition
else-
was
to
paid
The remarkable
conquests
First,
"-
292]
265
East
" Without
Christianity
Greek
civilization
into
the
to take root."^
Fourth, the
.^a jwite_fmiruljidia--ta
Eiimpe_.was__.rediscoyered.
influence
its
results of Alexander's
far-
by the Greeks of the enormous wealth of the Persian Empire, and contact with the vices and the
acquisition
The sudden
corrupted
in turn
antiquity
was
undermined.
Selections from the Sources. Plutarch, Alexander. Arrian, Anabasis of vii, 9 (Alexander's speech to his soldiers reminding them of the
;
Alexander,
acter).
debt they owe to his father); vii, 28-30 (for an estimate of Alexander's charDavis's Readings (Greece), pp. 298-321 Fling's Source Book, 296-328.
References (Modern). Wheeler, Alexander the Great; affords a most interesting and scholarly treatment of our subject. Dodge, Alexander. Hogarth, Philip and Alexander of Macedim (last part). Mahaffy, Survey of Greek Civilization, chap, viii (first part) The Story of Alexandei' s Empire, chaps, i-v
;
ii.
Grote
ix,
pp. 505-
549; vol. X, pp. 1-212. Holm, vol. iii, chaps, xxxxvii. Hogarth, The Ancient East, chap. v. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 738-836. Curteis, Rise of the
Macedonian Empire (later chapters). FreemaIj, Historical Essays (Second Series), "Alexander." Topics for Class Reports, i. Alexander's visit to the oracle of Zeus Ammon Wheeler, Alexander the Great, chap. Tcxi. 2. Alexander's letter to Darius: Bury, History of Greece, pp. 761, 762. 3. "The marriage of Europe and Asia " Wheeler, Alexander the Great, chap, xxx, pp. 476-479.
: :
(1900), vol.
iii,
p. 397.
264
hundred
[292
their dying
couch of
commander.
it
first to
was taken
to Alexandria, in Egypt,
a golden
coffin,
His ambition
else-
for celestial honors was gratified in his death, for in Egypt and where temples were dedicated to him and divine worship was
to his statues.
paid
The remarkable
conquests
First,
;/A'aa'Wt.cMiWiMi!M)ia.'i.'aWi
lih|'',ii|l!|i
Ill
'II
Fig. hi.
The
found at Sidon in 1887. "This is the most exquisite sarcophagus that the world has ever seen " (Richardson) Its delicate coloring is still
.
well preserved
they_ended the long struggle between Persia and Greece, and spread
Hellenic civilization over Egypt and western Asia.
obliter-
and the sympathies of men, hitherto so narrow and local, were widened, and thus an important preparation was made for
the reception of the Christian creed of universal brotherhood.
ofjculture, which
was a
further
292]
265
East
" Without
Christianity
Greek
civilization
into
the
to take root."^
^(
results of Alexander's
But the
reaehing.
far-
The sudden
acquisition
wealth of the Persian Empire, and contact with the vices and the
effeminate luxury of the oriental nations, had a most demoralizing
effect
corrupted
upon Hellenic life. Greece became corrupt, and she in turn Rome. Thus the civilization of classical antiquity was
undermined.
Selections from the Sources. Plutarch, Alexander. Arrian, Anabasis of vii, 9 (Alexander's speech to his soldiers reminding them of the
vii,
Alexander,
acter).
28-30
(for
References (Modeia). Wheeler, Alexander the Great; affords a most interesting and scholarly treatment of our subject. Dodge, Alexander. Hogarth, Philip and Alexander of Macedtm (last part). Mahaffy, Survey of Greek Civilization, chap, viii (first part); The Story of Alexander's Empire, chaps, i-v;
ii.
Grote
(ten-volume
505-
549; vol. X, pp. 1-212. Holm, vol. iii, chaps, xx-xxvii. Hogarth, The Ancient East, chap. v. Bury, History of Greece, pp. 738-836. CURTEIS, Rise of the
Macedonian Empire (later chapters). Freeman, Historical Essays (Second Series), "Alexander." Topics for Class Reports. 1. Alexander's visit to the oracle of Zeus Ammon Wheeler, Alexander the Great, chap. xxi. 2. Alexander's letter to Darius; Bury, History of Greece, pp. 761, 762. 3. "The marriage of Europe
:
p. 397.
CHAPTER XXVl
THE GRJECO-ORIENTAL WORLD FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER TO THE CONQUEST OF GREECE BY THE ROMANS
(323-146 B.C.)
I.
HELLENISTIC CULTURE
It
most important
be seen
in
when it is viewed as the third expanmovement of the Greek race. The first movetwilight period
between the
prehistoric and
Greek population on the western shores of Asia Minor and on the neighboring islands, it made the ^gean a Greek lake and doubled the area of Greek lands. The second colonization movement (Chapter XVI), which went on in the eighth and seventh centuries B.C., planted Greek colonies on almost every shore of the Mediterranean and the Euxine, and
the historic age (sect. 152).
Establishing a
made
The
shall
third
possible
the
-Asia
all
lands of the
and once
activity.
more enlarged vastly the sphere of Greek 294. The Hellenizing of the Orient:
results of this third
and Greek
Hellenistic Culture.
The
Greek colonizing movement were quite different from those of the two earlier expansions. The settlement by Greeks'
266
295]
IN
GREEK CULTURE
267
Minor resulted
culture
we have
seen,
cultural elements.
were undoubtedly deeply tinged with non-Hellenic racial and Likewise, the numerous Greek colonies founded
in
some
mingled with the ruder native populations, kept for the most
if
Hellenic culture.
In the third great colonizing epoch, however, the new cities were founded generally in the midst of a dense native population more or
less
advanced
in civilization.
language,
by
calling
it
In
this
We
indicate this
changed character
it
The formation
later of the
is
one
world-empire of
the
Grasco-Roman civilization in the great melting-pot of the Rome, and of the Romano-German civilization in
295. The
Two
It
was chiefly through two agencies that the Gjeek language and arts and Greek letters were spread throughout the Oripnt. These were, first, the courts of the successors of Alexander which were established in Asia
Minor, Syria, and Egypt
;
cities
doms
Each court and each city was Greek culture and arts. The cities, however,
1 From HsUettist, a non-Greek who adopts the Greek language and imitates Greek manners and customs. 2 The meeting again of European and Asian cultures in the countries (Japan, China, and India) of the Far East will repeat, indeed is repeating, the history of these great cultural blends of the past. The final issue of these blendings must be a world-culture which will have assimilated and unified the best elements of all the separately developed
civilizations.
268
[ 296
Greek
296. Cities of
two agencies in the spread of the and of these we must here speak more in detail. the Hellenistic Age. As has been seen, Alexander
cities.
His successors
all
in general folcity-
builders.
These new
were established
and southern coasts of Asia Minor, upon the banks of the rivers of the different regions, along the main routes of travel, and at all the
strategic points of trade
entirely
cities
were
new
They were furnished and adorned with Greek They had conlike those of
if
It is
not in
One
Age
should
be carefully noted.
like those of
in general
independent
city-states
call
free municipalities.
doms of the successors of Alexander, and enjoyed home rule, that is, the management of their own local affairs, but had nothing to do with
foreign or international matters.
this
chapter
we
shall state
some
period,
most important Greek cities of the Hellenistic and speak of the most noteworthy matters in the history of
continental Greece
resulted from
II.
MACEDONIA
There was no one
fell
who
by
Before the close of the fourth century B.C. the vast empire created
his unparalleled
many
frag-
ments.
298]
269
All
were
overwhelmed by the now rapidly rising power of Rome. 298. Macedonia and Rome. The story of Macedonia from the death
of Alexander
by the Romans is made and crimes of rival aspirants for the crown that Philip and Alexander had worn. During a great part of the period the successive Macedonian kings were exercising or attemptto the conquest of the country
on
up
Respecting the
extent of their
power or
to
we
shall find
it
more convenient
Macedonia was one of the first countries east of the Adriatic to come in hostile contact with the great military republic of the West.
After
much
intrigue
and a
was eventually
Roman
sold as
were
Not a man
of note
was
left in
the country.
The
great but
short role
in history
was ended
III.
CONTINENTAL GREECE
From
the subjection of
were, as
we have
said,
Rome, the Greek cities of the peninsula much of the time, at least, under the real or
But the Greeks
were never made for royal subjects, and consequently they were in a
several of the
Thus no sooner had they heard of the death of Alexander than Greek states rose against Antipater, the general whom
The
ended disastrously for the Greeks, and Demosthenes, who had been the soul of the movement, to escape falling into the hands
of Antipater, put
an end
to his
own
life
by means
of poison.
of
moment
Celtic tribes
Greece was an invasion of the Gauls, kinsmen of the that about a century before this time had sacked the city
270
of
[ 301
Rome
These
terrible marau'ders,
Thermopylae.
If
we may
believe the
and were driven back with great loss. A little later some of the tribes settled in Asia Minor and there gave name to the
heroic resistance
province of Galatia.^
301. The Achaean and MtolisLti Leagues.
there arose in Greece
B.C.
two important confederacies, known as the Achaean and ^tolian leagues, whose history embraces almost every matter of interest and instruction in the later political life of the
Greek cities.^ These late attempts at federation among the Grecian were one expression of that tendency towards nationalism that marks this period of Greek history. They were fostered by the intense desire of all patriotic Hellenes to free Aemselves from the hated arbitership of Macedonia. The Greeks had learned at last
cities
B.C.)
was
in
its
beginnings simply
of Achasa, but
'
cities
as well
limits.
successful
efforts ever
which
all
the
made to unite the Greek cities into a real federal state in members should enjoy perfect equality of rights and
established about
privileges.*
280
B.C.,
was composed
of
mountain
was
to the Galatians).
which was very much lilce our own and which in truth served in a measure as a model to the framers of our Constitution (both Hamilton and Madison made a careful Study of it), consult Freeman's work entitled Ifisiary of Federal Constitutions. 8 Sparta became a member of the league in 192 B.C. (Polybius, xxiii, 17, 18). * The chief promoters of the movement were Aratus (271-213 B.C.) and Philopoemeil
2
For
federal union,
(about 252-1S3 B.C.), both of whom were trusted generals of the league and men of eminent ability and enlightened patriotism. Pausanias calls Philopcemen " the last of the
as- "
man bom
of her
r302]
271
Greek
affairs
The sudden
was due
chiefly
were and
The
fell
of
continent.
The wealth
all
time of
Greece,
and the most important member of the Achaean League, .was taken
men were
killed, the
women and
children sold
Rome, and
(cf.
sect. 448).
of
the
political
of
ancient
Greece.
Roman
intellectual life:Of
At the begin-
Age
"the School of the World." preeminently a university town in a very real meaning of the term.
of
Throughout
she was
The beginning
life
by the philosopher Plato at his death (347 B.C.) of his house and garden, close to the Academy,^ as a school for those wishing to pursue
philosophical studies.
So far as we know this was the first endowed and the one of. which our own endowed acadeOthers imitated
p. ?.
The Academy,
like the
city walls.
272
[303
the example set by Plato, and in quick succession there were established
and endowed at Athens three other famous schools, known as Lyceum, the School of Epicurus, and the School of the Stoics. The first was founded by the famous philosopher Aristotle, the second by the teacher whose name it bore, and the third by the philosopher
the
Zeno
(sect.
363).
chief attraction at
Athens during the last three centuries before the Christian era and
Their pleasant gardens and beautiful buildings
city.
places of the
They drew
to
Many
Roman
came here
Stoics
In a later chapter
we
shall
schools.
In the
we
how
close
spirit
and
vital
this school of
thought to the
which
it
arose.
sysfirst
303. Rise of the Stoic Philosophy. In speaking of the Stoic tem. Professor Mahaffy says, " This philosophy was one of the
results,
and perhaps the greatest, of Hellenism proper the reaction upon Greece of the thought and culture of the East."^ It was a blend of Greek and oriental elements. The leaders of the school came chiefly from Asia, or from regions that had felt oriental influences, racial or cultural.^
oriental
element
in their
certain
man
city or of that,
but as a
We
are the
off-
xvii,
28) was a
p. 142.
2 Greek Life and Thought (1887), See Chapter XXIX. Zeno, the founder of the school, was of Phoenician descent.
304]
273
Stoic epigram,
which shows how the new philosophy was approaching and preparing the way for it.
died in 110 B.C., was for a time head of the Stoic
who
school in Athens.
as modified
It was the Stoic philosophy and code of morals by him that the Romans adopted. This was one of the
most important of the elements of the intellectual and moral legacy which Greece bequeathed to Rome. It was next in influence to the
religious
and moral
doctriijes given to
Rome
by Judea.
IV.
RHODES
Rhodes was
Greek world during the Hellenistic Age. It was the sucpower of prehistoric Crete the mountains of which on a clear day can be sighted from Rhodes and to the sea
life
of the
It was was the relay station of the trade between Egypt and the yEgean, and it was largely this which made it a great emporium. It developed a strong naval force and kept the sea free from pirates. It acted as peacemaker and mediator in adjusting disputes between the cities of the Greek world. In the second century B.C. the commercial power and renown of Rhodes awakened the jealousy of the Romans, who undermined
it
by estabhshing a
rival port
on the island
a child
to be-
Public art
is
it
The commercial
prosperity of
Rhodes caused
come during the Hellenistic period a great art center. One characA bronze statue teristic of Rhodian art was its tendency to bigness. of Helios erected by the Rhodians was so colossal (it was one hundred and five feet high) that it was numbered among the seven wonders of the world.^ Besides this gigantic statue the city was crowded with
1 The statue, however, was not as large as the statue of Liberty in New York harbor. The height of the latter is 151 feet. After standing about half a century, the Colossus
later
it
274
[306
thousands of others,
were of
colossal size.
The
city
became a
At the same time that Rhodes was nourishing its art schools, it was maintaining schools of rhetoric and oratory which gained great Rome was now coming repute. Sons of well-to-do Roman families
Fig. 112.
(Capitoline
Museum)
A marble
copy of a bronze original presented to Athens by Attalus I of Pergamum, about 200 B.C. in commemoration of his victory over the Gauls (Galatians)
in
apprepupils
PERGAMUM'
Another
of the
306.
Pergamum
artistic
important
and
Pergamum,
and
in
the capital of a
kingdom which at one time embraced Minor.''- Through its great university
letters in
the Hellenistic
1 This state came into existence 280 B.C. Its period of bloom was in the second century before our era. In the year 133 B.C. Attalus HI died, bequeathing his kingdom to the Romans, who made it into a province of their empire under the name of Asia
(sect. 467),
306]
275
is
world;
from Pergamum
tation: of
was
it
is
this
word
for
derived
in
here
extensively used
books
made from
entire
Along with
which
is
ran an
artistic
development
AT Pergamum
The
gigantic figures that decorated the base are
is
now
in the Berlin
ment
(ii,
tians, in their
image-breaking
zeal, so mutilated the statues that of the ruins found hardly a face unmarred
For
age of Phidias
impulse
received
its
inspiration
from
the sacrifices
War
of
Pergamene
from the exaltation of feeling that followed the victory of the princes
Pergamum over
who
at this time
Asia Minor.
The
feelings of exaltation and of gratitude to the gods for the great deliverance were embodied in a series of remarkable sculptures, among which are the so-called Dying Gaul (Fig. 112), and a great
1
See above,
p. 6, n. i.
2/6
number of
[307
and of
colossal size
which decorated
the four sides of the base of a great altar (Fig. 113) dedicated to
commemoration of the triumph over the Gallic was the mythical contest giants,^ which struggle seemed to the of the gods with the earth-born Greeks the counterpart of their own terrific fight with the uncouth and savage Gauls.
Zeus the Deliverer
marauders.^
in
The
VI.
The
more of
all
Under
of
its first
king
it
com-
the countries
Asia conquered by
;
but
monarchy embraced only Asia Minor, part of Syria, Assyria and Babylonia. Its rulers were called Seleucidse,
as the
The
successors
of
different sides provinces fell away and became independent states.' At last, coming into collision with Rome, the kingdom was destroyed, and the lands embraced by it were
checkered fortunes.
On
Roman
Republic.
fhe
most important
this
of the
numerous
cities
in northern Syria.
Next
to Alexandria in
Egypt
It
was
its
the largest
prosperity
owed
its
To
manufactured products of
1
all
The
2
3
altar is supposed to have been built by Eumenes 11 (197-159 B.C.). See Gayley, Classic Mytlis. Consult index under " Giants. " One of the most important of these was Parthia, a powerful non-Aryan state (from
about 255 B.C. to 226 A.D.) that grew up east of the Euphrates in the lands which originally formed the heart and center of the old Persian Empire. Its kings were at first formidable enemies of the rulers. of Syria, and later of the Romans.
309]
277
was
Antioch that the disciples of Christ were (see Acts xi, 26).
called Christians
About
five miles
from the
city
enhanced by
it one of the most beautiful spots of all was the favorite resort of the voluptuous pleasure-seekers of the capital. Only Sybaris, in Italy (sect. 185), gained
art as to
make
It
In an
earlier chapter
on the He-
was made
We
are
now
in
At
the opening of the second century the Jews had been under
During
had proceeded
Jews spoke the Greek language, wore the Greek costume, and imitated the Greek manner of life. Had this Hellenizing process gone
on without interruption, the Jewish people might have become wholly denationalized and that religious and moral development
which issued
calamity
in
Christianity have
in the
been arrested.
This threatened
was averted
way
that similar
menacing calamities
in history
and again
by
in
a bad king.
IV (surnamed
Epiphanes), 176-
Resolved upon the destruction of Judaism, he ordered all scrolls of the Law to be destroyed, prohibited the Jewish worship and the observance of the Sabbath, and finally, setting up a statue of
164 B.C.
Zeus Olympius on the great altar before the Temple
in Jerusalem,
substituted the worship of the Greek god for that of Jehovah. Those who refused to offer sacrifices on the pagan altars he put to death. Jerusalem was virtually transformed into a Greek colony. "Never," says the historian Renan, "had the fate of Israel been
in
more
peril
than at
this
evil
epoch
little
27?
[310
lost,
At
this crisis
a reaction came.
still
their
and
under the
heroic
Maccabees, overcame their persecutors and reestablished the worship of the Temple. From this time forward to the coming of the
Romans, Judea was an independent state. Thus was Judaism saved to flower and fruit in Christianity and to make its unique and rich
contribution to the growing spiritual
and moral
life
of the world.
VII.
IN EGYPT
Grscco-Egyptian empire
in its influence
most important,
all
upon
their
owed
The founder
B.C.
of the dynasty
was Ptolemy
commander's
Ptolemy was a
of his great
much
and
Upon
re-
To
these he added by
Fol-
by wise and conciliatory measures, and thus effected, in such measure as was possible, at this great capital of the Nile, that fusion of
the races of the East
In
its
and the West which was the dream of Alexander. mixed population Alexandria was the Constantinople of its age.
the great depot of exchange the countries of the ancient world.
kind,-
-which
At
the
the
first
Ptolemy
edifice
This
of the
iv, p.
311]
CONCLUSION
it
279
was
But
tal
comprehended
His
the
am
was
to
make
his capi-
sciences, literatures,
religions
and mingle. He founded the famous Museum,^ a sort of college, which became the "University of the East," and established the
losophers,
renowned Alexandrian Library. He encouraged poets, and teachers in all departments of learning
by
gifts
artists, phi-
to settle in
steps of his father, carrying out as far as possible the plans and
of
the
preceding reign.
He
added largely
liberal
to
the royal
and extended
to scholars the
It
same
father
was under
Greek
Hebrew
Scriptures
was begun.
From
last
(323-30 B.C.). The rulers who held the throne for the two hundred years were, with few exceptions, a succession of monsters, such as even Rome in her, worst days could scarcely equal.
centuries
The
house of the Ptolemies, belongs properly to the history of Rome, which city was now interfering in the affairs of the Orient. In the
year 30
b, c.,
was made a
Roman
province
493).
political fortunes of the
311. Conclusion.
We
In suc-
we
shall
add some
and society
in the foregoing
1 " The Museum was the first example of a permanent institution for the cultivation Holm of pure science founded by a government; that was something great."
iiiii
''#\C-'"^vis;>,5i3ii5ias--iaii=jiSiiiil
iuuiuimmumuiimuMiiuuiuiuuuuiiuiiiDuiuuumuuiu/uiuuulU
Ao
280
S
a K
wJ5jCjot5,K>n'~H<=-"ii.B<;.giii3ijj3'Sg
o
=*.
4-.
hj
rt to
^ R
--
a^
-ul
.
<u
-o
..
-u^
rt
c
Vh
"^
flj
rr^
.,
Jj
13
'Fi
" " e
;s ."
9 e=
-3 j:
3^
H u
^
s
Si
" d
-^
"
1 1
"
^11 ^
I - I * ^ ^
pq
-r:
--
m ^ 2
M-i tn
f!
>
SI
"i
^^
=2 T,
S
r^
u
1!
-r,
'3
^
:
tijo
o "
^
"rt
iM
'^
i o
..
fli
i-t
Vl
-^ .H
rti
ra
.:S -H
CU.2
r>.-i3
0,
Ji:;
^ O
OJ
(U
R
M=i
Co
O
^^
O
z
o w
281
28z
[311
conception of that wonderful, many-sided genius of the Hellenic race which enabled Hellas, " captured, to lead captive her captor."
Selections from the Sources. Plutarch, Philopamen and Aratus. Davis's Readings (Greece), pp. 322-329 Fling's Source Book, pp. 330-33S. References (Modern). Holm, vol. iv (the best history in English of the
;
period). Grote (ten-volume ed.), vol. x, pp. 213-326. Gardner, New Chapters in Greek History, chap, xv, " The Successors of Alexander and Greelc Civili-
Greek Life
Mahaffy, The Story of Alexander's Empire, chaps, vi-xxxii; and Thought from the Age of Alexander to the Roman Conquest;
;
Survey of Greek Civilization, chaps, viii, ix and The Progress of Hellenism FREEMAN, History of Federal Government, chaps, v-ix (gives with great fullness the history of the Achaean and the ^tolian League). Davidson, The Education of the Greek People, chap, viii, "Greek Education in Contact with the Great Eastern World." Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe (consult index) (has an account of the Alexandrian Museum). Walden, The Universities of Ancient Greece, chap. iii. Hogarth, The Ancient
in Alexander's Empire.
East, chap.
vi.
i.
Library
2.
at
Alexandria:
as a center
;
and Thought,
:
pp. 192-197.
Rhodes
Holm, History of Greece, vol. iv, chap, xxii Mahaffy, Story of Alexander's Empire, chap, xx (last part). 3. The Stoics and the Epicureans: yiahs&y. Survey of Greek Civilisation, -p^.z^it-zfu. 4. The Grove of Daphne at Antioch Lew Wallace, J3e7i Hur, bk. iv, chaps, v, vi.
:
CHAPTER XXVII
GREEK ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE, AND PAINTING
312. Relation of Greek Art to that of Earlier Cultures.
in all ulty
its
Greek
art
forms was
spirit.
in the
artistic fac-
and
Speaking of
art of the
Gardner
compares the
Greeks
As
in literature
was was
essentially a
it
pure embodiment of
their
The alphabet of it may have been borrowed, but was an original product of the Greek artistic genius."^ 313. The Greek Sense of Beauty. The Greeks were artists by
in their art.
;
nature
seem
to
With us
it is
gen-
have good
artistic taste.
Every-
Greeks made, from the shrines for their gods to the meanest utensils of domestic use, was beautiful. " Ugliness gave inthera pain like a blow." Beauty they placed next to holiness
thing the
;
the
was noted by the Greeks as something strange and exceptional that Socrates was good, notwithstanding
same
thing.
It is said that
he was ugly
in his features.
in
Greek art was the same as that which formed Greek morality " Nothing in excess." The exaggeration of parts, at any lack Greek eye was offended at any of proportion in an object. The proportions of the Greek temple are perfect. Any deviations from the canons of the Greek artists
The
first
maxim
the
first
principle in
Clearness of outline was another requirement of Greek taste. The esthetic Greek had a positive dislike of all vagueness or indistinctness
1
p. 72-
283
284
[314
of form.
first
islands
The
climate
is
And Nature
here seems
abhor vagueness.
The
Doric
Ionic
Corinthian
Fig. 115.
every object.
The Parthenon
lie
seems modeled
ARCHITECTURE
By
the
close of the
sixth
made
or orders.
and the Corinthian^ (Fig. ns). They are distinguished from one another chiefly by differences in the proportions and ornamentation of the column.
as the Doric, the Ionic,
^ By some the Corinthian style is regarded as a suborder developed from the See Fowler and Wheeler, Greek Archnology (1909), p.-ii2.
Ionic.
315]
285
is
without a
At
first
Greeks were almost as massive as those of the Egyptian grew less heavy as they became perspirit.
is
The
scrolls,
its
Ionic column
characterized chiefly
is
of
its capital,
but
slender proportions.
by the volutes, or spiral marked by its fluting, its base, and This form was principally employed by the
also
its is
name.
distinguished by
its
The Corinthian
of acanthus leaves.
order
rich capital,
is
formed
said to
The
which
in
a basket surrounded by the leaves of an acanthus plant, upon it had accidentally fallen. This order was not much employed
entire structure
The
was made
use
to
harmonize with
its
supporting
columns.
The
we
when we speak
styles held in
Greek
archi-
in that of the
one exception
these orders of
admit that the invention and Greek architecture has been (with the introduction of the arch) the most important
We may
of
Greek
architecture.
was
shall
reli-
monuments
of the architec-
Hence
in the
have
concerning Greek
the statues
its
hollow trunk.
men marked
the
step
in advance.
Then
wooden
286
frame.
[316
artist
was
At the
same time he received helpful hints from the old builders of the East. Thus architecture began to make rapid strides, and by the century following the age of Solon at Athens there were
many
of
beautiful
Artemis at Ephesus.
One
the oldest
was
The
was
and enlarged.
Towards
the end of the sixth century a temple of great size and grandeur
was begun, which was one hundred and twenty years in process of building. It was this structure that, in the year 356 B.C., on the same night, it is said, that Alexander was born, an ambitious youth
named Herostratus, set aflame simply to render his name immortal. The temple was restored with increased magnificence. It was known
far
The
all
was beyond
calculation
kings and
cities
and splendor of
to
it
their donations.
have
gallery of paintings
and
statuary.^
Just after the middle of the third century'of our era the barbarian
left it
ruin.
Some
columns of the temple may be seen to-day in the great mosque (once the church of Santa Sophia) at Constantinople.
See Acts xix, 21-41. Besides being in a sense museums, the temples of the Greeks were also banks of deposit. The priests often loaned out on interest the money deposited with them, the revenue from this source being added to that from the leased lands of the temple and from the tithes of war booty to meet the expenses of the services of the shrine. Usually the temple property in Greece was managed solely by the priests, but the treasure of the Parthenon at Athens formed an exception to this rule. The treasure here belonged to the state, and was controlled and disposed of by the vote of the people. Even the personal property of the goddess, the gold drapery of the statue, which was worth 500 talents (about, ?6oo,coo) could be used in case of great need but it must be replaced in due time, with a fair interest.
1
317]
287
317. The Delphian Temple. The first temple erected at Delphi over the spot whence issued the mysterious vapors (sect. 158) was a rude wooden structure. In the year 5.48 b.c. the temple then standing was destroyed by fire. All the cities and states of Hellas
contributed to
its
rebuilding.
was impressive both from its colossal size and from the massive simplicity that characterizes the Doric style of architecture. It was crowded with the spoils 6f many battlefields, with
later structure
The
art.
After remaining
Fig. 116.
photograph)
"A summary
of
all
that is best
its
oracle inspired,
spoliation.
finally,
like the
The Phocians despoiled the temple of a treasure Equivalent, it is estimated, to more than ten million dollars (sect. 274), and later the Romans seem to have stripped it bare of its art treasures.' 318. The Athenian Parthenon. We have already glanced at the Parthenon, the sanctuary of the virgin goddess Athena, upon the
Acropolis at Athens (sect.
the
243).
is
built
in
is
regarded as
The
art
2 At all events the spade has turned up comparatively few relics on the site of the temple, which was thoroughly excavated towards the close of the last century,
288
[319
After
exhibited in
construction
is
an
art
of
ideal
perfection.
standing for more than two thousand years, and having served successively as a
mosque,
in a
it
finally
pagan temple, a Christian church, and a Mohammedan was made to serve as a Turkish powder magazine
in 1687.
this
contest a
bomb
the
its
Even
in
ruined state the structure constitutes the most highly prized memorial
that
we
The
sacred
of the Alpheus in
Elis
was, as
we have
Here was
raised
around
it
shrines, treasure-houses,
porticoes,
spot
But in
the. fifth
century of our
monuments
to the flames.
but
late in
the
site.
The
to
make
fidelity
its
by the
visitor to
Olympia
in the
days of
architectural glory.
and open
to the sky, as
The
the
place for the chorus, which occupied the space in front of the lower
range of seats
for the actors.
1
and
third, in later
times at
least,
a stage or platform
at
^hens, see
sect. 243.
321]
STADIA
of
289
of Dionysus at
the others.
It
was
cut partly in
Greeks
tage of a hillside.
The
thousand spectators.^
321. Stadia.
festival
six
The Greek
held,
games were
construction.
Fig. 117.
a photograph)
wooden or stone seats. A magnificent colonnade often crowned the structure. There was a stadium at each of the four places where the great national sacred games were held, and, indeed, at all the chief places of assemblage in the Greek world. 322. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. This structure was a monumental tomb designed to preserve the memory of Mausolus, king of Caria, who died 352 B.C. The chief remains of the mausoleum are
of
1
On
it is
impossible
to
make
seating capacity.
290
[323
numerous sculptures dug up on the site and now preserved in the British Museum. It is the tradition of this beautiful structure that
has given the world a
name
for
all
monuments
of unusual magnifi-
cence raised in
memory
of the dead.
II.
SCULPTURE
The
relation of the sculpture
Mycenaean Age
Greece
is
unknown.
Fig.
18.
a photograph)
It is probable,
may recognize
the rudiments, the alphabet, as it were, of the art of the age of Phidias. " And as the Mycenaean people were probably not
some of the skill of hand and eye which monuments of the prehistoric age may have been of avail in aiding the rise of an art which was essentially Greek."* However this may be, the earliest art in Greece to which we may
exterminated, but absorbed,
in the
distinct
marks
4^
(1914), p. 73.
324]
291
of oriental influence.
artist
and other
material, deco-
and a knowledge of technical processes. But this was all. The Greek was never a servile
rative designs,
imitator.
His
and
true
artistic
feeling
of
the
Eastern
while
his
artists,
Fig. iig.
" Particularly
The Wrestlers
were the games promothey afforded
kindling
genius
figures
of
life,
From
century
the
b. c.
forward to the
we can
trace clearly
growing excellence of Greek sculpture until it blooms in the supreme beauty of the art of the Periclean Age.
324. Influence of the Olympic
r3
Sculpture.
part of
the
sixth
up images of the victors in the Olympic games. It was probably this custom that gave one of the earliest impulses to Greek sculpture. The grounds at Olympia became crowded
the
custom
to set
Fic. 120.
with " a
in
imperishable
Stele OF Aristion
of archaic
Attic sculpture
forms."
Example
In
still
way
and the exercises of the gymnasia exert a most helpful influence upon
Greek sculpture.
the study of the
They afforded the artist unrivaled opportunities for human form. " The whole race," as Symonds says.
292
[325
sculpture and
its
painting, rehearsed, as
it
were, the
learned to express
itself in
marble or
in color."
As
number and
costliness the
their adornment.
filled
with
and groups of figures executed by the most renowned artists and representing the national deities, the legend-
of the state in
interposition
god
in
shrine
had been
raised.
Persian Wars.
Among
the oldest
re-
good example
The
500
is
placed at about
rigidity
still
still
Fig. 121.
The Charioteer
Perfection
of
"
The bronze
charioteer
is,
on the
Greek Sculpture
the
Age
fifth
of Phidias.
last
whole, the
finest
Greek bronze
statue in existence."
Fowler and
Wheeler
felt
century
B.C.,
when
the
thrill
other Greek
activities,
of the
War
of Liberation.
Our space
will
1 Other specimens o this early art are the sculptures of a temple of the city of Selinus in Sicily (date about 600 B.C.) and the celebrated figures of the temple at .Egina, now in the Museum of Munich.
326]
293
and name what the world regards as their Masterpieces. Myron, whose best work was executed probably about 460 B.C., was a contemporary of Phidias. His worjcs were chiefly in bronze. They were strikingly lifelike. Tt is told that he once made a cow
which was so true
with their herds.
celebrated pieces
olus,
off
One
of his
most
The
ac-
period
of
perfection
was
his-
Phidias.
torian
art to the
verge
Phidias
con-
ducted
Phidias
was almost the only Greek whose name really lived in the memory and imagination of the Middle Ages. He was an Athenian and was bom about 488 B.C. He delighted in the beautiful myths and
sculptor
Fig. 122.
Throwing the
Discus,
of
OR
"
QcroiT.
(The "Discobolus
human works."
drew subjects
to us only
Almost all the masterpieces of the Greek sculptors have perished they are known through copies. But to these copies is attributed by archseologists a special
;
pieces of the classical epoch which pleased ancient taste and connoisseurship in the
294
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
It
AN'D
SCULPTURE
[326
their city.
was
The most
Zeus
in the
temple at Olympia.
height,
The
statue of
forty feet in
hair,
Fig. 123.
Athenian Youth
in Procession. Parthenon)
(From the
frieze of the
The
hair,
Olympian Zeus was also of ivory and gold. It was and represented the god seated on his throne. The beard, and drapery were of gold. The eyes were brilliant stones.
statue of
Gems
on the golden robe. The colossal proportions of this wonderful work, as well as the lofty yet benign aspect of the
1 That is to say, the designs were his but a great part of the actual sculpturing must have been done by other hands worliing under the direction of the master mind. The subject of the wonderful frieze was the procession which formed the most important feature of the Athenian festival known as the Great Panathensa, which was celebrated every four years in honor of the patron goddess of Athens. The greater part of the frieze and of the pediment statues are now in the British Museum, the Parthenon having been
;
largely despoiled of
its
Curse of
Mincva. To
the poet
coronal of sculptures by Lord Elgin. Read Lord Byron's The Lord Elgin's act appeared worse than vandalism.
327]
295
It
was thought
hundred
to
The
statue
was
in existence for to
eight
years.
It is believed
At
the
same
whose
time that Phidias was executing his ideal representations of the gods, Polyclitus the Elder,
home was
at Argos,
was producing
his
renowned
Among
his pieces
was
re'^
to this period of
bloom
new
re-
nown by
treasures
the
fresh
art
at
recovered
Olympia.
Fig. 124.
Among
or
':
the
Athena
sculptures
exhumed was
Victory"
artist
Pakthenos
a
After a statue found at
Nike,
Athens in 1880, which is supposed to be a copy, executed in the second century of our
era,
(Fig. 126),
by the
Paeonius.
This beautiful
Fig. 125.
Head OF THE
Zeus
of
the
colossal
Olympian
by
statue of
Athena by
Phidias
1
" Phidias
in the first
which Homer avowed that he took his idea from the representation book of the Iliad in the passage thus translated by Pope
"
gives
spake, and awful bends his sable brow, Shakes his ambrosial curls, and gives the nod, The stamp of fate and sanction of the god. High heaven with reverence the dread signal took,
He
the charge of sacrilege Phidias met an unmerited fate. He was prosecuted on the shield of Athena portraits of his patron because he introduced among the figures on he died in prison. Pericles and himself. According to Plutarch, the latter a and his ^-a a Other celebrated works of Polyclitus were his Amazon by his contemporaries. gold and ivory statue which was greatly admired
296
at
[328
inflicted
War
(sect. 254).
b.c.).
fifth
328. Scopas,
and Lysippus
its
(fourth
century
Though Greek
century,
still
sculpture attained
possessed
qualities
of
rare
excellence.
Among
the
names
Scopas, Praxiteles,
chief place.
and Lysippus
hold a
Mausoleum
the
at Hali-
carnassus.
is
To him,
known
of to one of
his school,
also
ascribed
by some
famous
composition
was
Praxiteles (period of
B.C.), of
activity
about 360-340
said
jvhom
into
it
has been
the
that
he "rendered
soul."
stone
moods of the
Nike, or Victory, of Pteonius. (Found at Olympia)
Fig. 126.
"It might almost be said that
in the plastic art of all times
may be mentioned
the Satyr,
these,
The
first
of
dite at Cnidus,
was regarded by
the ancients
and
an
all
peoples there
of
is
no
and
human
to
illusion
fiying."
Furtwangler
floating
Many
up
in different
The Satyr also was greatly admired by the ancients and was often copied. The copy in the Capitoline Museum, at Rome, the one made known to all the world through Hawthorne's romance of the
Marble Fatal,
is
the masterpiece.
set
up
in the
To
329]
297
1877, so
Olympia
in
now we
best, of
renowned for
his
works
His period of
orders
in great
demand.
artist
many
statues
it
of
is
said,
portray him.
Age.^
period
the
The
has
Silver
this
Hellenistic
been
called
Age
of
Greek
art,
products
the
with
preceding age.
truth
Fig. 127.
Among
such
An
original
work
Praxiteles,
found in 1877
at
Olympia
1 1 1),
Greek artistic genius. ofMelos (Fig. 129), which preserve the qualities of the purest Along with these works which Hellenic art there are others which mark a great change in taste, and which may be designated as Hellenistic. Thus one of the
are masterpieces of the
restraint, tendencies of the sculpture of the age, in contrast with the
The statue of Sophocles (Fig. 135) is after Lysippus. the Colossus of period Several of the most remarkable works of sculpture of this figures of the Pergamene Rhodes (sect. 305), the Dying Gaul (sect. 306), and the giant with the political events with Altar (sect. 306) have already been noticed in connection which they stand in close relation.
1
298
dignity,
330
action
and quiet charm of pure Attic art, is the portrayal of violent and passion. The most famous work showing this characterthe group known as the istic is
Laocoon (Fig. 130).
Another characteristic of
sculpture
is its
Hellenistic
day
life
and
scenes.
As a
good example
of this tend-
ency we show
the fine relief
of a peasant
driving a
cow
to market (see
illustration at
end
of
this
chapter).
This
in
in-
tendency
art,
it
is
teresting
note,
to
its
306 B.C.
had
III.
PAINTING
Not a single work of Greek antiquity has surConsequently
is
330. Introductory.
Fig. 129.
Aphrodite OF MiLOS
Paris)
accidents of time.
"Venus
of Milo" (Louvre,
derived
interesting portraits
era),
paintings,
from some
found
in
graves in
Lower Egypt
(see
Greek masters.
In addition, however, to
this material
on which
to
331]
POLYGNOTUS
we have
and
their anecdotes of great painters.
299
base an opinion
paintings,
These
classic stories
and
historical value.
331. Polygnotus.
called the
fire
Polygnotus (flourished 475-455 B.C.) has been Prometheus of painting, because he was the first to give
to the ex-
and animation
affirmed,
human
features
became
to
the soul."
He
Of
seems
a
have
pathos.
Polyxena'
was
in
War."
and'
332
These great
the
fifth
century
B.C.
A
Fig. 130.
favorite
and
familiar
story
preserves their
names
as com-
panions
their
and commemorates
genius.
(Vatican
rival
is
2^uxis,
Found
sented
at
is
Rome
such
cluster
grapes which
so
Laocoon, a Trojan priest, and his two sons, through the agency of terrible serpents sent by Athena, whose anger Laocoon had incurred
(see Aineid^
ii,
212-224)
pecked at them.
Zeuxis asked Parrhasius " I confess I
;
His
to
rival,
and
am
sur-
PoljTtena was a
sufferings.
300
[333
333. Apelles.
antiquity,"
called
was the court painter of Alexander the Great. He was such a consummate master of the art of painting and carried it to such a state of perfection that the ancient .writers spoke of it as the
"Art of Apelles."
That Apelles,
like
lifelike pictures
story.
In a con-
that
some horses that we;re near, should pronounce upon the merit of the respective pieces. When
brought before the pictures of his
rivals the
shown
instant
the
companions the
Wax
highest excellence.
art declined,
and no other
really great
name
"
appears.
Pausanias,
x.
25-
yet
known,
Delphi).
some Pompeian
References
(Modern).
Hamlin,
Text-book
vii.
of
Flinders Petrie
FoWLER
and Wheeler, Greek Archeology. Richardson, Reinach, ^/oZ/ff, chaps, iv-ix. MURRAY, Hand-
2 vols.;
and The
E.
Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Primitive A. Gardner, Ancient Athens and Handbook of Greek Sculp-
DiEHL, Excursion's in Greece, chap, iv (gives the results of excavations made on the Acropolis of Athens during the years 1883-1889). Furtw angler, Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture. VON Mach, Greek Sculpture : its Spirit and
Principles.
PERCY Gardner, Principles of Greek Art. Tarbell, A History of Greek Art. YIk^S-Iso^, Introductory Studies in Greek Art. Va^vi, The Two Great
REFERENCES
301
Art Epochs (first part). Teachers will enjoy Pater, Greek Studies. Consult also by means of indexes and tables of contents the histories of Curtius, Gkote,
mum
5.
Attic art
:
Fowler and Wheeler, Greek Archceology, Tucker, Zi/* ^V< /4W^.r, chap. xvi. Fowler and Wheeler, Greek Archeology, chap, ix
;
:
xii.
CHAPTER XXVIII
GREEK LITERATURE
I.
INTRODUCTORY
It
was
that
artists in
language.
"Of
all
the beautiful things which they created," says Professor Jebb, "their
the
most
beautiful,"
and
lyrics
histories
many
proper.
this
Greek
in
philosophers,
the
who wrote
form.
whose works
literary
had a development
literature
proper,
we
it
literature.
Greek
three
periods, as
475 B.C.;
Age (475-300 B.C.); (3) the Alexandrian Age (300-146 B.C.). The first period gave birth to epic and lyric poetry; the second,
to
history,
oratory,
and,
above
all,
to
dramatic literature;
while
was one of decline, during which the productions of the preceding epochs were worked over and commented upon
the third period
or feebly imitated.
302
336]
EPIC POETRY:
II.
303
Until
the rise of
Homeric poems the Eiad and the Odyssey. modern German criticism these poems were
single
bard
named
believed
events
his
commemorated
Tradition
different
poems.
seven
represents
cities
He
it
traveled
believed),
widely (so
lost
was
his sight,
and then as
a wandering minstrel
his
But
that
now
Jliad
the opinion
the
and
the
EiG. 132.
Homer
Age
Odyssey,
They are
believed to be the
work of many
The
Homer,
B.C.
whom we may
The Odyssey
1
hood of bards who flourished about the ninth and eighth centuries
is
last
During the
work
of a single poet.
304
337. Hesiod.
GREEK LITERATURE
Hesiod, a Boeotian,
[337
who
life,
is
B.e.,
and of and of
of
real
life,
especially of peasant
in
The Homeric bards sang of the deeds of heroes, a far-away time when gods mingle^ with men. Hesiod sings
of everyday, present duties.
a didactic epic,
entitled
in the
main, a
man
the lucky and unlucky days for doing certain kinds of work, gives
instructions respecting
him minute
farm
labor, discourses
on
justice
Fig, 133.
(From
century B.C.)
" Pray to Zeus when thou beginnest thy labor, as soon as, putting thy hand to the plough, thou touchest the back of the oxen that draw at the oaken beam. Just behind thee, let a servant, equipped with a mattock, raise trouble for the birds by covering the seed." Hesiod, Works and Days^wi. ifi^-i,Ti (Croiset's trans.)
.
lived he
all
descrip-
As
Homeric and Hesiodic poems, was the characteristic production of the earlier part of the first period of Greek literature, so was lyric poetry the most noteworthy product of the: latter part of the period.* The ^olian island of Lesbos was the hearth and home of several
of the earlier lyric poets.
The songs
fairly
This species of poetry had a forerunner in Archilbchus, who belongs to the early He wrote both elegies and lyrics, of which we have only fragments. He possessed in rare measure " the lovely gift of the Muses " but his satires were often coarse and venomous.
1
339]
305
glow and quiver with ardent passion. singers were Alcasus and Sappho.
The
calls
b.
Homer. Plato
"Of
all
all the illustrious artists of literature, Sappho is the one whose every word has a peculiar and unmistakable perfume, a seal of absolute and inimitable grace,'' Although her fame endures, her
Symonds, " of
poetry, except a
found
Greek tyrannies.
He
was a native of
much
of his
Simonides of Ceos (556-467 B.C.) lived during the Persian Wars. He composed immortal couplets for the taonuments of the fallen
heroes of Thermopylae and Salamis.
into the
He
in-
was a
of spired
Magna
Grsecia.
The
greater
much number of
Pindar's
poems were
by the scenes of th^ national festivals. They describe in lofty strains the splendors of the Olympic chariot races, or the glory of the victors at the Isthmian, the Nemean, and the Pythian games.
Pindar insists strenuously upon virtue and self-culture. meaning, he says, " Become that which thou art " that
;
With deep
is,
Be what
III.
(475-300 B.C.)
Greek
Eveiy great
the result
All Hellas
political
of a profound stirring of the depths of had been profoundly moved by the tremendous struggle for
life.
national
3o6
existence.
GREEK ETTERATURE
[340
zens
Athens especially had risked all and achieved all. Her citinow felt an unwonted exaltation of life. Hence Athens naturally became the home and center of the literary activity of the period. The Attic literature embraces almost every species of composition,
yet
its
most
characteristic
history,
and
oratory.
Especially favorable were the influences of the time for the production
of great dramatic works.
The two
met
is
asserted, a period of
drama cannot
occur,
in the
Age
of Pericles.
Hence
the
in both
its
branches of tragedy and comedy, grew out of the songs and dances
instituted in honor of
Tragedy (goat
companying
song,
Fig. 134.
Bacchic Procession
comedy (village song) from the lighter and more farcical ones.
Gradually
recital
at first but a
Thespis (about 534 B.C.) is said to have introduced this idea of an actor or reciter, hence the term Thespian applied to the tragic drama.
Owing
to
its origin,
the Greek
drama always
At
first
retained a religious
the chorus
all-important part
an
essential feature
341]
TllAGIC POETS
age of the Attic
307
stage, the
of the performance.
and the dialogue and choral odes formed'the masterpiece of some great poet and then the Greek drama, tihe most splendid creation
of
human
genius,
was complete.
The
tragic poets of
Athens
These legendary
tales they
handled
changing, color-
to render
them the
of Greek Tragedy.
to
Symonds
believes the
be
recalled,
and presumption.
To understand how
sion as the
come
to regard inso-
most heinous of
sins,
"Measure
we must
recall the
legend upon
in all things."
art,
As
virtue.
of
men, and
not to bring,
through their
overvaulting ambition, to
overwhelming and
We
shall see in
moment how
Tragic
some
three
of the
greatest of the
Greek dramas.
Great
Poets.
343. The
Three
There
are
great
names These
in
Greek tragedy
^.schylus,
seen
Sophocles,
and Euripides.
dramatists, as
we have
century which followed the victories of the Persian Wars. Of the two hundred and fifty-eight dramas produced by these poets, only
thirty-two
to
us;
all
the
3o8
GREEK LITERATURE
B.C.) is called
[343
^schylus (525-456
He
a
Age
of Pericles.
to
He
aimed
make them
is
means of moral
instruction
Prometheus Bound
chief
works
"one
one
of
the
boldest
and most
original
that
been
written."
He
self-
of
impatience and
his suffer-
ings are
of
his
the just
penalty
self-
presumption and
assertion.*
tragedies
The
subject
is
the crime
It
spirit-
with
more than human crimes and woes. Nowhere is portrayed with greater power the awful vengeance with which the implacable
Nemesis
is
armed.''
1 In punishment for having stolen fire from heaven and given it to men, and for having taught them the arts of life, the Titan Prometheus is chained by Fig. 135. Sophocles. (Lateran, Zeus to a lonely crag, and an eagle is Rome) sent to feed upon his liver, which each night grows anew. For the scene of the Prometheus Bound, see Joseph Edward Harry, The Greek Tragic Poets, pp. 14 f., 22 ff. 2 The Agamemnon forms the first of a trilogy, that is, a series of three dramas,
the other pieces being entitled the Clioiphora and the Eumenides. These continue the subject of the Agamemnon, so that the three really form a single drama or story. This trilogy of ^schylus is the only one from the ancient stage of which all the parts
343J
309
The theme
we have
defeat of Xerxes and his host, which afforded the poet a good opportunity " to state his philosophy of Nemesis, here being a splendid
humbled, of greatness brought to nothing, through one man's impiety and pride." The, poet teaches that " Zeus
tragic instance of pride
tames excessive
lifting
up of
heart."
B.C.),
while yet a
the
^schylus (468 that .^schylus was so chagrined by his defeat that he left Athens and retired to Sicily.
Plutarch says
ocles
leader
lived
tragedy
at
Athens.
a
most
He
of Hellas.
were perfect
works of
art.
The
dramas
is
essentially
Euripides.
(Vatican,
characterizes
those
self-will
of
.^Eschylus,
Rome)
namely,
that
and insolent
no mortal
can contend successfully against the will of Zeus. The chief works of Sophocles are CEdipus the King, CEdipus at Colonus, and Antigone,
all
upon old
of Thebes.
Euripides (480-406 B.C.) though unpopular at first became as time ^Eschylus passed more popular than either vEschylus or Sophocles.
was too
to
lofty
and
severe,
pious,
please the
people,
after
of exalted
religious
feeling
awakened by the tremendous experiences of the Persian Wars had of passed away. Euripides was a better representative than either
the
an age new age that opened with the Peloponnesian War ancestral religion. new ideas and of growing disbelief in the
of
3 Id
GREEK LITERATU.RE
of Euripides passed far
[344
limits of Greece.
It
The fame
is
beyond the
asserted that his verses were recited by the natives of the remote
;
country of Gedrosia
fond of his
lines that
many
and Plutarch says that the Sicilians vi^ere so of the Athenian prisoners, taken before
-their
masters such of
his
memory.
344. Comedy: Aristophanes. Foremost among all writers of comedy must be placed Aristophanes (about 450-385 B.C.). For a
generation
War
the
his inimitable
humor
immune from
The
the
statesman Pericles,
whom
He
parodied
even
of
He
caricatured
(sect. 246),
New
whom
He
mirth-provoking
their credulity
and
fickleness,
and
their proin
way
and
literary
comedy and
and
satire.
Many
ing the choruses of his pieces breathe the ffinest sentiments and are
inexpressibly charming
beautiful.^
the
first
form of
literary expression
among
all
peoples.
more
after
was not until two centhe composition of the Homeric poems, that is,
to find that
it
His best-known plays are the Knights, the Clouds, tiienWasps, the Birds, and the Frogs. Menander (342-292 e. c.) was, after Aristophanes, the most noted of Greelc comic poets. He was the leader of what is known as the New Comedy.
345]
HERODOTUS
3"
about the sixth century r.c, that prose writing began among the Greeks. During the next century and a half there appeared three
famous historians Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon whose names were cherished among the ancients, and whose writings are highly valued and carefully studied at the present day. The relation of
these writers to the political history of their respective periods has
In
this
place
we
mention of
He-
we have
throng of
men
of brilliant genius
who made
of Pericles
Age
244).
He
or a tale to
of the then
He
journeyed over
much
known
Persia,
failing vivacity
lived in a story-
Fig. 137.
Hekodotus
Museum,
(National
age,
story-teller.
Naples)
Stories of
men and
Babylon
tire,
He was
overcredulous,
at
his guides in
Egypt and
but he describes with great care and accuracy what he himself saw.
The
gle
central
theme of
Around
this
346. Thucydides.
so popular
writer.
earlier
B.C.),
though not
during the
dis-
an
historian as Herodotus,
philosophical
He
He
command
pleasure of the Athenians he was sent into the exile which afforded
See
sects. 244, 251, 265,
312
him
leisure to
GREEK LITERATURE
compose
Iiis
[347
Through
the closest observation and study, he qualified himself to become the historian of
first
memorable war.
Thucydides died before his task was completed.'
care
His work,
It
it
in the
shown
is
and
events,
was
the
first
scientific history.
own
style,
work of the great Athenian. 347. Xenophon. Xenophon (about 445355 B.C.) was ah Athenian, and is known
both as a general and as a
writer.
The
his
name
so familiar
Anabasis, a simple
of
yet
thrilling
narrative
the
expedition of
(sect.
the
Ten
his
Thousand
Thucydides
rates.
Greeks
265),
and
Museum, Naples'
means
the most
realistic
portrait that
we
historical
Xenophon's Cyropcedia, or " Education of Cyrus," is essentially an romance, which portrays not alone the youth, but the whole life of Cyrus the Great, besides dehrieating the manners and
Oratory
The
art
348. Influence
of
Democratic Institutions.
of oratory
generally
among
the Greeks
its
possessor a sure
Xenophon forms
off abruptly in the twenty-first year of the war. a continuation of the interrupted narrative.
The Helknica
349]
DEMOSTHENES
;
313
The
oratory
was obliged
to
be his
own advocate
public speaking,
own
Hence
difficult art of
persuasion.
Almost
all
the prominent
like Pericles,
masters of oratory.
has
his
(385-322
the
B.C.)
to
have
synonym
to
of eloquence.''
name become throughout the world The exercises and labors by which,
in the
is
anew
path to success.
The
Demosthenes
to
of another
and
rival
For
his services to
awarded
Demosthenes a crown
to a
of gold.
this
jEschines,
All
rival
Athens and strangers from far and near gathered to hear the
orators
;
Macedon, and of
all
Athenians to
The
to
It is better
have fought
at
Chaaronea and
to
have
left
lost
field,
liberties
of Hellas.
was ours
to
do our duty, the issue rested with the gods, He left Athens and became a
Respecting the several orations of Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon, and the death of the eloquent patriot, we have already
spoken
1
(sects.
275, 299).
Lysias (about 440-380 B.C,),Isocrates (436-338 B.C.), and Isa;us (born about 420 B.C.) were all noted representatives of the art of political or forensic oratory, and forerunners should call Isocrates a rhetorician instead of an orator, as his disof Demosthenes.
We
courses
(many
of
which were written for others to deliver) were intended The Roman Cicero was his debtor and imitator.
to
be read
314
IV.
GREEK LITERATUJlE
THE ALEXANDRIAN AGE
of
[350
(300-146
b.c.)
350. Character
the
Literature.
The Alexandrian
period
of
Greek
During
literature
Rome
(300-146
B.C.).
liter-
was the
chief center of
literature
The
great
Museum and
in that capital
such
facilities for
was
With the
faith in the
was cut
off
from
sources of inspiration.
origi-
was imitative, critical, and learned. The writers period were grammarians, commentators, and translators word, bookworms.
It
of the
in
One
of
Scriptures into
(sect.
310).
It
was
his
the
monuments
Chronicles of
Egypt
(sect.
Babylonian
priest,
of Chaldea. We possess only fragments of these works, but these have a high historical value.
352. Poetry and Romance.
Of
we need
for
who
lived
and wrote
"
He
is
the only
His
of
and of every
age.
The Roman
Vergil
was
his imitator
is
and debtor.
in.
What
is
Theocritus
in the
He
tale,
wrote the
"
first
love
tale
"This love
is
story," says
undoubtedly the
falling in
first
original
of
that
sort of tale
which makes
353]
love
315
and happy marriage the beginning and the end, while the
Graeco-Roman "Writers.
After the
353. Conclusion
Roman
con-
Alexandria to Rome.
is
Hence Greek literature now passes into what known as its Grseco-Roman period (146 B.C.-527 a.d.). The most noted historical writer of the first part of this period was Polybius (about 203-121 B.C.), who wrote a history of the
Roman
worth
;
146
B.C.
larger part of
of great
and understanding of
day.
own
He was
to
life
one of
Next
Herodotus
of the
and Thucydides he
ancient world.
is
He
knew absorbed by the ever-growing empire of the city Diodorus Siculus, who lived under Augustus Cassar
only about one third.
portions of his
of
at
we
possess
critical historian,
work
fortunately preserved
we
gather
many
facts
He
tells
composing his history and traveled over a great part of Asia and Europe that he might view with his own eyes the places of which
Plutarch
he had to write.
(bom about 40
a.d.),
He
will
always
live in literature
Roman
One motive
from the
we may
infer
partiality
know
that Hellas
men
men
=
that
Rome
had ever
men
to
in a
Mahaffy, Greek Life and Tlwught (1887), p. 237. The story was simply an episode long poem named ^tia. Some, however, fmd the first example of the new type of love tale in the Lyde of Antiraachus of Colophon (flourished about 410 B.C.).,
3i6
teach
GREEK LITERATURE
men
to live well."
is
[353
And
this last
end he
The Shakespearean
Next
"
Plutarch.
to the Bible
of characters owes a great debt to and the history of one's own country,
promotion of character
Homer, Iliad (Bryant's trans.), vi, 505-640 Andromache and Hector). Sophocles, Antigone. .lEsCHYLUs, Prometheus Bound. Davis's headings, pp. 335-337, " The Hymn of Cleanthes."
Selections from the Sources.
(the parting of
Wright,
and
References (Modern). Croiset, An Abridged History of Greek Literature. A Short History of Greek Literature. Jebb, Primer of Greek Literature
Attic Orators, 2 vols.
FelToN,
Gi'eece,
Ancient and
;
Modem,
vol.
i,
pp. 3-
267 (on the Greek language and Greek poetry) vol. ii, pp. 1 1 1-246 (six lectures on the orators of Greece). Mahaffy, History of Classical Greek Literature,
2 vols.
Greek Literature.
Jevons, History of Greek Literature. MURRAY, History of Ancient Capps, From Llomer to Theocritus. Barnett, The Creek
(Primer). Symonds, Studies of the Greek'Poets, 2 vols. Topics for Class Reports, i. Sappho: Manatt, ^ean Days, chap, xxv, " Lesbos and the Lesbian Poets." 2. Presentation of a Greek drama at Athens Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, chap. xii. 3. Pindar Mahaffy, Survey of Greek Civilization, pp. 91-96.
: :
Drama
p. 339.
CHAPTER XXIX
GREEK PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE
354. The Seven Sages; the Forerunners.
lived in different parts of Hellas
originality
About 600
B.C.
there
many
and wisdom.
Among
To them
"
be-
The wise
sayings
such
intellect to
as
Know
thy-
fairest
possession"
to the
a sys-
They form
Connected with the names ^sop, whom tradition makes of the Seven Wise Men is the name The fables attributed to to have been a contemporary of Solon. "The Wolf and the Lamb," "The Body and the him such as Members," " The Fox and the Raven," " The Frogs Asking for a
355. The Fable Philosophy of ^sop.
of
King "
to
delight of childhood
our own.
the
from the days of JEsop wisdom they embody which gives them a
Simple as they seem,
flavor
all
charm and
their
own.
Socrates
of
filled
some
some
them
into verse ,^
and a
collection of
1 As in the case of the seven wonders of the world,- ancient writers were not always agreed as to what names should be accorded the honor of enrollment in the sacred number. Thales, Solon, Periander, Cleobulus, Chilo, Bias, and Pittacus are, however,
2 Plato's
Phado,
60.
317
3l8
[356
highly
to
said,
commissioned Lysippus
make
The
first
Greek
grew up
of
Asia Minor,
their
where almost
beginnings.
all
was Thales of Miletus'' (born about 640 B.C.), the Father of Greek Philosophy. Thales visited Egypt, and it is probable that what he learned there formed the basis of his work in geometry and astronomy. He is said to have taught the Egyptians how to measure the height of the pyramids by means of their shadows. He is also credited with having
foretold an eclipse of the
The founder
sun
a very great
and
fire.
scientific achievement.
Thales taught, as did the other Ionic philosophers, that there are
four elements
all
Out
things in heaven
to
be made.
357. Pythagoras.
the island of Samos,
bom
on
most of
tion.
his later
whence his title of the " Samian Sage." The years were passed at Croton, in Southern Italy,
associa-
Legend
tells
how
fii^st
years of their
;
novitiate,
to
to look
upon
their
;
master
how
they listened
and how
in
other argument than the words Ipse dixit (he himself said
to Pythagoras, according to the legend, that
we
word
philosopher.
that he
Being asked of what he was master, he replied was simply a "philosopher," that'is, a "lover of wisdom.''
it is
held
and
his school.
They taught
is
it,
together with the other planets, revolves about a central globe of " the hearth, or altar, of the universe.''
1
fire,
2 8
at least of the tales which now pass as vEsop's fables are from oriental sources. Other members of the school were Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Heraclitus. These four elements correspond to the eighty or more elements of modern science.
Some
358]
ANAXAGORAS
3T9
358. Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras (about 500-427 b.c.) was the first Greek philosopher who made Mind, instead of necessity or chance, the arranging and harmonizing force of the -universe. " Reason rules the world " was his first maxim.^ In the views he held of the universe in general Anaxagoras was far in advance' of his age. He ventured
moon was somewhat like the earth, and inhabited and taught that the sun was not a god, but a glowing rock, as large,
to believe that the
He
age
Yet
this did
not
I
In banishment he
said, " It is
not
who have
The
philosophers of
spoken were
in general
or no practical value.
Sophists.^
(sect. 246).
We
in
They abandoned
we have
and the
men were
They
fees
their pupils.
Notwidi-
many
knowledge,
1
who
This world-ordering Mind, or Reason, of Anaxagoras was not quite the same as the
of the later philosophers, or as the personal
God
of the
of design or moral
2 In the teachings of Empedocles (about 492-432 E.G.) and Democritus (about 460370 B.C.) we meet with many speculations respecting the constitution of matter and the origin of things which are startlingly similar to some $f the doctrines held by modern scientists. Empedocles has been called the Father of the Evolution Idea. 8 The most noted of the Sophists were Protagoras, Gorgias, and Prodicus. 4 Not until the rise of modern science in the sixteenth century were physical phenomena again to absorb so much attention as they did in the earlier schools of Hellas.
320
[359
more
The
to them many harsh epithets, taunting them with selling wisdom and accusing them of boasting that they could " make the
and applied
true
lasting.
B.
Prodicus
lectured
of
century
c),
who
apologue, or text, of one of his discourses was the celebrated allegory, " The Choice of
teacher.
was such a
The
Heracles."
man
standing at a
part-
ways perplexed as
is
to
met by two women one, named Vice, urges him to lead him by an easy and pleasant path to the present gratification of every desire the other, named Virtue, urges him to follow her in the path in which she will direct his feet. Virtue promises him that the road shall lead him to exalted happiness, but she tells him that the way is long and steep and toilsome
hesitates he
to follow her,
As he
promising
;^
for
it
of self-denial, of painful
toil in
the service of
is
mankind.
The
evident from
the undying
won
men and
a place
among
138).
young
to
model for
irnitation,
eamesdy adjured
and
them
make
like self-denial
meed
of enduring praise
and honor.
Aside from the allegories and parables of the Bible, no allegory
probably ever exercised so great and lasting an influence over the
lives
of wide circles of
men
The Choice
laid
first
of
upon
of the
whom we
ii,
shall
next speak.
See
sect.
sect. 21.
36(5]
SOCRATES
321
360. Socrates.
instructive
Volumes could not contain all that would be both and interesting respecting the teachings and speculations
and
Aristotle.^
We
can,
Of
passed in grasp of
est hold
upon the
was unkind
him
in the
matter
.satyr's, so that
he invited
little
He
lovedv to gather a
in the streets,
and then
to
draw
out his
by a
series
of ingenious
to
questions.
,"
himself that
of the
He
has vesy
an
instructor.
In the young
have brought philosophy down from the heavens to the homes of men. Socrates taught the purest system pf
said to
known
one
Socrates Museum,
Naples)
which has been surpassed only by the precepts of the Great Teacher.
He
from doing what was wrong. He believed in the immortality of the soul and in a Supreme Ruler of the universe. Of his condemnation to death on the charge of impiety, and of his last hours with his devoted disciples, we have already spoken (sect. 266).
a guardian
spirit
1
We have met
Socrates and Aristotle before and noticed their relations to the main
current of Greek
2
life
Socrates was unfortunate in his domestic relations, Xanthippe, his wife, seems to have been of a practical turn of mind, and unable to sympathize with the abstracted ways of her husband, whose life at home she at times made very uncomfortable. Her name
down
as " the
synonym of the
typical scold."
322
[361
361. Plato.
whom
;
youth opened a
brilliant
but,
all
influence
up
and
Upon
exile.
experience"s.
He
finally
returned to
in
the Academy.
he
died
347 K.c,
years
laboripg
at
the
age
of
eighty-one
incessantly
upon
the
great works that bear his name. Probably in a. greater degree than any other
philosopher, ancient or modern, he com-
method
is
in conversation.
The
discourse
carried on
to his works.
ter,
He
;
Socrates,
much
of the philosophy
that he teaches
all
thought.
In the Republic
realized that
But he
was not yet ready for a perfect state, and so in his Laws he drew up what he himself designated as a " second-best constitution.'"^ It was in large part the laws, institutions, and customs of Sparta and of Athens improved and refined.
The Phmdo
disciples
is
an immortal argument
1
a record of the
last
his
our
intuitions,
Laws,
V, 739.
362]
are reminiscences
ARISTOTLE
323
of a past experience.^ Plato's doctrines have exerted a profound influence upon all schools of thought and all philosophies since his day. In some of his precepts he made a close approach to the teachings of Christianity. "We ought to become
like
God," he
is
and
to
become
like
Him
to
just
and wise."
As Socrates was surpassed by his disciple Plato, was Plato excelled by his pupil Aristotle (384-322 b.c), "the master of those who know." In him the philosophical genius of the
362. Aristotle.
so in turn
its
culminaall
It
the ages since his time have produced so profound and powerful an intellect
as his.
He
was born
Stagira,
in the
Macedois
nian
city
of
and hence
spent
in
After twenty
years
the
some
as
Aristotle,
has been noted, accepted the invitation of Philip II of Macedon to become the preceptor of his son, the young prince Alexander (sect. 278).
Fig.
141.
of what he owed to his old teacher, became his liberal patron, and, besides giving him large sums of money, aided him in his scientific studies by sending him collections of plants and animals gathered on distant expeditions. At Athens the great philosopher conversed with his favorite
disciples
1
Palace,
of preexistence
Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting The soul that rises with us, our life's star, Hath had elsewhere its setting, And Cometh from afar
Not
But
in entire forgetfulness,
in utter
And liot
nakedness, do we come From God, who is our home. Ode Oft Jitiiniations of Imnioriality
trailing clouds of glory,
324
the
[ 363
peripatein, " to
walk about
")
sometimes applied to
his
fertile
his philosophy.^
Among
politics,
the productions of
intellect
logic,
rhetoric,
morals and
Eor centuries
works were
and Constantinople,
nearly two thousand years, Aristotle ruled over the realm of mind
All teachers
"
him
as their guide
and master.
of
We
are
now
when
the. political
life
fast
overshadowed by
the
as
Rome. But the intellectAial life of the Greek race, we have learned, was by no means extinguished by the calamity
its
that ended
political
career.
For centtiKes
scholars
and philosophers of
people led a
brilliant
Among
Zeno
and
Epicurus,
whom we
have
already
the
close
movements
of the Hellenistic
Age
(sect. 302).
The
Stoic mofaT'cbde
man
to be
good should
Diogenes, who lived, so the story goes, in a wine jar (in'Sos), and went about Athens by daylight with a lantern, in search, as he said, of a man. The Cynics were, in a word, a race of pagan hermits
many
found
1
of
ignorant, yet
to be
men
By some
name
Lyceum
in
which
Aristotle taught.
354]
325
Zeno adopted
that
was good
in the
man y
of
i ts^
docin
and was,
believed
The
and
it
itself.
They
would be very
is
difficult to
that
"man's
to
do
his duty."
all
alike indifferent
were matters
composure
no moment.
lot that
to bear with
any
Any
is
sign of emotion
on account
of calamity
told of the
Thus a
certain Stoic,
when
sudden death of
was the
father of an immortal."
This Stoic code did not become a really important factor in the
moral
spirits
life
its
among
the Romans.
it
severaTcentunes
best
many
in
of the
men
of the
Roman
several emperors.
the rich
364. EpK;ufus~an3~Tlie
Epicureans.
(341-270
opposition
B.C.),
who was
to
the
Stoics, th at pleasure is
He recommended
;
virtue,
means
whereas
Be
amount
of happiness
Zeno
said,
Be
virtuous, because
you ought
to be.
Epicurus had
many
Roman
Empire.
Many of
these disciples,
whom
master to an excess that he himself would have been the first to condemn. Their whole philosophy of life was expressed in the proverb,
" Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow
we
die."
326
[365
The
have
contributions of the
laid
Some
of those
whom we
totle
The
From
lasting
much
and success.
work
what had already been achieved by the Egyptians and the Chaldeans. 365. Mathematics: Euclid and Archimedes. Alexandria, in Egypt,
under the Ptolemies
(sect. 310),
became the
seat of the
most
cele-
the
geometry as taught
our schools
to-day.
his pupil.
The
there
to
easier
no royal road
Syracuse, in
Sicily,
was
the
home
of
engi-
indicated
"
Give
me
I will
move
the world."
Among
mers and geographers the names of Aristarchus, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, Strabo, Pausanias, and Claudius Ptolemy are distinguished.
Aristarchus of Samos,
who
the
that the earth revolves about the sun as a fixed center and rotates
on
its
own
axis.
He
was
Greek Copernicus.
But
his
theory
was rejected by
geographer.
his
367]
lengths of the
327
in
Upper and
in
Lower Egypt
Hipparchus,
summer
solstice.
who
tury B.C., was, through his careful observations, the real founder of
scientific
astronomy.
He
'and
He
traveled
all
the countries
known
Greek
About two
Baedeker," wrote his Tour of Greece, a sort of guidebook, which is crowded with invaluable little items of interest concerning all the
places best worth visiting in Greece.
is
to
work
almost
geographical subjects.
In
this
way
it
name The
name
to
inseparably,
fairly his
system
which continued
in
be the received
later.
we
much
to
of healing,
and
make
it
he
is
called the
was
Known
to mediasval
title
Almagest, meaning
"
the greatest."
328
[367
The advance of the science of anatomy among the ancient Greeks was hindered by their feelings concerning the body, which caused them to look with horror upon its deliberate mutilation. Surprising
as the statement " the greatest of
may
all
appear,
it is
for the
communis}
This important
office
The
At Alexandria, however,
in the later
in
embalm-
Greek physicians greatly promoted the knowledge of anatomy not only by the dissection of dead bodies but even by the vivisection
of criminals
condemned
to death.'
Selections from the Sources. Plato, Republic (Jowett's trans.), ii, 379, 380 (on God as the author of good) and Phcedo ^(on immortaHty). References (Modern). Grote (ten-volume ed.), vol. iv, pp. 65-94 (Ionic
;
32-172 (the Sophists and Socrates). 29-68 (traces the development of the idea of evolution among the Greek philosophers). Burt, A Brief History
;
OSBORN, From
of Greek Philosophy. MARSHALL, A Short History of Greek Philosophy. MAYOR, Sketch of Ancient Philosophy. Turner, History of Philosophy, chaps, i-xx.
cation of the Greek People, chap,
(first-part). Davidson, The Eduv (on the teachings of Socrates). Leonard, Socrates : Master of Life. Zeller, The Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics. All these works are for the teacher and the advanced student. Topics for Class Reports, i. The life of Socrates: Leonard, Socrates: Master of Life, pp. 31-61. 2. Extempore declamations by the Sophists: Walden, The Universities of Aiicient Greece, chap. xi.
The
2
3
p. 240.
Some
practices
among
strilie
us as peculiar.
The
following
is
scription.
times the doctor took a Sophist along with him to persuade the patient to take his preProfessor Mahaffy comments thus upon .this practice: "This was done
it was the fashion to discuss everything in Greece, and people were not satissubmit silently to anybody's prescription, either in law, politics, religion, or
because
fied to
medicine."
CHAPTER XXX
SOCIAL LIFE OF THE
368. Education.
nastic, as
GREEKS
it
was
;
chiefly
gym-
we have
was a
but at Athens
in private
These schools were of all kinds, ranging from those kept by the most obscure teachers, who gathered their pupils in some
recess of the street, to those established in the Athenian
Academy
Plato,
and
Aristotle.
It was only the boys who received education. These Grecian boys, Professor Mahaffy believes, were " the most attractive the world has
ever seen."
At
all
events,
more
of the national
In the nursery the boy was taught the beautiful myths and stories mythology and religion.^ At about seven he entered
slave
known
1
as
z.
observed.
At the birth of a child, many customs of a significant character were carefully Thus at Sparta the new-bom infant was first cradled on a. shield, which
life
while at Athens the child was laid Athena, by which act was emblemized and invoked the protection of that patron goddess. Infanticide was almost universally practiced throughout Greece. (At Thebes, however, the exposure of children was prohibited by severe laws.) Such philosophers as Plato and Aristotle saw nothing in the
upon a mantle
custom to condemn. Among the Spartans, as we have already learned (sec. 175), the state determined what infants might be preserved, condemning the weakly or ill-formed to be cast out to die. At Athens and in other states the right to expose his child was given to the father. The infant was abandoned in some desert place, or left in some frequented spot in the hope that it might be picked up -and cared for. Greek literature, like that of every other people of antiquity, is filled with stories and dramas turning upon points afforded by this common practice. The career of Sargon of Agade, of Cyrus the Great of Persia, of the Hebrew Moses, of O^^dipus of Thebes, of Romulus and Remus of Roman legend, and a hundred others, are all prefaced by the same story of exposure and fortunate rescue.
329
330
boys
tics,
[369
His studies were grammar, music, and gymnasthe aim of the course being to secure a symmetrical development
teacher.
alike.
;
not a
of
Grammar
music, which
and
in the
p^an
of the
The
him
for the
Olympic
battle struggles in
Upon
ation
in
rolled in the
of citizens.
his "
But
his gradu-
commencement
there
a
much more
real sense
Never was
life
was so emphatically a
ture.
The
cotta
gra
Louvre, Paris)
tions of
games
zens of the Greek
cities
efficient
among
the
citi-
among any other people (see sect. Woman. Although there are
238).
in
Greek
some
womanhood,
the general tone of the literature betiays a deep contempt for as " the greatest social blot upon
Thucydides
woman
is
who
is least
for evil."
370]
THEATRICAL ENTERTAINMENTS
inferior place in the
331
Greek home.
Her
posi-
and modern, or
spin,
^^'estern,
Her main
duties
were
to
cook and
self
and
whom
she her-
was virtually one. In the fashionable society of Ionian cities she was seldom allowed to appear in public, or to meet, even in her own house, the male friends of her husband. In Sparta, however, and in
Dorian states generally, also in
freedom,
..^Eolis,
and was a
Among
state es-
Greeks the
theater
was a
A Gkekk
ing of the
the
paint-
origin
and
of
century
B. c.)
character of the
(sect.
drama
The master on
him
picture
is
left is
;
340),
all
matters
ing on a
staff is
who
has brought
care
and concern of
Theatrical performances, being religious acts, were pre-
the state.
honor of Dionysus. The spectators sat under the open sky and the pieces followed one after the other in close succession from early
morning
till
nightfall.
While the better class of actors were highly honored, ordinary players
were held in very low esteem, in which matter the Greek stage presents a parallel to that of England in the sixteenth century. And as in
the Elizabethan age the writers of plays were frequently also the perforrriers,
became an
actor
332
assumed
Still
[371
and
is
own
pieces.
another parallel
in the
Greek dramas,
as
it
was
in
England
in
later
elaborate.
The
by wearing
thick-soled buskins, an
garments.
The
actor in
comedy wore
ancient comic actor, and the buskin that of the tragic actor, these
foot coverings have
come to be used as the symbols respectively comedy and tragedy, as in the familiar lines of Dryden
Great Fletcher never treads in buskins here.
of
Nor
The
formed
perthat
the
of the
to
and
later,
when with
the
the
stage was one of the chief agents in the diffusion of Greek culture
and
Symposia.
parties
among
from
some
them
apart
similar entertainments
among
other people.
guests
in
a reclining position,
in the oriental
The banquet proper was partaken, in later times, by the upon couches or divans arranged about
manner. After the usual courses a
.sung in
libation
the table
was poured
that
out and a
hymn
known
as the symposium.
It consisted
to
accompaniment of the
lyre passed
from hand
to hand.
Someand
girls, jugglers,
372]
jesters
OCCUPATIONS
were
called in to contribute to the
333
All the while
merrymaking.
man might
much
gone
in
as he could carry
in years.''
home
without a guide,
drink " as
Here
also the
Greeks applied
their
too much."
unknown
The banqueters
usually
in
merrymaking, some-
times being broken in upon from the street by other bands of revelers,
who made themselves self-invited guests. The symposium must at times, when the
by such persons as Socrates and Aristophanes, have been " a feast of reason and a flow of
soul " indeed.
XenoSymleft
phon
in his
Banquet
and Plato
us
in his
a memorable re-
tainment.
372.
Occupations.
ancient
the
Fig. 144.
A Banquet
Scene
Greece
relieved
free population
from most of those forms of labor classed as drudgery. the hands was thought degrading, and was left
and
aliens.
Speaking on
this subject
Plutarch says
"
No
we admire
At Sparta and
vailed the citizens
in other states
where
formed a
already appeared,
The
Spartans,
it
wfll
be
recalled,
were
forbid-
states, as at
Thebes,
man by engaging
334
SOCIAL LIFE OF
states,
THE GREEKS
[373
in gen-
In the democratic
eral
citizens
were
traders, artisans,
included in what
roll
we
body of
well-to-do farmers
whose residence was outside the city walls. The slopes of the encircling hills were dotted with
inviting farmhouses.
subject
a large
number
the
more or
citizen.
from
all
parts
of
the
empire,
gave constant
employment to nearly one fourth of the citizens, the fee that the juryman received enabling him to live, if he lived narrowly, without
other business.
It is said that, in the early
jury-
men were
appeared
employment
for a vast
number
class
workmen
of every class.
sole occupation, as
was
to talk.
The
by
impressed with
the
saying,
"AH
or
373. Slavery.
there
is
some new thing" (Acts xvii, 21). There is a dark side to Greek
to almost
all
life
as in truth
ancient hfe.
Hellenic
art, culture,
refinement
" these
upon
of slavery."
373]
SLAVERY
in
it
335
Greece.
is
No
numbered the free population. Almost every freeman was a slave owner. It was accounted a real hardship to have to get along with
less
than half a dozen slaves. This large class of slaves was formed
*"in
various ways.
In the
entire popu-
war still augmented the ranks of these unfortunates. Their number was also largely added to by the slave traffic carried on with the barlater times, the ordinary captives of
the Peloponnesus.
During
further
demned to servitude, and foundlings were usually brought up as slaves. The relation of master and slave was regarded by the Greek as
being not only a legal but a natural one.
view, could not exist without slavery.
It
both the family and the state, the relation bi master and slave being regarded as " strictly analogous to the relation of soul and body."
Even
Aristotle
that slaves
were simply domestic animals possessed of intelligence.-' They were considered just as necessary in the economy of the family
In general, Greek slaves were not treated harshly, according
to
as cooking utensils.
Some
held
The
sale of
a slave by a Greek to
At
lot
Sparta, however,
of the
bondsman
was
1
peculiarly hard
This harsh,
and unendurable.
selfish theory, it should be noted, was somewhat modified and relaxed the slave class, through the numerous captives of the unfortunate civil wars, came to be made up in considerable part of cultured Greeks, instead of being, as was the case in earlier times, composed almost exclusively of barbarians, or of inferior branches of
when
the Hellenic race, between whom and their cultured masters there was the same difference in mental qualities as existed between the negro slaves and their masters in our own country. The sentiment that a slave was an unfortunate person, rather than an inferior being, came to prevail a sentiment which aided in preparing the way for the Christian doctrine of the universal brotherhood of man.
336
[373
If ever slavery
by
its
fruits,
its
it
was
in Greece.
The
brilliant civilization of
the Greeks
was
it.
As one
Without the
slaves
the Attic democracy would have been an impossibility, for they alone
rich, to
affairs."
class
We
find
an almost exact
Such a
society has
to
may be
base
dark shadows.
but
it
The
civilization of ancient
and
attractive,
ARrsxoTLE,
T/ie
Paliiics,
viii
(on education).
Xenophon, Symposium,
References (Modern).
i,
iv.
Blumner,
Home
Walden, The
Mahaffy,
and Thought fselected chapters) and Old Greece, Ancient and Modern, vol. i, pp. 271-511 (pictures the life of Greece). GuHL and Koner, Life of the Greeks
Greek Life
and
the
Romans
(first part).
GuLICK, Life of
TuCKER,
Especially noteworthy among recent books of importance to students of Greek home life, education, religion, and culture is Caroline Dale Snedeker's The Coward of ThermopylcE (Doubleday, Page & Gompany, 1911). This work, while fiction in form,
intimate knowledge,
is history in reality. It portrays, with deep sympathy and and always with conscienticms fidelity to historical facts, and thought in the fifth century E. c, that is, in the days
i. Greek education: Bliimner, Home Life of Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks, chap, vii; Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, chap. ix. z. Student days Walden, The
3.
;
Social
life
and entertainments
Greeks, chap. xv.
chap.
5.
vii.
4.
PART
III.
ROME
The
Italian
Morthern,
peninsula
Central,
and
Sflitthexu. Italy.
The
first
the river
.
Po (Fadus),
lying
In ancient times
this part of
Gallia
Cisalpina lay between these two districts, occupying the finest portion
of the valley of the Po.
It received its
from the
way over
the mountains
rich lands.
Ast^vI
The
cQ.ui;^tf| ps
of
,
f SCfraLTtj^y were
Etruria, Latium,
;
and Campania,
Umbria and Picenum, looking Sea and Samnium and the coun;
rough mountain
districts of
the
Apennines.
districts of Apulia,
Lucania,
and Bruttium.
The
as
we have
Magna
G raecia,
or
this
During the Middle Ages this name was transferred forms the Calabria of to-day.
337
and
33^
[375
Greek
that
established
on these
The
south,
large island of
on
the
may be
Italy, so
intimately has
Greece
and Spain
has a
two
high
THE MOUNTAIJf
STSTEII OF
HALT
mountain
along
its
northern frontier.
Correspond-
ing to the Pindus range in Greece, the Apennines run as a great central
they spread out into broad uplands, which in early times nourished
a race of hardy mountaineers, of the
who
more
civilized
Thus
Roman
reflected
for
and Lowlanders.
375]
339
large northern
already mentioned,
lying
the rivers draining the western slopes of the Apennines, the one possessing the greatest historic interest is the "Eber, on the banks of which
volume.
Among
Rome
is
the
and south of
it,
The
finest
Italian harbors, of
is the most on the western
are
The
eastern coast
is
precipi-
tous, with
Italy
What makes
this
circumstance
Mommsen
it
expresses
it,
each other.
This brought
and the
cities
of Greece
had almost
Fig. 145.
(From a photograph)
many
centuries.
There were
They had
all,
save
way
The
tain race
and
origin,
dwelt in Etruria,
now
called
Tuscany
after
art was acquired by the Metropolitan City at a cost of ^48,000. It was found in an ancient Etruscan cemetery (1901). Almost every part of the chariot, including the wheels, was sheathed in figured bronze. The relic probably dates from the seventh century B.C.
1
Museum
New York
340
them.''
[376
the sea.
rise of the
Roman
of
Magna
Grsecia.
The Etruscans
and imparted and
in their turn
of the early
Romans
to
them
and various
religious ideas
cities in
Sicily
we have
of
these
an acquaintance.
Fig. 146.
Wall Painting
of an Etruscan Banquet
From an Etruscan tomb of the fifth century B. c. This cot illustrates, among other things, the state of art among the Etruscans at that early date. Banqueting scenes are favorite representations on Etruscan tombs, sarcophagi, and funeral urns. The participators
"
were represented in the height of social enjoyment to symbolize the bliss on which their spirits had entered" (Dennis, Cities and Cemetertes of Etruria)
Romans were
in
letters
matters
The
Italians,
many
etc.)
tribes or
They were
peninsula,
kin to the Greeks and brought with them into the where they probably mixed with an aboriginal population,
376]
EARLY INHABITANTS
most part
that of shepherds
(JF
ITALY
Their
life
341
common
for the
was
and farmers.
were the Latins, who
society, govits
Romans.
kings,
under
later
we
pp. 2-4.
Munro's Source Book of Roman History, admirable collection of extracts from the sources an invaluable aid in imparting a sense of life and reality to the story
Selections from the Sources.
The teacher
Rome.
of ancient
Moiimsen,
i
vol.
i,
chaps,
i,
ii.
Freeman,
Historical
(text),
Merivale, vol. iv, pp. 414-416 (for some interesting observaix, X. on the evidence afforded by ancient geographical names of the wooded character of the districts about Rome in early times). How and T.EroH, History of Home, chaps, i, ii. Shuckburgh, History of Some, chaps, ii, iii. ALLCKorx and Masom, Tutorial History of Rome, pp. 1-18. Dennis, The Cities and Cemeteries of Etmria, vol. i, introduction (the author probably exaggerates the debt which the early civilization of Rome owed to the preceding culture of Etruria). Leland, Etniscan- Roman Remains. Topics for Class Reports, i. Geographical conditions tending to make the history of Italy different from that of Greece Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, vol. i (text), pp. 7-9. 2. Explain the historian Freeman's statement that " the course of all history has been determined by the geological fact that certain hills by the Tiber were lower and nearer together than the other hills
:
of Latium."
Italian
is
3.
"While
is
turned towards the west" (Mommsen); geographical fact on the history of each land.
CHAPTER XXXII
ROME AS A KINGDOM
I.
name probably
was dotted with
signifies,
strongly
like
hill-states lived in
the
city, in
they ploughed
or the
common
The
served as a
common
It
was
and
religious
festivals.
Latium
These had
formed an
situated
Among these
low
sea.
hills
hill-towns
left
on a
cluster of
on the
the
fifteen miles
from the
At
dawn
in the
1
In earlier times the leadership was held by Alba Longa, a city on the isolated
Alban Mount
342
379]
INFLUENCE OF COMMERCE
343
destined to play such a great role in history, had been formed by the
union in prehistoric times of three or more settlements, the dwellings of which were
hills
just
mentioned.
to unite
to call
Pressed probably by
to
common
come
on equal terms
little
form a
single city-state,
name
Romans.
of these
history of
tributing
first
in
and
the
strength
among
it
all
Latin city-states,
to
helped
po-
fortunes.
Early Rome.
Besides
villages,
The
course of
all
Kistory [has]
and
rapid
hills
growth of Rome.
Among
Latium."
Freeman
of
must be given to the advantages in the way of trade and commerce afforded by its fortunate situation upon the Tiber. Its distance from
the sea protected
early times
it
who
in
swarmed
cattle
its
fields
on the
made
it
the
its tributaries.
Furthermore,
this posi-
upon a navigable
river
far
control of
an important sea-borne
traffic.
344
II.
ROME
AS A
KINGDOM
[380
380. The
Roman Family;
society
Ancestors.
unit
base
of
Roman
and forming
smallest
At was
the the
family.
The
typical
Roman
family consisted of
their
When
a daughter
member
husband
In early times
his
in
punishment he should
He
The
a
father
was
common
worship.
divinities
and the
spirits of ancestors.
These
latter
were believed
meat and drink, was thought, watch over the living members of the family and aid and prosper them in their daily work and in all their undertakings. If they were neglected, however, these spirits became restless and suffered pain, and in their anger would bring trouble in some form upon their undutiful kinsmen. It was particularly this worship of ancestors that made the Roman
old hearth.
If provided with frequent offerings of
they would,
it
it
to
close
its
doors against
strangers
its
only by their
own
kith
and
kin.
By a
same
its
rights as its
members
festivals.
by^ birth or
by marriage
in
to
participate in
worship and
When
father
became
the
free,
full
and each
his
exercise
381]
THE FAMILY
IN
ROMAN HISTORY
Roman
History.
It
345
would be
of those
at least
some
Romans
It
that contributed so
much
to
Rome, and that helped to give her was in the 'atmosphere of the family
youth the virtues of obedience,
to law
were nourished
the
in the
Roman
citizen,
of deference to
authority,
and of submission
and custom.
When
respect
youth became a
obedjfince to
instinct
magistrates and
him an
religion.
how
obey
how
Roman
Tiow to
command
as well
wisdom, moderation,
Besides
and
justice.
of
the
Family
Clients
and Slaves.
members
usually a
were attached
of depende nts. These were the clients and was a person standing in a semiservile relation to The class the head of the family, who was called his patron. of clients was probably made up largely of homeless refugees or
slaves.
numb er
The
client
strangers
from other
cities,
or
of freed
slaves
dwelling in
their
They were
free to
engage
in business at
Rome
was
and
to accumulate property,
legal tribunals.
of the
client,
to his
making of contributions
-
money
to aid
him
in
The
slaves
constituted merely
Roman
family,
and these
fields.
home and
not in the
They
relieved the
It
household.
was not
times,
when luxury
became
crept
into
Rome,
that
the
number
of
domestic
slaves
excessively
346
ROME AS A KINGDOM
This was probably in the
[383
383. The Clan, the Curia, the Tribe, and the City.
family stood the clan or gens.
Above
the
earliest
members
Yet they
all
have had a
common
and so
The gens, like the family, had a comttion altar. The next largest group or division of the community was the curia, which, like the Greek phratry (sect. 154), was a "brotherhood," the members of which were united by the ties of religion and blood. This was the most important political division of the people in early Rome. Levies for the army were made by curiae, and voting in the primitive assembly of the people, as we shall explain
presently,
bodies.
There were
thirty curiae
in primitive
Rome.
was the
tribe,
Above
the curias
the largest
subdivision of the
tribes,
community.
In early
Rome
there
were three
each com-
Greece
(sect..
154),
that
it
like
As such which we
possessed a constitution
will
384. The
Roman
state stood a king, the father of his people, holding essentially the
same
hold.
relation to
He
was
commander
of the army,
serv-
He
was preceded by
to punish
an ax bound
therein, the
symbol of
his
power
by flogging
and by putting to death. Next to the king stood the Senate, a body composed of the
"fathers," or heads of the ancient clans of the community.
Two
the
important
king,
functions of
the
Senatfi_were
all
togivecoynssLto
assembly of
385]
347
the freemen of
a vote in this assembly should be noted, for the usage here was
followed in
all
The
that
is,
each curia
lost
had one
It
modern
legislature,
is,
a meeting
blies at
like,
New
assem-
Rome were
How
was upon the political fortunes of Rome we shall learn later. 386. The Rights of Roman Citizenship. The rights of the Roman
were divided
into private rights
citizen
and public
rights.
The
chief
private rights were two, namely, the right of trade (/j commercii)
and the right of marriage (Jus connubii). The right of trade or commerce was the right to acquire, to hold, and to bequeath property (both personal and landed) according to the forms of the Roman law. This in the ancient city was an important right and privilege.^
The
right of marriage
and
reli-
gious marriage."
in early
Rome
citizen
The
Roman
were the
and the
right of appeal
from the
rights
These rights taken together constituted the most highly valued and prerogatives of the Roman citizen. What we should
is
particularly notice
that
the
Romans adopted
the
practice
of
For
instance,
in
Roman
348^
ROME
AS A
KINGDOM
those of
[387
all
citizenship,
another perhaps
third place
of
would
and
be bestowed
created
this,
all
public.
This usage
state
;
many
Roman
was one of tho most important matters connected with the internal history of Rome.
as will appear later,
In early
Rome
known
as patricians
and plebeians}
The patricians They alone possessed all the preceding section. Some
shared with the
we
guarded as the
own
order.
The plebeians (irompkbs, " the multitude '") were the humbler members of the community. Some of this class were shopkeepers, artisans, and manual laborers living in Rome; but the larger number were
small landowners living outside the city in scattered hamlets, and
tilling
with their own hands their little farms From what has already been said of them,
will
Roman
But from
and
They could not contract a legal marriage with one order. They could not hold office or appeal from
Rome
and
as a republic
is
made up
to better their
political equality
RELIGION
Roman
History.
In Rome, as in
was an
The
many
of primitive Rome, but nothing certain is known about it. It is possible that the patricians were the offspring of the invading Indo-Europeans (sect. 376), and the plebeians the descendants of the subjected non-Aryan people. See Frank, Homan Imperialism^ p. 12.
389]
349
was connected
is
in
of the
political
temple or the
history of the
sacrifices of
the altar,
Romans
389. The
Practical
Religion.
The
Roman
was
Hence
the
Roman
way very
religious,
in render-
He
equivalent
for the sacrificial victims that he offered them, for the incense that
he hung up
in their temples,
costly
games and
And the gods, on their part, were ready to meet this expectation. They gave counsel and help to their faithful followers, and secured them good harvests and a successful issue of their undertakings. On
the other hand, neglect angered the gods and caused them to bring
upon
all
drought,
and
flood, pestilence
and famine.
Roman
religion
was
its
legal
for the
Roman
religion
was a
sort of contract
between
If the
theirs.
But the
Roman was
making
in
all
his
like
gods
like
manner.
Hence
the prescribed
in the
be no flaw
sometimes a
Chief
sacrifice
thirty
was some
in
little
oversight or mistake.
of
390. The
Roman
Deities.
At the head
all
the
Roman
with
pantheon stood
Jupiter,
identical
essential
attributes
He
was the
special
protector of the
Roman
3S0
people.
ROME AS A KINGDOM
To
[391
of wisdom,
of
him, together with Juno his wife, and Minerva goddess was consecrated a magnificent temple upon the summit the Capitoline Hill, overlooking the forum and the city. Mars, the god of war, was the favorite deity and the fabled father
of the
Roman
race,
dren of Mars."
war-god.
Martial
first
who were fond of calling themselves the They proved themselves worthy offspring
during the
games and festivals were celebrated in his honor the month which bore, month of the Roman year and still bears, in his honor, the name
of March.
whom
sacred,
the
as
month
were
of
January was
all
also
gates and
doors.
The
The
fire
was regarded
favorite
goddess Vesta.
Fig. 147.
(From
Roman
Greeks,
391. Oracles
and Divination.
will
The Romans,
like
the
to
of the gods
was communicated
men by
means of
oracles,
coincidences.
and by strange sights, unusual events, or singular There were no true oracles at Rome. The Romans, had recourse
to those of the Greeks. Particularly
therefore, often
in
great
seek
advice
oracle of Apollo at Delphi. From Etruria was introduced the art of the haruspices, or soothsayers, which consisted in discovering the
will of
This art came originally from Babylonia, probably by way of Asia Minor,
351
colleges
The
four
chief
sacred
or
of
were the
K eepers
of the Sibylline
Aygurs, the
C ollege
of pontiff s,
The
Sibylline
of which
was
lost in fable.
special
custodians were
The books
in times of
extreme danger
(sect. 431).
the
members
lege of
of the Colto
Augurs was
or auspices,
which
sights or
were casual
by
it
which
means
Fig. 148.
was
believed that
Jupiter
his wUl.
made known
Great
in
skill
was required
pices," as
usual
way
of foretelling
the
future events
" taking of the ausit was called. No business of importance, public or priwas entered upon without the auspices being first consulted to ascertain whether they were favorable.
vate,
The
.so
one of
the duties of
members was
to
keep
Romans
religious matters.
The head
of the college
Maximns, or "Chief Bridge Builder," which title was assumed by the Roman emperors, and after them by the Christian bishops of Rome and thus the name has come down to was
called Pontifex
;
our times.
The College
of
all
public
the
Roman
people
352^
ROME AS A KINGDOM
state,
it
[393
was the duty of a herald to proceed to the frontier of the enemy's country and hurl over the boundary a spear dipped in blood. This was a declaration of war. The Romans were very
careful in the observance of this ceremony.^
reli-
games and
festivals.
so-
called Circensian
They
main,
athletic
of
chariot-racing,
foot-racing,
contests.
festivals, as in the
These
of
skill,
gods delighted
;
strength, or endurance
;
by such spectacles
ing of the year
games be
was customary
for the
Roman
magistrates, in the
festivals, pro-
name
games and
vided good crops, protection from pestilence, and victory to their arms
were vouchsafed
to the
Roman
at last
Towards the
religious
character,
and
shows
given
by ambitious leaders
purpose of
winning
popularity.
festival
It
god of sowing.
who were
the
is
hence the
significance
we
attach to
word saturnalian.
The well-known
Roman
carnival of to-day
1 Besides the members of the learned colleges there were priests, called flamines, who had the oversight of the worship of Jupiter, Mars, Quirinus, and other special deities. 2 " The games were an entertainment offered to the Quests [the gods, who were the
''
guests of honor,"] which were as certainly believed tot be gratifying to their sight as a review of troops or a deer hunt to a modem European sovereign." V\^heeler,
Dionysos
and Immoriality,
p.
394]
353
Date
The
early
government of
tradition,
Rome was
embraced
The
regal period,
according to
To span
lawgiver
kings
Romulus,
legends of the
the
Romans
tell
;
founder of
Rome
Numa,
the
TuUus
Hostilius and
government and second founder of the state bus, the haughty tyrant whose oppressions
the people of the office of king.^
by
The
pened
fact
and
We
cannot be quite
affairs,
Respecting
Roman
however,
under the
origin,
who were
certainty
of Etruscan
which we
matters
some important things are related, the may rely upon with a fair degree of
substantial truth of
;
and these
we
395. Growth of
the Tarquins.
Latium.
thus given
Rome was
The
;
original walls
dition says
Tullius,
which,
was
tra-
with a great circuit of seven miles, swept around the entire cluster
of seven
that
hills
Rome
on the south bank of the Tiber, whence the acquired of " the City of the Seven Hills." marshy ground between the
chief hills
name
re-
A
1
large tract of
ment, on the
Rome
it is
mind the
founding of the
city,
reckoned dates from that year. 2 For some of the best-known legends of early Rome, see Legends of Early Rome, at the end of this chapter.
354
which at
ROME AS A KINGDOM
a later period
[396
was covered with a vault of masonry. The land thus reclaimed became the Forum, the public market place of the early city. At one end of this public square, as we should call it, was the Comitium, an inclosure where assemblies for voting purposes were held. Standing on the dividing line between the
Comitium and the Forum proper was the speakers' stand, later named the Rostra} This assembling place was in later times enlarged and decorated with various monuments and surrounded with
did buildings and porticoes.
splen-
Here
more was
said, resolved
upon, and
Servius
Tullius:
the Four
the
Five
Classes
It
and
New
Tribes.
was
whom
tradition
attributes
in
a
the
Roman
i
state.^
He Jiade_ property
birth, or
nstead
of
(From a photograph)
Until recently the existing arch work of the " great sewer " was believed to be of
membership inthS^imiand
tribes,
tive
curias
the basis
Etruscan origin, but excavations made in the Forum in 1903 prove that this dates from the later Republic
was composed
foot soldiers
of three thousand
tribes
state
made
enemies.
2
The reform
itself is
an historical
It
fact,
but
it
is
possible that
397]
of
THE
ARMY-,
THE LEGION
35S
o'riginal
Rome
had come
all
to
army by
requiring
to
assume a place
of persons thus
made
to the
was
amount
largest landowners,
most
of
whom
at this time
were
patricians,
were enrolled
classes,
to provide them-
selves with
prietors,
classes,
who made up
were
upon
At
the
same
now
created four
new
walls.^
Though
different
these
new
divisions of
still
they
were very
in
name.
Memwhile
mined by membership
397. The
birth
in
or
relationship,
tribes
was
Army;
T^^jinit
^^^^^^ ^^^^^
Soldier
nSme
hundred men.^
form
t he
legio n,
which thus at
its
normal strength
Somewhat
later, after
city,
confined to the
the expulsion of the kings (sect. 400), these four tribes were and the territory outside was divided into seventeen new tribes,
known as 2 Thus
rural tribes.
new tribes were like our wards or townships. As new territory was Romans through conquest, new tribes were created, until there were finally thirty-five, which number was never exceeded. 3 Later the number of the body was increased so that the term century lost all
numerical significance.
3S6
Republic.
ROME AS A KINGDOM
The
tactical
'[398
Magna Grsecia. This legion phalanx had probably a front of five hundred men and a depth of six ranks. The heavy-equipped citizens made up the front ranks, the light-equipped the rear.
There were at the period of the Servian reforms four legions. Two, composed of the younger men, were for service in the field the remaining two, made up of the older citizens, formed a sort of home guard. Besides the four legions there was a cavalry force of
eighteen hundred men-,
made up
of
This
brought the
service,
total strength
home
up
to
The assembling
and
outside the city walls, on a large plain called the or Field of Mars.
The meeting
of these military
Assembly of Centuries.
This body,
of the
in
among them
num-
The reforms
of Servius
social
and
political equality
state
The new
constitution, indeed, as
Mommsen
rights
;
says,
it was not long before they demanded^ all the rights of citizens and as the bearers of arms they were able to enforce their demands.^ 400. The Expulsion of the Kings. The legends, as already noted,
citizens,
Rome.
He
is
represented
whose
participated in
at Rome was part of a revolution which seems to have been by all the peoples of Greece and Italy who had reached the city stage of development. Thus, at just about the time that traditiqn represents Servius Tullius as effecting his reform at Rome, Clisthenes, the Athenian legislator, was instituting a similar reform in the constitution of Athens (cf. sect. 204).
400]
357
exile.
his
house into
This
B.C.,
Roman
509
only one year later than the expulsion of the tyrants from Athens
(sect.
203).
Greeks
(sect. 143),
came
in search of a
new home
Alba
and
later at
At length
a usurper seized the throne, and caused the twin heir-princes, of whoni the god Mars was declared to be the father, to be thrown into the Tiber. The cradle in which the babes were borne was cast upon the land by the strong current. Attracted by the cries of the children, a she-wolf directed her course to them, and with the greatefst tenderness nursed them.
Finally a shepherd, discovering the babes in the care of the wolf, took
to his
them
home and
own
children.
When grown to be men, Romulus and Remus, for so the brothers were named, having put to death the usurper, resolved to build a city on the spot where they had been exposed and rescued. Unhappily, in a quarrel as to which should give name to the new city, Remus was killed by his brother. Thus Romulus was left as the sole founder of the city, which was
called
Rome
after him.
The Romans Capture the Sabine Women for Wives. The new city, having been made by Romulus a sort of asylum or refuge for the discontented and the outlawed of all the surrounding states, soon became very populous, and more powerful than either Lavinium or Alba Longa. But there were few women among its inhabitants. Romulus therefore sent embassies to the neighboring cities to ask that his people might take wives from among them.
But the adjoining nations were averse to entering into marriage alliances with men of the new city. Thereupon the Roman youth determined to secure by violence what they could not obtain by other means. Romulus appointed a great festival, and invited to the celebration all the surrounding peoples. The Sabines especially came in great numbers with their wives and daughters.
the
Roman
rushed
among
homes the
This violation of the laws of hospitality led to a war on the part of the injured Sabines against the Romans. Peace, howdaughters of their guests.
ever,
1
From
ii.
Ancient Rome.
3S8
ROME
AS A
KINGDOM
[400
who, as the wives of their captors, had become reconciled to their lot. The two nations were now combined into one, the Sabines removing to one of the Seven Hills. Each people, however, retained its own king but upon
;
Romans and
to the skies,
the Sabines.
Romulus ruled over both the During a thunderstorm Romulus was caught up
and Numa Pompilius ruled in his stead. The Combat between the Horatii and the Curiatii. In process of time a war broke out between Rome and Alba Longa. It might be called a civil war, for the Romans and Albans were alike descendants of the Trojan exiles. The two armies were ready to engage in battle when it was proposed that the controversy should be decided by a combat between three Alban brothers named the Curiatii, and three Roman brothers known as the Horatii. The nation whose champions gained the victory was to rule over the other. On the signal being given, the combat began. Two of the Romans soon fell lifeless, and the three Curiatii. were wounded. The remaining Roman, who was unhurt, was now surrounded by the three Albans. To avoid their united attack, he turned and fled, thinking that they, being wounded, would almost certainly become separated in following him. This and when Horatius, looking back as he fled, saw the did actually happen Curiatii to be following him at different intervals, he turned himself about and fell upon his pursuers, one after the other, and despatched them. So in accordance with the terms of the treaty which the two cities had made, conditioned on the issue of the fight between the champions, Rome held dominion over Alba Longa. But the league between the Romans and the Albans was soon broken, and then the Romans, demolishing the houses of Alba Longa, carried off all the inhabitants to Rome, and incorporated
;
them with the Roman state.-' The Exploit of Horatius Codes. After the expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome, they besought Porsenna, king of Clusium, a powerful city of Etruria, to espouse their cause, and help thera to regain the kingly power at Rome. Porsenna lent a favorable ear to their solicitations, and made war upon the Roman state. As his army drew near to Rome, all the people from the surrounding country hastened within the city gates. The bravery of a single man, Horatius Codes, alone prevented the enemy from effecting an entrance into the city. This man was posted as a guard on the Subhcian Bridge, which led across the Tiber from the citadel of the Janiculum. The
Janiculum having been taken by the enemy,
in great disorder across the bridge,
its defenders were retreating and the victors following closer after. Horatius Codes called after his fleeing companions to break down the bridge, while he held the pursuers at bay. Taking his stand at the farther
1
i,
26.
400]
359
enemy
entrance of the bridge, he, with the help of two comrades, held the
in check, while the structure
was being destroyed. As the bridge fell with a crash into the stream, Codes leaped into the water, and amidst a shower
in safety to the Roman side. Through his bravery he had His grateful countrymen erected a statue to his honor, and voted him a plot of land as large as he could plough in a single day. The Fortitude of Mucius Scaevola. Failing to take Rome by assault, Porsenna endeavored to reduce it by a regular siege. After the investment had been maintained for a considerable time, a Roman youth, Gaius Mucius by name, resolved to deliver the city from the presence of the besiegers by going into the camp of the enemy and killing Porsenna. Through a mistake, however, he slew the secretary of the king instead of the king himof darts
swam
saved Rome.
was seized and brought into the presence of Porsenna, who him with punishment by fire unless he made a full disclosure of the Roman plots. Mucius, to show the king how little he could be moved by threats, thrust his right hand into a flame that was near, and held it there unflinchingly until it was consumed. Porsenna was so impressed by the fortitude of the youth, that he dismissed him without punishment. From the loss of his right hand, Mucius received the surname of Sccvola,
self.
He
threatened
"
The
Left-handed."
Plutarch, Romulus and Numa (in the case mind that he is read-
folklore
but
it
is
Roman
history to
the
Romans
LiVY, i, ii (a choice may be made among the early legends). Munro's Source Book, pp. 4-19; Davis's Readings. {KomeJ, pp. 5-15. Secondary Works. Mommsen, vol. i, bk. i, chaps, iv-xv. Coulanges, T/ie Ancient City, bk. i, chaps, i-iv, "Ancient Beliefs"; bk. ii, chap, i, "Religion was the Constituent Principle of the Ancient Family " chap, a, " The Gens at Rome and in Greece." Duruy, vol. i, chaps, i, iv. How and Leigh, History of Rome, pp. 2052, 288-293. Seignobos (Fairly ed.), History of the Roman
early kings).
;
People, chaps,
Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, bk. i, chaps, ii, ill. FowLER, The City-state of the Greeks and Rom-ans, " The Organization chaps, ii, HI. Morey, Outlines of Roman Law, chap, of Early Roman Society.'' ABiioxT, Roman Political Institutions, chaps. I, ii. Greenidge, Roman Public Life, chap. i. Topics for Class Reports, i. The family cult and \h& patria potestas
ii,
iv.
i,
Johnston, The Private Life of the Romans, pp. 28-32 Wllklns, Roman AntiiptiWilkins, Roman Antiquities, chap. i. 2. The Roman character ties, chap. iii. 3. The position of women Johnston, The Private Life of the Romans, pp. 64-66.
;
:
4.
Prehistoric
Rome
"
Lanciani, Ancient
Rome
eries,
chap,
ii,
Prehistoric Life of
Rome."
CHAPTER XXXIII
THE EARLY REPUBLIC PLEBEIANS SECURE EQUALITY WITH THE PATRICIANS
;
(509-367 B.C.)
With
work
to reorganize the
government.
some
period.
"dread fasces"
(Fig. 151).
Each consul had the power of obstructing the acts or vetoing the of the other. This was called the " right of intercession." This division of authority weakened the executive, so that in times of
commands
it
was necessary
officer
to
appointment of a special
term of
office
was
this
The
dictator
was
nominated by one of the consuls acting under an order of the Senate which must be obeyed. He was preceded by twenty-four lictors.
of which he
402]
361
This rule was
Law
(509 B.C.).
We
by the king
was transferred
undimin-
of
the
was
restricted in a
most imconsul
portant respect.
The
known
as the Valerian
any
peal,
Roman
of
to death
people in
the
did
not bind
when they were at the head of the army outside the city. From this time on, the consular lictors, when
the consuls
accompanying
within the
city,
the
consuls
the ax
Fig. 151.
removed
from the
that the
fasces, as a
symbol
The symbolic fasces borne by these officers were probably of Etruscan origin. The Tarquins are
said to have brought
them
to
Rome
along with
to cases of flogging,
and thus
than
More
hundred years
after the
362
[403
fall into
caused him to
that he
The law
of debt
in early
Rome was
very harsh.
of disorder
poor plebeians
and war which followed the expulsion of the Tarquins, fell in debt to the wealthy class, and payment was
him as a slave to pay the debt, some cases might even put him to death. The situation was intolerable. The plebeians resolved to secede from Rome and build a new city for themselves on a neighboring eminence, known afterwards as the Sacred Mount. Having on one
sell
who might
and
in
march out against the enemy, but instead marched away in a body from Rome to the spot selected beforehand, and began to make
preparations for erecting
knew
plebeians
must be persuaded
up
and come
in-
back to Rome.
surgents.
The consul
The
plebeians were at
won
The
following covenant
:
was entered
into
solemn oaths
plebeians.''
was also under this same law, as revised later (it was revised and confirmed 449 B.C. and again 300 13. c), that Paul accused before Festus, appealed
Acts
xxii,
25-29.
It
11).
is
obscure,
is
{comitia tribntd).
405]
363
of the plebeians in
known
that
at-
The persons
made
persons
in the
of heralds or ambassadors.
Any
kill.
outlaw
whom
That
the' tribunes
might be always
and
refuge.'^
405. Border
Tales;
allies
Cincinnatus.
The
chief
enemies of early
Rome
Rome,
either alone or in
of these peoples.
They were, on
enemy's
We
shall
we
liken
them
Roman
One
tells
most extravais
tales.
of the best
known
the tale of
The legend
up
away
^quians defeated
1 A tribune, however, had no authority over a consul when the consul was at the head of the army away from Rome, but under all other circumstances he could for disobedience even arrest and imprison him.
2 Roman writers assign to this period the beginning of the quarrel concerning the disposal of the public lands. This land question was the eternal question at Rome. shall examine this subject in connection with the great .reformers Tiberius and Gaius
We
364
impossible.
ation of the
[406
of the
situ-
to the city.
who
his
him upon
little
Roman
all
army,
sur-
beneath the
'
:r'\
The.eri^Lnal dumain nf
city 0/ TJnjjie.
X^^-w*^
>|li^
in
e.g.
He
Rome
in triumph, laid
down
his office,
having held
it
Laws
(traditional
While these petty border wars were furnishing the material for tales of adventure and heroism, the contest between
1 This was formed of two spears thrust firmly into the ground and crossed a few feet from the earth by a third spear. Prisoners of war were forced to pass beneath this yolce as a symbol of submission.
406]
365
very
One phase
Rome.
of this
struggle consti-
landmark
in the history of
penalty
all,
down and
risk
well
judges
may
unless
;
unjust
punishment,
too
far
they go
altogether
of
for
Hence,
class,
the
demand
for written
laws
their
is
one of the
first
Thus the comrnons at Athens, early in demanded and obtained a code of written laws (sect. 199). The same thing now took place at Rome. The plebeians demanded that the laws be written down and pubpersons and property.
their struggle with the nobles,
lished.
The
but
finally
were forced
the
Greek
cities of
Upon
who
to
These
officers,
the entire government, and so were invested with the supreme power
of the state.
their tribunes.
The
patricians gave
up
their consuls,
At the end
was
elected to
all.
preis
kSown
it
from
it
or allusions to
jurists.
The
following
J
366
quotations will give
[407
system
some idea
The provisions regarding the treatment of debtors are noteworthy. The law provided that, after the lapse of a certain number of days
of grace, the creditor of a delinquent debtor might
put him
in the
any stranger resident beyond the Tiber, or put him to death. In case there were several creditors " After the third market day his [the the law provided as follows
stocks or in chains,
sell
him
to
debtor's]
body may be
divided.
Any one
taking
more than
his just
We
Roman
effect.
A special provision
prison, scourge,
he
shall
to im-
keep to
though they
may be
in the
offices."
The
all
new
many
centuries,
and constituted a part of the education of the Roman youth every schoolboy being required to learn them by heart. ~ 407. Misrule and Overthrow of the Decemvirs ; Second Secession
of the Plebeians (450 B. c).
The
first
we may
man's
No
was
safe,
be he patrician or plebeian.
An
ex-tribune, daring to
to
be
Another
plebeian.
act,
this, filled
to the brim
was the
beautiful daughter of a
made
father
The
367
own
hand.
breast,
he hastened
to the
Rome
resist-
ing a united invasion of the Sabines and ^quians, and, exhibiting the
outrage.-'
The
man and
hurried to the
city.
The
from the
state
The
situ-
was so critical that the decemvirs were forced to resign. The consulate and the tribunate were restored. 408. The Valerio-Horatian Laws; "the Roman Magna Charta "
(449 B.C.).
Horatius,
The consuls chosen were Lucius Valerius and Marcus who secured the passage of certain laws, known as the
These laws were of such
constitutional impor-
Valerio-Horatian Laws.
Magna Charta of Rome." Like purpose was not so much the creation
privileges of the
new
and
humbler
citizens
(^flebisdtd)
sanction of the Senate,^ have the force of laws and should bind the
centuriata.
who
and
Our
iii,
55)
of conditions.
Since, however, at this time the approval of the Senate was necessary to give validity to
acts of the people in the
Assembly of Centuries it is% reasonable conjecture that the in the Assembly of Tribes must have been subjected to the later period both assemblies were emancipated from the control
p. 372, u. 2.
368=
THE EARLY
REPU-BLIC
[409
That the tribunes be permitted to sit as listeners before the door of the Senate house. This was an important concession, on
3;
account of what
it
led to
Senate
We may
made
summarize the
effect
and then to put a stop usepf the veto. of these laws by saying that they
hall itself,
ments of the
and Plebeians
made Legal
Up
contract legal
had not been allowed to marriages with the patricians. But only a few years
to this time the plebeians
The
ple-
now
more advantageous position for continuing their additional civil rights and for perfect political equality
in a
This suggestion
The
issue of
the matter
It
was a compromise.
that,
was agreed
in
known
These
officers,
whose number
in
name than
in
functions or in authority.
In
The
patricians
title
bear the
an ex-consul enjoyed and honors, such as the right to wear a particular kind of dress and to set up in his house images of his ancestors (^jus
of consul, for the reason that
certain dignities
imaginuni).
These honorary
wished to
Owing
411]
THE CENSORS
it
369
about 400
B. c.
was not
office.
njntil
that
new
No
than the jealous and exclusive patricians began scheming to rob them
of the fruit of the victory they
taliing
had gained.
its
They
effected this
by
and
most
distinctive duties
new
The
many and
important.
They took
the census
and
their property,
to every
man
They
for
member from the Senate, or deprive any citizen ing his name from the roll of the tribes. It was
ostentation
of his vote
by
strik-
their duty to
rebuke
and extravagance
in living,
and
the
in particular to
watch
From
name
;
of these
Roman
censorious,
meaning
fault-finding.
the Romanization of
must now turn our attention once more to the fortunes of Rome in war. Almost from the founding of the city we find its warlike citizens carrying on a fierce contest with their powerful Etruscan neighbors on the north. The war finally gathered around
Veil, the largest
We
and
at length taken,
were carried
of
winter and
;
summer
alike, led to
the
army
common
soldier
had not only equipped himself but had served without pay.
this
From
The
many
other Etruscan
towns, and
tribes or wards,
was added
to the
Roman
domain, doubling
it
in
370
extent.
[413
Roman
enterprise,
all this
Roman
immigrants crowded in
became Roman in manners, in customs, and in speech. The Romanization of Italy was now fairly begun. A generation or so after the absorption by Rome of southern Etruria, an unsuccessful war against the Romans by the Etruscan cities that still retained their independence marks the decisive turning point in the fortunes of the Etruscan race. We shall find them in
part of Etruria
arms against Rome again and again after this, but their attacks were no longer formidable. What elements of vitality and strength still remained in the race were gradually absorbed by Rome,' and the
Etruscan people and the Etruscan
history,
civilization,
as distinct factors in
413. Sack of
Rome by
fall
all
Only
we
are narrating.
We
While the
They soon appeared in the neighborhood of Rome. A Roman army met them on or near the river AUia, a few miles from the capital. But an unaccountable panic seized the Romans and they abandoned the
field in disgraceful flight.
The
standing.
the capital
when news
reached the
city.
The
sacred things of the temple of Vesta as they could not carry away,
fled into Etruria,
at the
of Caere.
Rome
across the river and threw themselves into such places of safety as
they could
city
find.
No
attempt was
made
to
except the
citadel.
tradition tells
under cover of the darkness of night, had climbed the steep rock and had almost effected an entrance to the citadel, the defenders
1414]
'THE LICINIAN
LAWS
3^1
were awakened by the tackling of some geese, which the piety of the famishing soldiers had spared because these birds were sacred to Juno.
Italy, This led them to open Romans. For one thousand pounds of gold retire from the city. As the story runs, while
in
the
Forum
the
Romans comGallic
Vm
victis
1"
moment, so the patriotic tale who had been appointed dictator, appeared upon the scene with a Roman army that had been gathered from the fugitives. As with heavy blows he scattered the barbarians, he exclaimed, " Rome is ransomed with steel, and not
Just at this
continues, Camillus, a brave patrician general
"
Woe
"
with gold."
prisoner
;
The
city
was
quickly rebuilt.
things, however,
Rome
414. The
Licinian
to
Plebeians.
Soon
Gaius Lincinius.
The
we need
to
(sect.
a plebeian;
Sibylline
Books
and that
but
five of these
commons
to resist
les-
when
They
sened the powers of the consulshig_by taking away from the consuls
372-
[414
functions
upon a new
name
oi prator.
The
was
The Senate then approved the proposals The son of a peasant might now the state. The plebeians later gained with
B.C.).
excluded them.^
As
tention
state,^
Laws
fhe
reconciliation of the of
Rome.
It
and paved
the
way
dominion of the
Selections from the Sources. Plutarch, Poplicola and Gaius Marcius Coriolanus.
Livy,
ii,
taking of
Rome by the
Gauls).
40 (for the story of Coriolanus); v, 35-49 (on the Munro's Source Book, pp. 47-64, 71-77 Davis's
;
vol.
i,
bk.
ii,
chaps,
i-iii.
Duruy,
vol.
i,
Outlines of Roman Hisigiy, bk. ii, chap. i. and Leigh, History of Rojne, chaps, v xiii. ShucKBURGH, History of Rome, chaps. V, viii, ix. Abbott, Roman Political Institutions, ^'^.i^-'^-]. lyiti^, Marly
Pelham,
How
Frank, Roman Imperialism, chaps, i, ii. Greenidge, ii. Granrud, Roman Constitutional flisiory, pp. 27-92. Topics for Class Reports. 1. Legend of the Fabii: Livy, ii, 48, 49. 2. Virtues prized by the early Romans as shown by the stories of their heroes
Rome, chaps, x-xxi.
chap.
(Mucins ScEevola, Cincinnatus, Lucius Junius Brutus, Marcus Curtius, by use of the indexes of available histories.
etc.)
1 They secured admission to the dictatorship in 356 B.C.; to the censorship in 351 B.C.; to the prsetorship in 337 B.C. 2 Though with the opening of the consulate to the plebeians the issue of the struggle between the orders was virtually decided, there was something lacking to render com-
triumph of the plebeians. The assembly of the plebs was still subject to the control of the aristocratic Senate (see p. 367, n. 2). By the famous Hortensian Law,
plete the
287 B.C., itwas emancipated from this control, and became, like the Assembly of Centuries (which had been freed from the power of the Senate" by the so-called Puhlilian Law, 339 H'C.), an independent sovereign legislature whose acts bound the whole people. This emancipation measure may be compared to that which in 19 11 freed the ijnglish House of Commons from the virtual control of the House of Lords.
CHAPTER XXXIV
THE CONQUEST AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY
(367-264 B.C.)
415.
Rome
Creates a
New
(353 B.C.).
It will
be
fitting if
we
Roman
citizenship,
We
(sect.
rated with the territory of their state a great part of southern Etruria
412).
The Romanization
of these lands,
advance of the
Roman power
cities,
among them
Casre.
The movement
But the people
destroyed by the
leaders punished.
Rome was
were
Gauls had given an asylum to the vestal virgins and the sacred
things of the
Roman
gods
(sect. 413),
Their
political
and
were
their territory
left in
Roman
state,
but they
all
control of their
own
local affairs,
the
private rights of
Roman
citizens,
office or
Rome.^
Roman
Municipal System.
Now
the
Roman
citizens.
grade
They
tem
1 2
of government.
For
Rome
The The
upon the
citizens of Caere
were known as
" Caeritan
rights."
373
374
[416
way
with Care.
When
its
Alba Longa
(a leading city of
was
and
destroyed, and
inhabitants transported in a
body
to
Rome
Roman
people.
When
Veil
was taken,
in the
(sect.
killed or sold as
slaves,
Now Rome
either of these
hit
two
policies.
But
in dealing
into her
had absorbed the whole Mediterranean world. This device was what is known as the municipal system, for the reason that the Roman
writers gave to a city having a status like that of Caere the
name
munidpium.
We
we
it
exists
among
ourselves to-day
principle, is
its
underlying
municipality or municipal
town
which
in
charter granted
it
by the
state in
whose
is
situated
and of
forms a
own
in
magistrates,
more or
less supervision
state, its
own
local affairs.
is
The
essential
principle involved
the arrangement
local
self-
state.
The city, without its local political life haying been made a vital part of a larger political organism.
stifled,
has been
How
this
Italians, at
one
and national
in^
commonwealth of which that city was only a part, is well illustrated by these memorable words once used by Cicero " Every burgher of a
:
Some
at the
opening of
Rome in
which city Rome had treaty relations just Tusculum, which was subjected in some way to most ancient of Roman miinicipia. The question of precedence
417]
CITIES
375
he
is
is
I will
never deny
allegiance to
my
Rome
is
my
^
Arpinum
is
some
Rome 'holds
development
great,
and and
constitutional history,
after her law system (sect. 565) her best gift to civilization.
This governin
first
applied by
Rome,
a large
at the
of Latium.
little
We
have seen
how
opening of the
formed
the
Rome was
member
(sect.
378).
At
like the
231).
from Greece Athens formed with her Ionian allies But as time passed Rome began to play in the league
Athens played
first
the
same
role that
in the
Delian Confederacy.
She
they
make
From
allies
satisfied.
They
resolved that
Rome
virtually exercising.
demanding
made one
of perfect equality.
To
this
in the future
one of the
consuls should be a Latin, and that one half of the Senate should be
and
all
were
to
bear the
be the
common
by the
I
father-
listened to
Roman
amazement and
"
Jupiter
" exclaimed
Titus Manlius, one of the consuls, addressing the statue of the god, " canst thou endure to behold in thy own sacred temple strangers as
consuls and as senators
?
"
'
Cicero's birthplace.
De
Legibus,
ii,
;!,
as
p. 6.
J.
376
[418
The demands
After about three years hard fighting, the rebellion was subdued,
Rome now
its
League and
members.
of the cities
a few,
The essence
was
that
most
were
independence
that
is
to say, they
made
a part of the
Roman
constitutions
and were
allowed to
inside the
palities
local self-government
Roman
The
inhabitants of
full
some
of these munici-
were admitted
at
once to
Roman
of others
citizens.
rights
and
privileges of
all
admitted to the
fairly started
on the way
to greatness.
She had
foundations of a state unlike anything the world had seen before, and one capable of great expansion. " It was, in short, to the
liberal policy
Roman
city-state
owed its capacity to unify Italy and make it one people." ^ The Samnites. The most formidable competitors of the 418.
for
Romans
like
supremacy
in Italy
mountaineers
who
The
writers
of three wars
B.C.),
the
ancient
of half a century
all
(about 343-290
states of Italy.
and
the
had formed
alliance with
the Greek
the
come under
growing power of the imperial city. During the course of these wars with the Samnites and their allies Rome had added extensive territories to her domain,, and had made
1
Known
Frank,
as cives sine siiffragio (citizens witliout suffrage), since they could not vote
in the assemblies at
2
Rome.
Imperialism (1914), p. 40.
Roman
419]
377
for
was
Rome
The
first
Rome to
Capua,
was begun
in the year
312
b. c.
by the
cerisor
was
him the Via Appia. with Tarentum and Pjrrrhus (282-272 B.C.). Tarentum, a seaport of Calabria, was one of the most opulent of the cities
called after
419. The
War
Fig. 152.
a photograph)
of
Magna
Grsecia.
were luxurious
and breaking engagements with careless levity. They spent the most of their time in feasting and drinking, in lounging in the baths, in attending the theater, and in idle talk on and
frivolous, entering into
the streets.
mistreated
Roman
amends.
In the theater, in the presence of a great assembly, one of the ambassadors was grossly insulted, his toga being befouled by a clownish fellow, amidst the approving plaudits of a giddy crowd.
378
t4l9
The ambassador, raising the soiled garment, now but you will weep when this toga is
;
Laugh
Rome
at
Greece for
aid.
restless
to build
up such an empire
in the East,
West
responded
to their entreaties,
an army of Greek
He
The hostile armies met at Heraclea (280 B.C.). The battle was won for Pyrrhus by his war elephants, the sight of which, being new to the Romans, caused them to flee from the field in dismay. But Pyrrhus had lost thousands of his bravest troops. As he looked
over the
battlefield he is said to have turned to his companions and remarked, " Another such victory and I sliall be ruined " hence
;
the phrase,
"'
Pyrrhic victory."
The prudence of the victorious Pyrrhus led him to send to the Romans proposals of peace. When the Senate hesitated, its resolution was fixed by the eloquence of the now old and blind Appius Claudius; "Rome," he exclaimed, "shall never treat with a victorious foe." The ambassadors were sent back to Pyrrhus with the reply
that
if
first
Greeks
first
there,
the Carthaginians.
At
Recrossing the
was glad to escape from the island. he once more engaged the Romans
but at Beneventum he suffered a disastrous defeat (275 B.C.). Leaving a sufficient force to garrison Tarentum, Pyrrhus now set sail for Epirus, " leaving behind him nothing save a brilliant reputation."
He
to
the
Romans (272
of Italy.
Rome was
soon mistress of
all
(Amo) and
the Rubicon.
420]
UNITED ITALY
379
420. United Italy. We cannot make out clearly just what rights and powers Rome exercised over the various cities, tribes, and nations which she had brought under her rule.^ This much, however, is clear.
right of
of the peninsula.
had
laid
the
Romana
This
(the
Roman
Peace).
racial
political
how Rome, embracing at first merely a handful of peasants, could have made* so much of the ancient world like unto herself in blood, in
greatest marvel of
all
The
history
is
so, that
is
she did
one of the
in
human
race.
Rome
in
some
in ancient or in
modem
times.
We
must make
some
of the
main features
of this unique
421.
Roman
colonies
The
two
colonies that
classes,
Rome
into
Roman
and Latin
colonies.
Roman
colonies
of emigrants, generally three hundred in number, who retained in the new settlement all the rights and privileges, both private and public, of
Roman
citizens,
colonies
by the were
Such
guard
to
was some
conquered
city that
{municifia) that
Rome had
domain, which now embraced about one third of the peninsula, but to those communities to which was given the name of Italian allies a
actually incorporated with the
38o
[421
subject condition.
new homes
organized a
government which was almost an exact imitation of that of Rome, and through their own assemblies and their own magistrates managed
all
These colonies were, in a word, simply They were in effect just so many miniaxenters from which raditure Romas
ated
Roman
culture into
therri.
all
the regions
round about
The
called,
The
of
Roman
to
citizens,
capacity
acquire
by
he
left
came sons
Fig. 153. Grotto of PosiLipo. (Near Naples)
There
is
status of a settler in
An
old
Roman
mile in length,
in
use on the
Appian
Way
When
a
any
a federal
election, just as
Roman
citizen in
becoming a Latin
at
Rome.
Then
and
migrate to Rome, and thus acquire the right to vote in the public
assemblies there.
1
colonies, the
Both Romans and Latins participated in the establishment of these earlier Latin Roman settlers giving up their Roman citizenship and assuming the
Latin status.
421]
38
The Latin
Italy,
numbered about thirty at the time of the They were scattered everywhere throughout
words of the historian Mommsen, "the
real
in the
Roman rule." They were, even to a much greater degree than the Roman colonies, active and powerful agents in the dissemination of the Roman language, law, and culture. They were
Rome's
chief auxiliary in her great task of
making
all
Italy
Roman.
AH
means
we
418).
of PyrrJms. Livy,
ix, i;-ii
29 (the self-sacrifice of Decius Mus). Mmt\xo'% Source Book, pp. 74-77; Davis's Readings (Rome), pp. 33-41. References (Modern). Mommsen, vol. i, bk. ii, chaps, v-ix. Ihne, vol. i,
defeat at Caudine Forks)
x, 28,
Roman
bk.
iii,
chap,
xviii, "
Condition of the
Roman People
vol.
i,
the
chaps, xvi-xx.
"
Duruy,
vol.
i,
chaps, xiv-xvii.
v.
Freeman, The
Eyrrhus in
Italy."
Pelham,
Outlines of Roman History, bk. ii, chap. ii. Shuckburgh, History of Rome, chaps, x-xv. and Leigh, History of Rome, chaps, xiii-xvi. Reid, The
How
Municipalities of the Roman Empire, chaps, i iii, iv (first part). Topics for Class Reports, i. Was the action of the Roman Senate in the How and Leigh, Hisaffair of the Caudine Forks honorable ? Livy, ix, 2-1 1
;
tory of
Rome, pp. 108-110. 2. Tales of the Pyrrhic War: Plutarch, Pyrrhus. 3. The system employed by the Roman engineers in tunneling mountains Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, pp. 6162.
CHAPTER XXXV
EXPANSION OF ROME BEYOND THE PENINSULA
I.
(264-241
5. C.)
422. Carthage
Empire.
(sect.
Foremost
among
the
cities
94) upon the different shores of the Mediterranean was Carthage, upon the northern coast of Africa. The favorable location of the colony upon one of the best harbors of the African coast gave the city a vast and lucrative commerce. At
we have now
its
reached
it
covering, with
miles in circuit.
inhabitants.
It is said to
By
the time
Rome had
She
from the
natives
With
all its
her colonies and fortresses and swept in every direction by her war
galleys, the
his
hands
The government
chic in fact.
of Carthage
was democratic
but
oligar-
Corresponding to the
Roman
consuls,
two magistrates,
senate was com-
head of the
state.
;
The
its
duties
and powers
republics,
their
were very
423.
Roman
Senate.
Rome and
Carthage Compared.
five centuries
and maturing
their
423]
383
Mediterranean, were
struggles of
antiquity
a
yet
to begin
with every
vicis-
hundred years.
rival cities
seemed well
matched as antagonists
Rome had
and embodied
Carthaginian
territories,
and
easily
defended peninsula.
and so were ready, upon the first disaster to the ruling city, to fall away from their allegiance. On the other hand, the Latin allies and
the Italian confederates of
Rome were
close
were
satisfied
although remained
states
not
all
loyal to her
rival.
appeared
in the
despotic oligarchy.
The many
in
an
artificial
Romans
state,
and
state building.
The Roman
was the most wonderful political organism that the world had ever seen. It was not yet a nation, but it was rapidly growing into one. Every free man within its limits was either a citizen of Rome or was on the way to becoming a citizen. Rome was already the common fatherland of more than a quarter of a
learned,
million of
we have
men.
Marathon
and
at Salamis
Greek
cities.
And
then the Romans, in their long contests with the different races of
Italy for the mastery of the peninsula,
training in
384
EXPANSION OF ROME
to the naval resources of the
[424
As
two
The Romans
in
naval warfare
that
Fig. 154.
an ancient
relief)
The
just
is
unknown
And in another respect Carthage had an immense advantage over Rome. She had Hannibal. Rome had some great commanders, but
she had none
like
him.
Lying between
Sicily.
Italy
and the
the
At
the
commencement
all
the
1
Greek^ty^of Syracuse.
Polybius
Sicily.
(i,
which was under the sway of The Greeks and the Carthaginians had
when they
first
crossed
over to
He
army across
ih boats
cities of
southern
425]
carried
FIRST
38s
tection to
some
friends, the
Romans
act
till
circuit of
The
allies
were defeated
and the
Roman army
upon the
alliance
Romans Gain
B.C.).
Victory (260
well as
upon the
fleet.
land,
Car-
(A
restoration)
decorated
of
Italy served as
ships
captured at Mylse
galleys.
consul C. Duilius was intrusted with the command of the fleet. met the Carthaginian squadron near the city and promontory of Mylae, on the northern coast of Sicily. Now, distrusting their ability to match the skill of their enemy in naval tactics, the Romans had
The
He
1 The Greek and Etruscan ships were merely triremes, that is, galleys with three banks of oars while the Carthaginian ships were quinqueremes, or vessels with five rows of oars. The former were unable to cope with the latter, such an advantage did these have in their greater weight and height.
;
386
EXPANSION OF ROME
As soon
;
[426
as a
Carthaginian ship came near enough to a Roman vessel, this gangway was allowed to fall upon the approaching galley and the Roman soldiers, rushing along the bridge, were soon engaged in a hand-to-hand conflict with their enemies, in which species of encounter the
The
for the
Romans.
It inspired in the
victory
visions
of maritime
become a
command and glory. The Mediterranean should speedily Roman lake in which no vessel might float without the
The Romans now
consent of Rome.
426. Regulus and the Carthaginian Embassy.
resolved to carry the
war
into Africa.
Finally,
At
first
who led the army of invasion, suffered a severe defeat and was made prisoner. A fleet which wa? sent to bear away the remconsuls
terrific
storm
off the
in like disaster
Romans, with the loss of another great fleet. For a few years refrained from tempting again the hostile powers of the sea, and Sicily became once more the battle-ground of the contending rivals. At last, having lost a great battle (battle of Panormus,
the
Romans
251
to
B.C.),
the Carthaginians
to
became
dispirited,
Rome
Among
Regulus, who, since his capture five years before, had been held a
prisoner in Africa.
to
return
if
his
own
at
But
it
related that,
upon
arrival at
same time
revealing to the Senate the enfeebled condition of Carthage. As to the exchange of prisoners, he said, " Let those who have surrendered
to
have
The Roman
all
the pro-
and Regulus,
and enset
and
friends, turned
427]
LOSS OF
387
tradition affirms
was put
to a cruel death.
427. Loss of
Fleets.
Carthaginian embassy the war went on for several years by land and
At last, on -the coast of Sicily, one of met with an overwhelming defeat. Almost a
fleet
hundred vessels of
his
were
lost.
The
disaster caused
Rome.
of the people.
that
just
It
was reported
the
battle,
before
when
would not
given
eat,
Claudius had
orders
into
to
have
them
thrown
they
tion
ently remarking,
shall
At any rate,
Imagina-
drink."
was
free to depict
what
Fig.
might
state.
inflict
The
in
ing the birds' manner of taking their food. Their refusal to eat was an unlucky omen
subsequent events.
disaster.
fleet
The other consul just now met with a great was proceeding along the southern coast of Sicily with of over nine hundred war galleys and transports, when a
He
severe storm arising, the squadron was beaten to pieces upon the
rocks.
Not a
War
(241 B.C.).
Four Roman
fleets
was
several
Romans
388
EXPANSION OF ROME
[429
fleet of two hundred vessels was then byilt and equipped, entirely by private subscription, and intrusted to the command of the consul
Catulus.
He
fleet
and
inflicted
upon
for peace.
A
iall
treaty
was
at length
surrender
to
in ten yearly
Thus ended,
One important
Rome. war was the crippling of the sea which from time immemorial had been
hands
Romans.
II.
ROME AND CARTHAGE BETWEEN THE FIRST AND THE SECOND PUNIC WAR (241-218 B.C.)
Roman
Province and the Beginning of the Pro-
System
(241 B.C.).
close of the
fii/st
strained every
Rome and Carthage the two power and taxed every resource in preparation
struggle between
settled the affairs of Sicily, organizing
all
for a
The Romans
the Republic.^
city
of
it,
save
first
Roman
number and
they formed at
last
Mediterranean.
both
civil
and
military
authority, with power of life and death over the natives. Each province also paid an annual tribute in kind, or a money tax, to
Rome, something
1
that
Italian allies.
The government
in 227 B.C.
permanent
430]
389
This
liberal
comer stone
all,
Roman power
all,
in Italy-.
There
or substantially
close confederates.
them
all
name
of
allies.
and adminThis
illiberal
we
undoing of the
Roman
430.
Republic.
Rome
to
Acquires
Sardinia
B.C.).
The
first
acquisition
by the Romans of tribute-paying lands beyond the peninhave created in them an insatiable ambition for foreign They soon found a pretext for seizing the island of
sula
seems
conquests.
Sardinia, the
most
(227
B.C.).
was also seized, was formed into a Roman province With her hands upon these islands, the authority of Rome
to
in the
431.
Alps.
Western or Tuscan Sea was supreme.^ War with the Gauls; Roman Authority Extended
In the north, during
this
the
same period, Roman authority was extended from the Apennines and the Rubicon to the foot of the Alps. Alarmed at the advance of the Romans, who were pushing northward their great military road called the Flaminian Way, Gallic
Alps gathered for an assault upon Rome. movement among the northern tribes threw all for Italy into a fever of excitement. At Rome the terror was great not yet had died out of memory what the city had once suffered
tribes
on both
sides the
Intelligence of this
at the
sarfie
An
1 In a more legitimate way the Romans extended their influence over the seas that wash the eastern shores of Italy. For a long time the Adriatic and Ionian waters had been infested with Illyrian pirates. These buccaneers troubled not only the towns along the shores of Greece but were even so bold as to make descents upon the Italian coasts. The Roman fleet chased these corsairs from the Adriatic, and captured several of their strongholds. Rome now assumed a sort of protectorate over the Greek cities of the Adriatic coast. This was her first step in the path tfiat was to lead her to absolute supremacy in Greece and throughout all the East.
390
portion of
EXPANSION OF ROME
Roman
territory
fulfill
[432
Hop-
ing sufficiently to
Roman
moved southward.
Roman
The Romans,
their authority
taking advantage of this victory, pushed on into the plains of the Po,
captured the
city
now known
as Milan,
and extended
the
To guard
new
territory
two Latin
The
course restless and resentful, and were very ready to embrace the
this,
he descended from
Scarcely had
among them
as a. deliverer.
War
at the
still
(241-237 B.C.).
Rome
from
Sicily,
revolted
Her mercenary
The
and
extent of
her subject
how hated was the rule of states. The war was unspeakably
Truceless War."
known
was everywhere
restored.
the First Punic War, the Carthaginians sought to repair their losses
by new conquests
in Spain.
into that
to
commanding genius
organizing the different Iberian tribes into a compact state, and to developing the rich gold and silver mines of the southern part of the
peninsula;
He
fell
in battle
is
228
B.C.
;
As
rule
a rule, genius
not transmitted
rare genius of
Hamilcar reappeared
in his
er
Syrtifl
100
200
g.-ftlP
aoo
of Milu3.
400
goo
eo,ft
Allies
^
\
"
|
Syrian Possessions
\
"
|
EgypUan
"
\
434]
sons,
HANNIBAL'S
whom
he himself,
it
VOW
391
was fond of calling the " lion's brood." As Hannibal, the eldest, was only nineteen at the time of his father's death, and thus too young to assume command, Hamilcar was succeeded by his son-in-law, Hasdrubal. 434. Hannibal's Vow; he Attacks Saguntum. Upon the death of
is
said,
B.C.,
Hannibal,
now
twenty-six years
called to
be
its
leader.
altar,
When
and
Roman
race.
He
was driven on
of
vow
that
Sagun-
tum, a native
city
upon the
east coast of
The
into
it,
jealously
watching
had entered
and taken
with
some Greek
cities at
Fig. 157.
Hannibal
Han219
B.C.
was an
ally of
the
Roman
people
of the town.
demand
of
up Hannibal
to them,
and by so doing
their general.
The
Carthaginians hesitated.
ye
will
have."
war choose, men of Carthage, which " Give us whichever ye will," was the reply. " War,
;
392
III.
EXPANSION OF ROME
[43S
(218-201 B.C.)
was now all astir with preparations for the rpighty struggle. Hannibal was the life and soul of every movement. His bold plan was to cross the Pyrenees and the Alps and descend upon Rome from the north. Early in the spring of 218 B.C., he set out from New Carthage with an army numbering about one hundred thousand men and including thirty-seven war elephants. Traversing northern Spain and crossing
50 100
aSo
'liAnEE'rANia / sitifensis
NUmniA
known
it was October, and snow upon the higher portions of the trail, so that the passage of the mountains was accomplished only after severe toil and losses. At length the thinned columns, numbering less than thirty thousand
was
defiles
of the foothills
upon the
plains of
levy
lists
Roman state a state that at this time had on its over seven hundred thousand foot soldiers and seventy
thousand horse.
393
the Delayer."
and
open.
Etruria,^ the
Romans
and two
great
Roman
now
Believing that
The way to Rome was Hannibal would march directly upon the
Maximus
dictator.
capital, the
But Hannibal
did not
deem
it
Rome.
in the
Crossing the Apennines, he pressed eastward to the Adriatic, and then marched southward into Apulia.
The
fate of
Rome was
it,
hands of Fabius,
everything
would be
refuse
lost.
He
prudent policy
to
follow and annoy with his small force the Carthaginian army, but to
all
proffers of battle.
for raising
enemy
fired
an engagement.
He
ravaged the
fields far
The
began
murmur.
They
called
raise
and
discipline
Early in the
summer
new
levies,
numbering eighty
command
Aufidus, in Apulia.
on any
battlefield.
''
1 Battles of
2
Polybius
(iii,
the Ticinus and the Trebia (218 B.C.), and Lake Trasimenus (217 B.C.). 117) places the killed at 70,000 and the prisoners at 10,000; Livy
(xxii, 49)
394
EXPANSION OF ROME
[438
were taken prisoners; only a handful escaped. The slaughter was so great that, according to Livy, when Mago, a brother of Hannibal,
carried the
news
on the
floor of
Roman
knights.
seized
Never did that body display greater calmness, Little by little the panic was allayed. Measures were concerted for the defense of the capital, as it was expected that Hannibal would immediately march upon the city. Swift horse-
men were
presses
it,
Appian
and
Way
to gather information of
to learn, as
Livy pathetically
ex-
had
left
Roman name."
it
Romans
behind
He
Rome
to offer terms of
peace.
ness,
and haughtiness
in the
Hardly
less disappointed
was Hannibal
allies
temper of the
of the Latin
how-
now went
Capua
also seceded
from
Rome and
army
city.^
who
quartered his
little
later
439. The Fall of Syracuse (212 B.C.) and of Capua (211 B.C.). While
in
was busy
1
raising
Hannibal's soldiers,
is
feasting, drinking,
enervated both
round of in body
ease,"
and mind by the influences of the Sybarite capital whence the phrase " Capuan meaning indolent self-indulgence which impairs one's physical and moral powers.
440]
395
was the
alliance.
"'
Roman
The
214
distinguished general,
called
the
In the year
he
It is said that
But the
pillage.
Rome
there to
ad^n
homes
of the rich.
hospitalities to the
enemies of Rome.
city,
liije
and two
Roman
armies held
in close
Hannibal endeavored
to create
legend but he
city
draw
ally.
The
soon
fell,
penalty that
The
chief
Rome never failed to inflict upon an men of the place were put to death and
b.
unfaithful
a large part of
c).
Metaums
(207 b. c).
During
all
was waging
war
Roman
At
length he determined
war
and go to
followed
who was
sadly in
need of
aid.
He
same route
B.C.
that
in the year
Italy.
207
Thence he advanced southward, while Hannibal moved northward from Bruttium to join him. Rome made a supreme effort to prevent the junction of the armies of the two brothers. At the river Metaurus, Hasdrubal's march was blocked by a large Roman army. Here his
forces were cut to pieces,
slain
(207
B.C.).
His
his
to Hannibal.
it is
Upon
recog-
said,
exclaimed sadly,
396:
441. The
EXPANSION OF ROME
[+
Romans Carry the War into Africa; Battle of Zama of Brut(202 B.C.). Hannibal now drew back into the rocky peninsula No one dared tium. There he faced the Romans like a lion at bay.
attack him.
that
was resolved to carry the war into Africa, in hopes the Carthaginians would be forced to call their great commander
It
the army of invasion. He had not been Jong in Africa before the Carthaginian senate sent for Hannibal. At Zama, not far from Carthage, the hostile armies
met.
Hannibal here
first
suflast
fered his
and
War
thage
pletely
(201 B.C.).
Car-
was
for
now
peace.
com-
exhausted,
and
sued
The
much
end of the
First
Punic War.
She was
all
required to give up
-.t
j-^
war
elephants,
and
all
to
pay an
not,
and
ally of
Rome.
Five
the
hundred of the
costly Phoenician
of the
Second Punic War, the Romans, persuading themwas preparing Carthage for another war, demanded his surrender by the Carthaginians. He fled to Syria, and thence to Asia Minor, where, to avoid capture, he committed suicide by means of poison (183 B.C.).
1
443]
EFFECTS OF THE
WAR
tiN
ITALY
397
Such was the end of the Hannibalic War, as it was called by the Romans. Scipio was accorded a grand friumph at Rome and in honor of his achievements given the surname Africanus.
443. Effects of the
War
on Italy.
Italy
from the
effects of the
Hannibalic War.
Roman
have been
slain in battle,
some
districts
was almost
ruined.
soil and driven within the had increased, and the estates of the great landowners had constantly grown in size, and absorbed the little holdings of the ruined peasants.
to aggravate those
economic
this
earlier
sound
life
of the
Romans and
with a numerous
and dangerous
class of
IV.
WAR
Rome
(201-146 B.C.)
at the
444. Introductory.
of the Second Punic
end
War
left
ranean.
between the
we
broken
into her
at
his death,
we
until,
one
We
shall therefore in
this place
in the briefest
manner, merely
Rome
in
to universal empire.
ever
Romans
398=
EXPANSION OF ROME
War^
(200^197 B.C.)
first
;
[445
"the Restora-
Rome came
V of that kingdom was now troubling the Greek cities. They appealed to Rome, whose prestige was now great, for protection. Rome, moved both by fear of what Philip
Macedohia.
War
Philip
had entered
an
alliance with
Hannibal.
He
is
known
In the third year of the war an army under Flamininus was sent
into Greece,
in Thessaly, the
supple
Roman
superiority over
the rigid
Philip to a
forced to give
up
all
and
all
the Greek
free.
The
:
edict of emancipation
to the
Greeks
It
"
. .
their
shall not
be subject to
and
shall live
and laws."
"
The decree was received with the greatest enthusiasm and rejoicing, shout was raised," says Plutarch, " that was heard as far as the
Flamininus was hailed as the " Restorer of Greek Liblost all capacity for free-
sea coast."
erties,"
dom and
soon
over
fell
all
Romans
Greece.
446.
War
against Antiochus
the
B.C.).
made
imporinto
carried his
arms
Europe.
He was
at this
moment
in Greece.
The
at this particular
The
Macedonian War (215-206 B.C.) took place during the Second Punic an episode of that struggle.
447]
399
was
king was
in
Some
was followed by Romans. At Magnesia, Antiochus was overthrown, and much of Asia Minor fell into the hands of the Romans. Not yet prepared to maintain provinces so remote frpm the Tiber, the Senate conferred a great part of the new territory upon their friend and ally, Eumenes, king of Pergamum,--(setrt. 3o6)>^ 447. The Third Macedonian (171-I68 B.C.). And now Macedonia, under the leadership of Persetl5;--sffi3iIBi)ilip V, was again in war with Rome. On the memorable field of Pydna (168 B.C.) the Roman consul, ./Emilius Paulus, crushed the Macedonian power forever. The country was broken up into four states, and a little later these were organized as a Roman province. The great role which Macedonia, as an independent state, had played in history was ended. But the battle of Pydna constitutes a great landmark not merely it forms a landmark in universal history in the history of Macedonia as well. It was one of the decisive battles fought by the Romans in
retreat in haste across the sea to Asia, whither he
the
W^
supreme
political
wisdom and
authority.
;
We
have yet
if
to record
many
campaigns of the
Roman
legions
but these,
we except
the cam-
paigns against the Pontic king Mithradates the Great, were efforts
to suppress revolt
among dependent
at
expeditions
aimed
barbarian
tribes
the
Roman
War
war between Rome and Macedonia, a party in the cities of the Achaean League had shown themselves lukewarm in their friendship for Rome. Consequently, after the battle of Pydna,
During the
third
I
Rome
the sovereignty
400
the
EXPANSION OF ROME
collected a thousand
[449
Romans
prominent
cities and transported them to Italy, where they were to stand trial They were never tried, for alleged unfriendliness towards Rome.
however, but for seventeen years were held as hostages for the good
conduct of their countrymen at home.
Among
these exiles
was the
we
are
advance of
Rome
an
indul-
They
home
cities
feeling that
The people
of Corinth particularly
Romans.
that
and
was war with Rome. This came in the year 1 47 b. c. Corinth was soon in the hands of the Romans. The men were killed, and the women and children sold into slavery. Much of the booty was sold on the spot at public
auction.
Numerous works
invaluable statues
laid aside to
and
paintings,
be transported
Rome, but a
must
who was an
games of
city,
himself
saw groups
to play their
on which
The
Senate,
despoiled
obedience to the
command
were
of the
Roman
and the
was given up
leveled,
very ground on which the city had stood was accursed. Thus fell the brilliant city of Corinth, the " last precious ornament of the
in cities."
Rome of her Conquest of the East. Romans had entered the homeland of Greek which they had first come in close contact in Magna
under the name of Achtra, was reduced
to the status of
At a
450]
Graecia.
401
many
reason
it
and thought
vincial
at
Rome.
Many among
Romans seem
Roman,
to
to
have con-
as something pro-
Rome,
so that
Roman
society
seemed
in a fair
way
of becoming
Hellenized.
And
Greece
Romans
be such
civilization.
We
recognize this
when we speak
Roman Empire
as being Grasco-Roman.
But along with the many helpful elements of culture which the
Romans
many germs
of
becorne degenerate
society, in
and corrupt.
union with other influences which we shall notice later, corrupted life at Rome. " To learn Greek is to learn knavery " became
a proverb.
dences of
The
simplicity
earlier times
were
Evi-
we advance
in the
One
of the
147
His active
life
we have
been narrating
which makes up
Indeed,
the
the interval between the Second and the Third Punic War.
in the
counselor did more than any other person to bring on the third war,
which resulted
in
His
life is
a mirror
which
is
Rome.
402
EXPANSION OF ROME
[450
From
Cato was born the son of a peasant at Tusculum, in Latium. his father he received as an inheritance a scanty farm in the
Sabine country.
Near by were the cottage and farm of the celebrated Curius Dentatus, one of the popular
whom
when
This
the Samnites on one occasion sought to bribe him, they found him
cooking turnips, and wanting nothing that they could give him.
his model.
As we have
Cato
against
all
He
;
power
to cast discredit
He
visited
own
them in Latin, simply in order, Plutarch says, to rebuke those of his countrymen who affected to regard the Greek language as better than the Roman. He told the Romans that Greek education and
Greek
literature
He
wished
home.
He
slave, as
was coming
most
is
custom
Roman
families,
One
of the
Cato's character
He looked
upon them precisely as so much live stock, raising them and disposing of them just as though they were cattle. When a slave became old or worn out he sold him, and recommended such a course to
others on the ground of
its
economy.
noble and admirable, and his
state as
But notwithstanding
acter was, according to
life
all
Roman
and
services,
especially those
censor,
who
set
up
in his
inscription
was
cor-
when
Rome
451]
403
Rome
destroyed Corinth she also blotted from the face of the earth her
great rival Carthage.
It will
be
recalled that
no circumstances engage
war with an
ally
Rome
(sect. 442).
Rome, began
to
make
territories.
Carthage appealed to
Rome
for protection.
The envoys
Masinissa.
'
Chief of one of the embassies sent out was Marcus Cato the
Censor.
trade,
When
her
immense
he was amazed
returned
destruction of her
city,
home convinced
Rome demanded
on what subject
ration,
'"
he
rival.
is
no matter
ended
all
let
alone."
452.
Roman
Perfidy.
was not
long wanting.
In 150
territory, instead
from which source experience had taught them they could hope for
neither aid nor justice, gathered an
defending themselves.
The Carthaginian
told that
if
demand.
They were
404
EXPANSION OF ROME
[4S3
this
demand. But no sooner were these hostages in the hands of the Romans than the consular armies, thus secured against attack, crossed
from
and disembarked
from
Carthage.
The Carthaginians were now commanded to give up all their arms. Still hoping to win their enemy to clemency, they complied with this demand also. Then the consuls made known the final decree of the
Roman
Senate
" That
new
city,
provided
it
from the
coast."
this resolution of the
When
ginians and they realized the baseness and perfidy of their enemy,
a cry of indignation and despair burst from the betrayed 453. The Carthaginians
city.
It
was
resolved to resist to the bitter end the execution of the cruel decree.'
gates of the city were closed. Men, women, and children set work and labored day and night manufacturing arms. The entire city was converted into one great workshop. Statues, vases, the utensils of the home, and the sacred vessels of the temples were melted
The
to
down
hair
for weapons.
froiii
and braided
it
labor
a state to
When
the
Romans advanced
were astonished to find the people they had just now so treacherously
disarmed, with weapons in their hands, manning the walls of their
capital
and ready
to bid
them
defiance.
Roman
taking
army.
.<^milianus
succeeded
in
it
by storm.
to
When
resistance ceased
only
fifty
several
be made prisoners.
The
city
1 Publius Cornelius Scipio ^milianus, grandson by adoption of Scipio Africanus, the conqueror of Hannibal. After Tiis conquest of Carthage hg was known as Africanus Minor.
455]
405
was set on fire, and for seventeen days the space within the walls was a sea of flames. Every trace of building which fire could not
destroy was leveled, a plough was driven over the
curse invoked
site, and a dreadful upon any one who should dare attempt to rebuild
the
city.
Polybius,''
who was an
in
eye-
them the
fate
Rome,
Homer
The And
day
shall
shall fall
The Carthaginian
ince, with
settlers
was made
into a
Roman
prov-
Roman
was spread
that
lie
The
triumph of
Rome
over Carthage
may
prominent a place in history as the triumph, more than three centuries before, of
The
energy that characterized the Italians and the other Aryan peoples
of Europe.
Their
civilization
was as lacking
Had
this civilization
been spread
and
and
religious life
among
It is
marks the
list
Rome
in the short
as a
It was usual for great Romans to have in their train a Greek philosopher or scholar 2 Iliad^ vi, 448. companion.
406"
world
EXPANSION OF ROME
[456
battles
history,
of civilizations.
It is
fit-
same chapter which narrates the blotting out of Corinth in Greece and of Carthage in Africa should tell also the story of the destruction, at the hands of the Romans, of Numantia in Spain. The Romans had expelled the Carthaginians from the peninsula,
but the warlike native tribesof the
-the
Celtiberians
and Lusitanians
the
soil.
almost
all
or by deliberate suicide.
The
of battle, famine, pestilence, and despair had left alive were sold into
slavery,
and the
city
was
leveled to the
Though
time
it
War
Roman
dominions, yet
now
for the
first
settlers
became a Roman possession. Roman merchants and crowded into the country. As a result of this great influx of
manners, the customs, and the language of the
Romanized.
of the
Romance
nations of
laid
Portuguese.
Selections from the Sources.
First Punic
(the fall of
Polybius,
i,
xxxix, 3-5 should be remembered that Polybius here writes as an eye-witness of the scenes that he describes). Plutarch, Fabius Maximus
;
War)
xxxviii, 3-1
;
Carthage
Cato.
it
and Marcus
PP- 53-84-
XXX.
iii, chaps, i-iii. How and Leigh, History of Rome, chaps, xviiSmith, Carthage and the Carthaginians and Rome and Carthage. Arnold,
The Roman System of Provincial Administration, iz\i2c^. i. Arnold, History of Rome, chaps, xhii-xlvii (these chapters are generally regarded as the best
REFERENCES
407
account ever written of the Second Punic War). Dodge, Hannibal. Morkis, Hannibal. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, pp. \i,-zi.
Church,
iii,
Story of Carthage (interesting for younger classes). i. Hannibal's passage of the Alps
Polybius,
The
battle of the
Metaurus (207
;
B.C.)
of the World, chap. iv. 3. Change effected in Roman life and manners through contact with corrupt Hellenism Mommsen, vol.-ii, bk. iii, chap, xiii, pp, 480491; Plutarch, Marcus Cato; Seignobos (Wilde ed.), History of Ancient
Civilization, chap. xxii.
CHAPTER XXXVI
THE LAST CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC OF REVOLUTION
(133-31 B.C.)
:
THE PERIOD
457. Introductory.
We
have
now
development of the
institutions of republican
told
the
little
finally
In the present
chapter
we
century of
existence.
During
this
time,
though the
territorial
work undermining the institutions of the Republic and paving the way for the Empire. What these agencies were will best be made apparent by a simple narration of the events that crowd this memorable period of Roman history.
expansion went on,
many
agencies were at
War
in
With the on
in Sicily
opening of
this period
we
what
is
known
War.
the
The
Roman
system of slavery.
Romans took in war they usually sold into number furnished by their numerous conquests had caused slaves to become a drug in the slave markets of the Mediterranean world. They were so cheap that masters found it more profitable to wear their slaves out by a few years of unmerciThe
captives that the
servitude.
The
great
fully
lives
Often
in case of
new
408
purchases.
slaves.
Some
estates were
459]
409
like cattle.
What makes
slaves
the
more
revolting
is ttie
fact that
many
of these
were
in every
way
owners.
The
fortunes of
some the superiors, of their war alone had made the one a servant and
the peers, and
Sicily,^
The wretched
masters at
last
drove them to
The
out the island until two hundred thousand slaves were in arms
axes, reaping hooks, staves,
if
and roasting
spits
may be
called arms.
They defeated four Roman armies sent against them, and for three Rome. Finally, however, in the year 132 B.C., the uprising was suppressed. Twenty thousand of the unhappy slaves are said to have been crucified. Sicily was thus and remained quiet for nearly a generation.^ 459. The Public Lands. In Italy itself affairs were in a
pacified,
scarcely
less
Sicily.
At the bottom of a large part here was the public land system.
till
By law
or
In return for such use of the public land the user paid
Persons
who
were
called possessors or
at will."
occupiers
we
should
call
Now
it
had happened
that, in various
They
alone had the capital necessary to stock with cattle and slaves the
new
lands,
The
small farmers everywhere, too, were being ruined by the unfair competition of slave labor,
chase,
and their little holdings were passing by purand often by fraud or barefaced robbery, into the hands of
tives,
this, upon the destruction of Carthage, thousands of capmasters along with their slaves, were sold to Sicilian slave-traders and transferred
to Sicily.
2
which
In the year 102 B.C. another insurrection of the slaves broke out in the island, It required three years to quell.
4IO
[460
is
true,
which made
it
illegal for
any person
;
but
letter.
The
greater part of
are
persons.
more
profitable than
Hence
Italy
The
dispossessed peasants,
cities,
without
home
or employ-
two great
classes
Roman
the nonpossessors.
The
and
Hannibal.
birth,
tured by a mother noted not alone for her acquaintance with the
Greek
heart.
was
who first undertook The resolution to consecrate his life to the distress among the poor and disinherited citizens
of
Rome
Etruria,
is said to have been taken by him while traveling through where he saw the mischief and distress caused by the usurpa-
the
all
were occupying
to
The
were
poor
citizens.
As was natural, the senatorial party, who represented the wealthy landowners, bitterly opposed the measures brought forward by Tiberius.
They
461]
411
of the colhis
veto.
Octavius did
brought to a vote
Through
such a vote
Never before
way from
The
sanctity of
had been the safeguard for a period of almost four centuries, was destroyed.
was now made a law, and a board was appointed to carry out its provisions and to prevent the law from becoming a dead letter, as had happened in
to
his place.
Tiberius' proposal
of commissioners
To make
nobility,
Tiberius'
now became a
tribune.
two consecutive
years.
Rome was
killed
tumult
The
partisans of Tiberius
and a number of
into the Tiber.
his followers
were
first
thrown
led to
Rome had
first
city
had witnessed
common
to
enough.
Each member
any or
of
all
of his colleagues, just as one of the consuls could obstruct the act of his colleague.
412
[461
he was of a different mold from the ordinary Roman magistrate. He had " left Rome," as Plutarch puts it, " with his purse full of money
it
back empty
of nioney."
Gaius entered straightway with marvelous energy and resourcefulness upon the work of reform. His aim was
Once
in the tribuneship,
to destroy the
and corrupt,
self at its
government of the Senate, now hopelessly incapable and to set up in its place a new government with himhe secured the passage of a law by the people constitutional for a tribune to hold his office two years
First,
head.
it
which made
in succession.
He
next
won
the
by carrying a law which provided that every Roman citizen, on personal application, should be given corn from the public granaries at half or less than half the market price. Gaius could not have foreseen all the evils to which this law,
poor of the
city
which was
lead.
in effect
law,
was destined
to
to
It led eventually to
com
all citizens
who made
the public
application for
Very soon a
population of
Rome was
and feeding
at
crib.''
As a
thousand
new
colonies in Italy,
and sent
six
Roman
citizens, to
called
Junonia.
outside
first
citizen-colony established
by the Romans
section
his downfall.
This proposal
full
seems
to
made
Roman
citizens,
1
bankers, between
the senatorial order there was much jealousy and ill will. This law transferred the courts in which provincial magistrates accused of wrong-doing
tried
were
the
462]
413
this
Gains was in
unwilling to
reason that citizenship now, since the whole world was paying tribute
in
Roman
state,
was
something valuable.
as tribune he
life
The
When
was
defeated.
was
in danger.
His friends
around him.
Fighting took
Gaius
in despair
killed.
took his
own
life,
his followers
were
The
that of
consul Lucius Opimius had offered for the head of Gaius and
one of
the
in gold.
first
instance in
it
Roman
history of head
and
paid, but
last "
(Long).
The common people ever regarded the Gracchi as martyrs to their and their memory was preserved, in later times, by statues in the public square. To Cornelia, their mother, a monument was erected, bearing the simple inscription, "The Mother of the Gracchi."
cause,
462. The
War
e.g.).
left to resist
The Gracchan laws respecting the made of no effect. Italy fell again into the hands of a few overrich landowners. The provinces were plundered by the Roman governors. The votes of senators and the
public lands were annulled or decisions of judges, the offices at
inces
everything
Rome and
price,
and by
This
is
well illustrated
all
con-
Romans
bribed by Jugurtha.
nent
officials at
Rome to look into the matter were An investigation was ordered but many promiRome were implicated in the offenses, and the matter
;
414
[463
disgusted
sell thyself
Romans
venal
city,
thou wouldst
B.C.
the
war begun
five
man who
had
Under
Sybarite,"
whom we
shall
hear
much
hereafter.
The war
was not yet ended in Africa before terrible tidings came to Rome from the north. Two mighty nations of " horrible barbarians," three hundred thousand strong in fighting men, coming whence no one
could
tell,
moment cross
the Alps
into Italy.
The mysterious
These
in rude
carried with
them
wagons
all
their children.
The
Celtic
tribes of
fled before
Roman
The
terror at
Rome was
by the invasion of the Gauls three centuries before (sect. 413). The Gauls were terrible enough; but now the conquerors of the Gauls were coming.
Marius, the conqueror of Jugurtha, was looked to by
only
all
as the
man who
crisis.
In disregard of the
constitution^ he
the
was reelected
to the consulship,
The
Po
the Teutons,
who were
western Alps.
rians
1
Marius determined to prevept the union of the barbaand to crush each band separately.
in i8o
464]
Anticipating the
CHANGES
IN
THE ARMY
415
into south-
em
moment
He now
hastened
to
comer
of Italy.
meet the Cimbri, who were entering the northeastern Uninformed as to the fate of the Teutons, the
in the peninsula.
in reply,
The Teutons have got all the land they need on the other side of the Alps." The devoted Cimbri were soon to have all they needed
on
this
side.
B.C.).
Roman
slave markets.
Army.
Up
legionary.
Only
in times of great
upon
for military
in the-
is
true,
citizens
From
this
Roman
armies were
own
who became
in effect the
to follow
him
even
commonwealth.
War
(91-89 B.C.),
Scarcely
was the At
this
Rome was
own
threatened
evil arising
within her
borders.
Roman
time
all
allies.
The Roman
citizens
and of the Roman colonies (sect. 421), besides the dwellers on isolated farms and the inhabitants of villages scattered everywhere throughout
1
4i6
Italy.
.
[465
(sect. 421).
Latins comprised the inhabitants of the Latin colonies The Italian allies were those conquered peoples that
Rome had
The
city.
Social or Marsic
War
(as
it is
that arose
privileges
Roman
citizenship.^
Their demands
new
republic,
and
its
name changed
lost to
to
Italica.
Thus
in a single
of
Rubicon was
Rome.
all
The
old
crats
Fig. 159.
the
Roman
Aristo-
Coin
THE
The
Italian
of Con-
of the Republic.
The war
lasted three
FEDERACv
Sabeiiian bull goring
ycars,
and was
finally
Oman wo
by signs of
to
communities that up
Rome
Italian
or
that
had already
down
their arms.
The
full
were offered
to
all
Italians
who
Roman
1 It should be carefully noted that the opposition to the admission of strangers to the rights of the city was no longer based on religious grounds, as was the case in the
days of patrician
Rome (sect. 417). The opposition now arose simply from the selfish desire of a privileged class in the Roman state to retain its monopoly rights.
;
2 The Italians found one open-minded and generous champion in a nobleman named Marcus Livius Drusus but by his espousal of their cause Drusus made bitter enemies at Rome and he was assassinated. " After the close of the war the rights that had up to this time been enjoyed by the Latin towns were conferred upon all the cities between the Po and the Alps.
466]
WAR
417
Thus
freemen of
rights.
Italy south
Po were^made
citizens
e qual in "
and p olitical
This was a
The enrollment
of the Italians
among
own
Roman
citizens.^
was simply a
Rome
which
plebeians (Chapter
earlier
earlier
XXXIII). But
later revolution
were very
different.
At the
Rome
or in
its
immediate
and conseoffice.
But now
in
it
was very
different.
These new-made
citizens
were
living
towns and
villages or
Italy,
and of
to participate
legislation, or to
become
Roman
all,
Hence
politically barren.
Rome had
She needed
;
but repreif
sentation
was a
political
device far
away from
times.
the practice
not
As
Roman
citizens outside of
Rome
into the
hands
Rome
or settled in
its
hood.
public
to the capital
from
all
and the
vicious, these
1 The census for the year 70 B.C. gives the 394,336 about a generation before the war.
number
41
[467
becoming simply mobs controlled by noisy demagogues and unscrupulous military leaders aiming at the supreme power in the state. This situation brought about a serious division in the bod^ of
Roman
disdain
citizens.
Those of
the capital
came
to regard themselves as
upon those
They alone reaped the fruits of the conquered world. At the same time the mass of outside passive citizens, as we may call them, came to look with jealousy upon this body of pampered aristocrats, rich speculators, and ragged, dissolute clients and hangers-on at Rome. They became quite reconciled to the thought of power passing out of the hands of such a crowd arid into the hands of a single man. The feelings of men everywhere were being prepared for the revolution that was to overthrow the
of the peninsula.
War was
still
in
enemy
of
Rome
ap-
had
Roman power
this
in
East,
we must here
We
(sects.
Soon
ment of her
ful
the
was
extinction of a rich
and power-
monarchy by
suicide."
people.^
Pergamum (sect. 306) died, having willed his kingdom to the Roman The Romans accepted the bequest, and made the territory into a province under the name of Asia.
See map after p. 426. There were during this period several of these surprises: 96 B.C. Cyrene was bequeathed by its last ruler to the Roman Republic; and 75 e.g. the last liing of
1
kingdom
to
Rome.
468]
419
it
was
back
certainly
Rome had
thus
far acquired.
The Greek
cities
now
still
and money
lenders.
The country became crowded who plundered the natives,^ and carried
to
with
their
booty to
Rome
spend
it
The Roman
were
men who
on
all
around them.
Of course
;
there were
among
many
honorable merchants
but the
dis-
alike
became the
natives.
Bearing
shall
mind
we
understand
how
it
was
possible
as he did.
come
120
little
kingdom of Pontus
in the year
B.C.
and fame have come down to us disHis bodily frame and strength were
immense, and
it
He
and
is
said, in
He
was
Greece.
His
court,
radiat-
and
scholars,
In no other
in
public rents.
The
natives paid a tenth in kind of the produce of the tilled land, and a
rent for
thfe
use of the public pastures. There were also custom duties on imports. Under
a law of Gaius Gracchus, the collection of these rents or taxes was farmed out, the censors every five years selling the privileges at public auction.
420
[469
country of Asia was there a more perfect blending of Persian and Greek civilizations. In truth, Mithradates was " the heir of Darius
on in regions which the Macedonian conquests had not reached, the work of Alexander and his successors. He founded new Greek cities and encouraged marriages between
and Alexander."
He
carried
But Mithradates, notwithstanding the fact was his mother was a Syrian Greek, of his half Greek descent, and impulses a typical oriental barbarian. in his deepest instincts In the course of a few years Mithradates pushed out the boundthe natives and Greeks.
aries of his
little
hereditary
kingdom
until
it
ine,
which became
a Pontic
sea.
He now
Roman
The
Asia,
natives of the
oppressed
farmhailed
ers, usurers,
him as
their deliverer.
in
now gave
orders
-^i
that
..
" a
certain
day every
_ ,. Italian,
without
to
be put
death.
letter.
sacred.
Men, women, and children, all of the Italian name, were masThe number of victims of the wholesale slaughter is variously
fifty
thousand.
Mithradates
into Greece.
now
Rome
Thus in the space of a few months was the power of the Romans destroyed throughout the East, and the boundaries of their empire pushed back virtually to the Adriatic. 469. Marius and Sulla Contend for the Command in the War against
barbarian Romans.
Mithradates.
bestirred
itself.
An army
forces.
was
The
470]
421
consul.
Senate conferred
upon
Sulla,
who
at
that time
i/
was
was
carried in an
command was taken away from now saw that the sword must settle
marched upon
the dispute.
At
Rome and
city
The
and ten of
the
legions
comsoon
panions
were
with
proscribed.
Sulla
to
B.C.).
embarked
meet
Mithradatic war,^
the
we must
first
follow
in
an attempt
torial party.
Rome was
terrible
revenge^
Fig. 161.
Marius
(?)
upon was
his
enemies.
The
his
consul Gnseus
(Uffizi Gallery,
Florence)
Octavius,
who
assassinated,
and
head
set
up
Rome
Never
For
life
five
of every
man
in the capital
was
in
As
an
a fitting sequel to
all this
in
entirely illegal
way, declared
consuls.
He
enjoyed
away by death
1 The measure was a provision of the Sulpician Laws (88 B.C.), so called from their proposer, the tribune Sulpicius, who, from fear of the designs of Sulla, had entered into
an understanding with Marius. 2 This was what is known as the First Mithradatic War (88-84 B.C.). ? for the wanderings of Marius, see Plutarch, Gaitis Mariits, xxxv-xli.
422
[47l
With the Mithradatic he was now comhis own and the ing to take vengeance upon the Marian party Republic's enemies. The terror and consternation created at Rome
471. The Proscriptions of Sulla (82 B.C.).
war ended,
by
this letter
Capitol.
The
sions.
Sibylline Books,
were"consumed.
Such an
was
foreshadow the
most
The returning army from the East landed in Italy (83 B. c). After much hard fighting^ Sulla entered Rome with all the powers of a dictator. The leaders of the Marian party were proscribed, rewards
were offered for
Sulla
their heads,
and
their property
was
confiscated.
was implored
to
make
out a
list
suspense in which
all
were now
held.
He made
The
it
out a
list
of eighty,
at the
to the Rostra.
-people
murmured
In a few days
was extended
to over three
wealthy
list
coming
into the
Forum and
reading his
!
own name
has proved
in the
my
villa
my
ruin."
mere boy
of eighteen,
was proscribed on
him
" There
is in
that
The number of victims of these proscriptions has been handed down as forty-seven hundred. Almost all of these must have been
men
public affairs.
The
away by
The
little
we
hear of a
were
laid
The
fighting
Gate
of
the capital.
472]
423
legacy
and
fear."
Its
Romans
for gen-
public
and at every crisis in the affairs mind was thrown into a state of
commonwealth the
firmed
all
own
remodel the constitution in any way that might seem to him necessary
and
best.
Sulla
was
like that
time
The reforms
to a nullity,
power
and went
He
One important result of the reign of Sulla as an absolute dictator was the accustoming of the people to the i3ea of the rule of a single man. His short dictatorship was the prelude to the reign of the permanent imperator. The parts of the old actors in the drama were now all played to the end. But the plot deepens, and new men appear upon the stage
to carry
474. Spartacus
War
of
the
Gladiators
Sulla, Italy
(73-71 B.C.).
About a
of fresh
Gladiatorial combats
had become
At Capua was
a sort of training-school
from which
skilled
fighters
424
[475
entertainments.
name
hold.
of Spartacus,
who
companions
to revolt.
made
There they were joined by gladiators from other schools, and by slaves and discontented persons from every quarter. Their number at length increased to one hundred and fifty thousand men. For
three years they defied the
control
was
as
killed
was the
still
affairs
At
first
Roman
gov-
But
we have
now
The
had
and rapacious.
exposed the
Sicily,
island
with impunity.
He
sold
all
He demanded
and
when on
his tours
statues,
paintings,
whether
in temples
or in private dwellings.
was doubtful whether, after the end of his term, he could be convicted, so venal had become the Senate, the body by which all
and
it
tried.
At
it
The
work
of the general
Marcus
I,icii)ii)5
Crasus (see
476]
425
who>
of
The
was
prominence
at
caused Verres to
exile to Massilia,
much
of his
ill-gotten wealth.
pacity of the
in
government of the
rule.
aristocrats"
the
Mediterranean
was
an
evil
The
their
Romans
conquest
the the
de-
countries
fringing
Mediterranean
stroyed
not
had
only
that
the
governments
land
had
the
same
time, as
the
case of
Fig. 162.
cities
^gean
In the more vigorous days of the Republic the sea had been
well watched
by
Roman
fleets,
Carthage the
Romans had
thus
;
into decay.
The Mediterranean,
ing with pirates
cially in
for
Roman
spirits in
lihood by preying
extortion of the
seas.
The
cruelty and
civil
Roman
Rome,
426
[476
all
these things,
and
des-
numbers of
life.
same course of
nations,"
"
They harvested
pirates,
state.
the
all
now turned
fortresses
had banded
of government and
They had
it is
four hundred
said^^ among the inaccessible mountains of the coast lands they frequented. They had a fleet of a thousand sail, with dockyards and naval arsenals. They made treaties with the Greek maritime cities
of
merchantman could spread her sails in Nor were these buccaneers content with what spoils the sea might yield them like the Vikings of the Northern seas in later times, they made descents upon every coast, plundered villas and towns, and sweeping off the inhabitants sold them openly as slaves in the slave markets of the East. In some regions the inhabitants, as in early
the Mediterranean, so that no
safety.
;
times,
were compelled
to
re-
build their
homes
farther
The
pirates
shores of Italy
the
itself.
They
Appian
Way
they began
to
Rome
with starvation.
Corn rose
bestirred themselves.
In the year 67
B.C.
Gnaeus
Pompey, a rising young general, upon whom the title of " Great had already been conferred, was invested with dictatorial power for
three years over the Mediterranean
inland.
and
all its
He
strongholds in
and
His
vigorous and successful conduct of this campaign against the pirates gained him great honor and reputation.
THE KOMAX
B. C.
DOIMTTVIOXS
MITHKADATIC
64
WAR
J=
477]
427
477.
Pompey
given,
was
by
now
had been
fled
in
battle in
Lesser Armenia
Pompey
Mithradates.
The king
from the
to
own
life
Rome had
names
Hamilcar,^
pro-
Hannib al,
great
Romans always
and
Coele-Syria,
which counpushin"g
he erected into a
Roman
province under
Still
the
name
after
and
to
fighting
In
spite of the
Fig. 163.
of
the
priests,
Pompey
in-
upon entering the innermost shrine of the temple there. He was astonished to find the chamber vacant, without even a picture or a statue of the god to whom the temple was dedicated. Seemingly awed by his surroundings, he left untouched
the treasures of the the Orient his gold
God
of the Bible.
"-Alone of
all
the gods of
" (Ferrero).
Romans brought
had
upon
its destinies.
1
The
Mithradatic
War
11.
War {74-64 b.c.)^ What is Icnown as the Second (83-82 B.C.) was a short conflict that arose just after the close of the 2). The chief conduct of the present war had been in the hands of
Lucius Licinius Lucullus, 2 Some authorities, however, say that he was murdered by his son.
428
[478
differ-
ent states and provinces in the East, and 'founding a great number of cities, Pompey set out on his return to Rome, where, dressed in the
manner
all
Rome became
city.
The
spoils
twenty-two princes walked as captives before the triumphal chariot of the conqueror legends upon the banners proclaimed that he had
;
conquered twenty-one kings, captured one thousand strongholds, nine hundred towns, and eight hundred ships, and subjugated more than
twelve millions of people; and that he had put into the treasury
twenty thousand
state.
talents,^ besides
He
first
and now for Asia, which completed the conquest of the world. 479. The Conspiracy of Catiline (64-62 B.C.). While the legions
in the -East a most daring conwas formed at Rome. Lucius Sergius Catilina, a ruined spendthrift, had gathered a large company of profligate young nobles, weighed down with debts and desperate like himself and had deliberately planned to murder the consuls and the chief
Italy with
Pompey
men
the
The
offices of
renewed and
all
debts were to be
canceled.
Fortunately,
all
were revealed
to the
clothed
cai-e
and
invisible foe."
Then
in the senate
chamber, with
in a
famous
empty.
known
The
About ^25,000,000.
429
''
and the
from
the senators, Catihne fled from the charhber and hurried out of the
city to the
camp
In a desperate battle
with
to
many
Pompey
was very easy to foresee that the downfall of the Roman Republic was near at hand. Indeed, from this time on, only the name remained. The days of liberty at Rome were over. From this time forward the government was practically in the hands of ambitious and popular leaders, or of corrupt combinations and " rings." Events gather about a few great names, and the annals of the Republic become biographical rather than historical. There were now in the state three mn Caesar, Crassus, and
Pompey
to shape affairs.
B.C.
he had
Marian or
democratic party.
ished enormous
He
lav-
sums upon
His popularity
commander.
Mar cus
party.
He owed
men
the richest
in the
Roman
world.
his
achievements
we
Roman
own
for in settling
Republic.
The
offices
were
filled
with
Ws
friends
and adherents.
in the
His veteran
legionaries, too,
the general
who had
led
them
1
so often to victory.
Sq.ooo.ooo.
About
430
What
is
481
commonly known as the First Triumvirate " ^ rested on the genius of ^Casar the. wealth of Crassus,,3nd.thaGhievements of Pomgg^ It was a private arrangement entered into by these three
, ,
men
affairs.
to
work
Through the aid of his Caesar was the manager of the "ring." " Dark was the issue which colleagues he secured the consulship.
destiny
was reserving
At
consulship Caesar secured for himself, as proconsul, the administration of the provinces of Cisalpine
with Illyricum.
in restless
exploits,
fields
and Germanic
tribes
were
movement.
army devoted
to his
hope
head of
affairs
his ambition
In the spring of 58 B.C. alarming intelligence from beyond the Alps caused Caesar to hasten from Rome into Transalpine Gaul.
Now
began a
Germany, and
In
his
admirable Com-
battles,
and 51 B.C. marked two notable achievements. Early in the spring of this year Ceesar constructed a bridge across the Rhine and led his legions against the Germans in their native woods and swamps. In the autumn of the same year he crossed, "by means of hastily confilled
The year 55
from
Britain,
and
upon
two weeks
with-
drew
1
The
following season he
This designation of this unofficial alliance is not strictly correct since the term is the title of a board of three regular magistrates and therefore should properly be applied only to the body mentioned in section 4S9 and commonly designated as the " Second Triumvirate." That body was established by a plebescitum which
Triumvirate
conferred upon the triumvirs dictatorial powers for five years.
482]
431
made another
lished
in the island.
years passed
away before
by the Romans
(sect. 503).
" the gods raised them from the barbarians they are now no longer needed." 482. Results of the Gallic Wars. The historian Ferrero pro-
Roman
history."
One
of the
many
con-'
Roman
Before the
Romans
a great
number
it was divided among war with one another. Jlome caused their inter-
&
condition of things'
that first
made
A
pf
Gaul
The
Roman
them the language, customs, and arts of Italy. Honors were conferred upon many of the Gallic chieftains, privileges were bestowed upon the different conjmunities, and the Roman franchise was granted to prominent and influential natives. This Romanization of Gaul meant much both for Roman history
carried with
who
was
failing.
It
was
this
The Roman stock in Italy new Romanized people that in the times of Roman state many of its best commanders,
The Romanization of Gaul meant, further, the adding of another toJh_^numheLof LatiQJiatiQns.Jhat were to arise from the break-up
There can be little doubt that if Cassar had would have been overrun by the Germans, and would ultimately have become simply an extension of Germany.
of the
Roman
Empire.
it
There would then have been no great Latin nation north of the Alps and the Pyrenees. It is difficult to imagine what European history
432
would be
instincts,
[483
its
semi-Italian temperament,
had never come into existence. against the A. final result of Cesar's campaigns in Gaul and iven^Jo_the_migratory intruding German tribes wasthe check movements of these peoples. Had this check not been given, it and
traditions,
is
possible that
what we
call
German
century
after, the
coming of
and
work of enriching
only fairly begun.
civilization
establishing
everywhere through-
out the Mediterranean world might have been interrupted while yet
While Cassar was engaged in his Transalpine wars, Crassus was leading an army against the Parthians, hoping to rival there the But his army was almost brilliant conquests of Ceesar in Gaul.
annihilated
by the enemy, and he himself was slain (54 b.c). That the to Caesar and Pompey.
two
rivals
in-
them into collision was inevitable. Their alliance in the " triumvirate was simply one of selfish convenience, not of friendship. While Caesar was carrying on his campaigns in Gaul, Pompey was at Rome watching jealously the growing reputation of his great
rival.
He
strove by
common
people.
He
interest
He
habitants of different
and
of
and
in the celebration of
that
The
(52
Senate, favoring
one year
B.C.),
dictator, and
484]
433
issued a decree that Caesar should resign his office and disband his
Gallic legions
The
crisis
Cassar
Without waiting
stream that
"
!
of his province.
As he plunged
cast
West
(49-48 B.C.).
As
its
Caesar
city after
gates to
went over
Pompey, with a
master of
all
Italy.
Many had
and Sulla reenacted. Caesar, however, soon gave assurance and property should be held sacred.
in Italy,
and with
Sicily, Sardinia,
and Spain
Pompey
in the East.
The
of Pharsalus in Thessaly.
armies of the rivals met upon the plains Pompey's forces were cut to pieces. He
Just as he
was
485.
Laconic Message;
End
of the Civil
War.
Csesar,
who had
followed
Pompey to
finally
secured to
Intelligence
was
among
Caesar
met
put an end to the war (47 B.C.). His laconic message to a friend Veni, vidi, vici^ announcing his victory is famous. It ran thus
:
(" I
came,
I saw,
conquered
").
Caesar
now
At
crushed.
1
upon the
field.
Cato,^
who had
Plutarch, Cicsar,
(sect. 450),
434
[486
outlive the
and soul
of
to
own
life.
as Dictator
an Uncrowned King.
world.'
Cffisar
was now
Roman
He
of king, but he
manner
on the public
.
coins.
His
statue
was
significantly
Rome.
all
He
was
"invested with
the offices
and
the
titles
Maximus
Thus,
and
Imperator.
though
not
king
in
was
that of an ab-
solute ruler.
man.
Museu
CcEsar
had
his
great
Rome
had conquered.
different
A
of
chief
aim of
was
establish
between the
classes
of rights, to place Italy and the provinces on the same footing, to blend the various races and peoples into a real nation in a word, to carry to completion that great work of making all the world
To
this
end he
tesar
1 The sons of Pompey^Gna=us and Sextus-had headed a revolt crushed the movement a httle later in the
in Spain,
decisive battle of
Munda,
45 B.C.
487]
established
C^SAR AS A STATESMAN
numerous
colonies in the provinces
435
settled in
and
them
liber-
With a
upon
individual provincials
and communities
city.
of the
Rome.
open
Thus was
fore-
Roman
in
name and
reforms
com
doles
by
half.
as.
As
to bring
consist of three
This
is
what
is
many
vast understate
of the
and the
of his
Roman
life
1 One of the most important of all Caesar's laws was that known as the Lex Julia Munkipalis (45 B.C.), whose aim was to bring order and uniformity into the municipal system and to develop a more vigorous civic life in tl^e municipal towns of Italy. All the municipal governments organized after this, whether in towns in Italy or in the provinces, conformed to the principles embodied in this important constitutional measure. 2 This calendar, which was based on the old Egyptian calendar (sect. 43), was in general use in Europe until the year 1582, when it was reformed by Pope Gregory XlII, and became what is known as the Gregorian Calendar. This in time came to be used in all Christian countries except those of the Greek Church (Russia, etc.), where the Julian Calendar is still followed.
436
[ 4S8
enemies,
There were,
too,
whom
of
republican
was
himself king. A crown was several times offered by the consul Mark Antony but seeing the manifest displeasure of the people, he each time pushed it aside. Yet there is no doubt that secretly he desired it. It was reported that he proposed
aiming to
make
him
in public
cpdle of the
Roman
race
new Roman
Empire.
who had borne him a son at Rome, would entice him to make Alexandria the center of the proposed kingdom. Thus many, out of love for Rome and the old Republic, were led to enter
Egyptian Cleopatra,
into a conspiracy against the life of Cassar -with those
rid
who sought
to
The Ides
March, 44
b.
Seventy or eighty
cerned in the
plot.
to " be-
was to assemble that day, he observed the astrologer Spurinna and remarked carelessly to him, referring to hi| prediction, " The Ides of March have come." " Yes," replied Spurinna, " but not gone." No sooner had Caesar taken his seat than the conspirators crowded about him as if to present a petition. Upon a signal from one of
their
number
their
;
For a moment
Cassar
defended himself
gifts
whom
said to
too,
he had lavished
reproachfully,
Brute!"
"Thou,
and
to
is
his face
killed
many
of their best
the greatest
man
their race
489]
Csesar's
historical
437
it
incomplete.
What
lends to
such great
importance
Caesar drew the broad lines which his successors followed, and
dicated the principles on which the
be based.
489.
The
Second
B.C.).
Triumvirate (43
of
Csesar,
and papers,
out
the
dic-
carrying
testament of the
tator,
according to
high-handed
usur-
He
one
of
Caesar's
old
lieutenants.
Very soon
all
he was exercising
"The
tyrant
Fig. 165.
still
To what
tion
it
lengths
is
difficult to say,
Antony would have gone in his career of usurpahad he not been opposed at this point by
young grand-nephew
of Julius Cassar,
whom
Civil
of
he had named in
at once ensued.
"
and adopted
hostilities,'^
war
The "War
Mutina
Modena)
(44-43 B.C.), so called for the reason that the fighting took in northern Italy.
438
a
[489
common
and unite
sanctioned
The outcome
B.
of a
(43
c).
The
A general proscription,
that each should give
such as had marked the coming to power of Sulla, was resolved upon.
was agreed
as
up
his
ill-will
of
Under
in-
his
posing his
his
allowed
of
name
''*
to
be put
at the
head
^^
V^
^^^
^ ^^^ proscribed.
friends of the orator urged
The
him
die,"
" Let
me
said
I
he,
"in
my
fatherland,
!
which
when
him
to
which he was
being carried.
Fig. i66.
Cicero.
(Madrid)
Rome
and
"
up
in front of the so
It
Rostra,
often addressed the people with his eloquent appeals for liberty."
is
her husband.
it had uttered against hand of the victim the hand that had penned the eloquent orations was nailed to the Rostra. Cicero was but one victim among many hundreds. All the dreadful
The
right
Two
thousand knights
See above,
p. 430, n. it
490]
439
and between two and three hundred senators were murdered. The estates of the wealthy were confiscated and sold at public auction.
490. Last Struggle of the Republic at Philippi (42 B.C.):
the
Roman World
in the
Hands
of
Antony
arfd Octavian.
The
friends
of the old Republic and the enemies of the triumvirs were meanwhile
rallying in the East.
spirits.
At
met (42
B.C.).
In two
new
were cut to
Republic forever
committed
suicide.
It was,
The
between
is
simply
among
supreme power.
the
Roman
in the
Antony
in the East
and Octavian
in
the West.
went
into Asia for the purpose of settiing the affairs of the provinces
states there.
At Tarsus, in Cilicia, he met Cleopatra, the Antony was completely fascinated, as had been the great Caesar before him, by the witchery of the " Serpent Enslaved by her enchantments and charmed by her of the Nile." brilliant wit, in the pleasure of her company he forgot all else
and vassal famous queen of Egypt.
was whis-
make
All
in
Roman
Rome was
stirred.
It
was evident
that a struggle
was
at
hand
440
[493
which the question for decision would be whether the West should rule the East, or the East rule the West. All eyes were instinctively
turned to Octavian as the defender of Italy and the supporter of the
sovereignty of the Eternal City.
conflict.
Both parties made the most gigantic preparations for the inevitable Octavian met the combined fleets of Antony and Cleopatra
promontory of Actium, on the western coast of Greece.
While the issue of the battle that there took place was yet undecided, Cleopatra turned her galley in flight. The Egyptian ships, to the
number
of
fifty,
Antony, as soon as he
all
perin
else
and followed
the
man was
received aboard
flight.
became
her
The abandoned fleet, still fighting bravely, was destroyed, and the army surrendered to Octavian. The conqueror was now sole master
of the civilized world.
From
b. c.)
are usually
dated the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Empire.
Some
historians,
however,
make
it
was not
to
by
queen that
army and informed by a messenger from the she was dead, committed suicide.
;
false
but
to
Rome
and becoming convinced that he proposed to take her that she might there grace his triumph, she took her own
life,
of
end.
Roman
Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus and /ulius AfPiAN, The Civil Wars, bk. ii, chap, xviii (the panic in Rome after Cesar's death). Cicero, Letters to Atticus (Loeb Classical Library), bit. vii, letters, 1-26. Munro, Source Book, pp. 100-141^ 217-220; Davis's Readings
Cesar.
(Roine), pp. 85-166.
REFERENCES
;
441
Secondary Works. Heitland, vol. ii, chaps, xxxv-xlvii vol. iii, chaps, Geeenidge, History of Rome, vol. i. ^ERRERO, The Greatness and the Decline of Rome, vols, i-iii vol. iv (chaps, i-vi). Merivale, The Fall of the Roman Republic. Beesly, The Gracchi, Marius and Sulla. Pelham, Outlines
xlviii-lxi.
;
of
Roman
GiLMAN,
xii,
xiii.
Abbott, Roman
(read chap, xi, " The Old Republic and the Roman Statesmen of the Republic. Strachan-Davidson, Cicero and the Fall of the Roman Republic. Trollope, The Life of Cicero. o'WLmL, fulitis Ccesar.
Holmes,
of the
Ccesar' s
Roman
slavery Johnston, The Private Life Marcus Livius Drusus, the champion of the Italians (consult by index any comprehensive^history of Rome). 3. Cicero and his friends as admirers of things Greek Mahaffy, The Greek World under
:
Roman
2.
of Catiline: Church, Roman Life Causes of the fall of the Republic How and Leigh, History of Rome, chap, xxxi Seignobos (Wilde ed.), History of Ancient Civilization, pp. 274-278.
Roman Sway,
in the
chap.
vi.
^.
The Conspiracy
5.
;
Days of
I.
The
Principate
(31B.C.-284 A.D.)
CHAPTER XXXVII
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE AND THE PRINCIPATE OF AUGUSTUS CiESAR
(31 B.C.-14 A.D.)
the Dyarchy.
The hundred
left
the
Roman
crumbling fragments
to fall to pieces,
It
state,
might prolong
great
was a
work thus
"
to create anew, as
strength.
The establishment
all,
Roman
work
that any
-human being
ever
wrought.
The achievements
after his return
compared with
for a
moment."
laid
Soon
down
the ex-
traordinary powers which he, as sole master of the legions, had been
exercising.
Then
known
him with
absolute
virtually the
same powers but with republican titles; for, of Julius Ceesar, Octavian saw to it that the really
44-
494]
veiled
443
title
He
of king.
since
He knew how
ex-
the
pulsion of the
Tarquins,
and
he was mindful
regal
title
power.
Nor
of dictator, a
name
of king.
But he adopted or
title
cepted the
of Imperator,
ac-
which,
it
although
it
carried
with
the
still
commander
had clinging
the
it
legions,
no odious
memories.
He also
title
received from
to the gods,
all
and
of
sinister
monument
was erected
It
endar.
Roman
regarded as
portraits
by
which the preceding month had been given the name Julius (whence
444
[ 494
our July) in honor of Julius C^sar. Common usage also bestowed upon Octavian the name of Prmceps, which was only a designation
out of courtesy and dignity and which simply pointed " first citizen " of a free republic. it as the
And
as Octavian
was
careful not to
wound
assuming any
that in
any way
suggested regal authority and prerogative, so was he careful not to arouse their opposition by abolishing any of the republican offices or
assemblies.
fore
;
He
allowed
all
of their
Likewise
were convened
as usual to hold elections and to vote on measures laid before them. But Octavian, having been invested with both the consular and the
tribunician power,
summon
is
The
also,
it
true,
had
the
new order
the
long rule of
rence of the
new master
still
of the state.
The Senate
existed,^ but
it
was shorn of all real independence its first member, the Princeps.
one thousand
He
raised
rolls
by Antony
the names
to six hundred,
of unworthy
members and
of obstinate republicans.
The
number
office
later
2 Since in. the early Empire the Senate under the constitutional arrangements of Augustus shared the government with the emperor, the government of this period is by some called a dyarchy, which means a government by two persons. As a matter of fact, however, the Senate had only so much authority as the ruling emperor chose to give it. Some emperors, like Augustus, treated ther body vjith respect and allowed it a real share in the government, while others rejected the theory of a joint rule of Frinceps and Senate and ruled practically alone.
495]
445
taking place; for the chief powers and prerogatives of the ancient
had been gradually broken up and lodged in the hands of a great number of magistrates, colleges, and assemblies, were now being oncp more gathered up in the hands of a single man. This drift towards the unrestrained rule of a
single person
is
Rome
for
the
first
Empire
concentration of
plete,
power
in the
and the
veiled
oriental
The
all
revolution
that
brought in the Empire effected a great improvement in the condition of the provincials.
The government
of
were
an unsettled state and that needed the presence of a large military force Augustus^ withdrew from the Senate and took the
in
management
own
hands.
^
forth ruled
will
and propraetors, they were henceby legates of the emperor, who were removable at his
to
and answerable
him
were atlached
in connection
The more
tranquil provinces
were
still
left
known
as public provinces.
These
also profited
by the change,
since the
emperor extendeti
flagrant
Respecting
:
as follows
"
446
[496
The
terrible dis-
Roman
legions.
The
general QuintHius
Varus had made the mistake of supposing that he could rule the
freedom-loving
Germans, who
had
in
part
Roman
authority, just as he
them to determined revolt. While the general was leading an army of three legions, numbering altogether about twenty thousand men, through the almost pathless depths of the Teutoburg Wood, he was surprised by the barthe Eastern provinces, and had thereby stirred
barians under their brave chieftain
the
Hermann Romans and his army destroyed. The disaster caused great consternation
at
called
Arminius by
Rome.
in agony,
Augustus,
wearied and worn already with the cares of empire and domestic
affliction,
was
'"
inconsolable.
He
!
and kept
give
exclaiming,
Varus, Varus
"
!
me
back
my
legions
me
back
my
legions
The
victory of
European civilization. The Germans were on the point of being completely subjugated and put in the way of being Romanized, as the Celts of Gaul had already been.
significance
in the history of
Had
for the
Germanic element
is
succeeded in exterminating or enslaving them, Britain, as Creasy says, might never have received the name of England, and the great English nation
Had Rome
The
reign
of
from 31 b.c. to 14 a.d. Although the government of Augustus, as we have learned, was disturbed by some troubles upon the frontiers, still, never before, perhaps, had the
civilized
Augustus
moil of war.
the
world enjoyed so long a period of general rest from the turThree times during this auspicious reign the gates of
of Janus at
Temple
AT THE
DEATH OF AUGUSTUS
A. D. 14:
498]
SOCIAL LIFE AT
447
existence of the city had they been closed, so constantly had the
Roman
had
filled all
the preceding
was favorable
to
Under
made
fall
this the
Golden
Age
of Latin literature.
Many who
lamented the
;
of the Republic
letters
and
to
in this they
were encour-
aged by Augustus, as
might
otherwise
it
gave occupation
many
have
gaged
his
government.
in
The
names
the
literature
Augustus was
adorned
the
also a munificent
art.
He
with
many
and
""
aqueducts.
He
a
said proudly,
;
found
it
Rome
city of brick
I left
a city of marble."
The
popula-
was
Fig. 168.
M^CENAS. (From
medallion)
of the Empire
this
Two
These
cities, too,
art.
Rome
of
under Augustus.
One
of the
most
re-
markable features of
life
Augustus
Roman
citizens
who were
means
recipients of the
There were
at least
beneficiaries of
this
upwards of
For
and Augustus
purged the
of unworthy claimants.
448
[499
immense
quantities
com needed
upon
heaviest
drains
Another striking feature of life at Rome at this time was the growing infatuation of the people for the bloody spectacles of the
amphitheater.
The emperor
my own
name,
and
five
times in that of
;
my
torial exhibitions
thousand
men
have
fought.
Twenty-six times in
my own
name, or
in that of
my
in
and about
thirty-five
hundred
where now
is
For
this purpose
an excavation was made eighteen hundred feet long and twelve hundred wide. In this contest thirty beaked ships, triremes or
biremes, were engaged, besides
more
life
of smaller size.
About
three
^
thousand
Still
men
Rome
was the loosening of the family ties. Divorces had multiand the family seemed about to be dissolved, as had been the larger groups of the tribe and the gens. Augustus strove to arrest this downward tendency by edicts and laws in encouragement of
attention
plied,
too
to
of the times
'of state.
The decay
Augustus did
sacrifices,
in his
power
to arrest
He
not only at
1
Rome
The
unauthorized
MonummtumA,tcyramm,Q}n-a.^%.
lations
of European History, published by Department of History of the University of Pennsylvaflia. See Selections, p. 451.
500]
449
intro-
duced
at the capital,
people
The Greek
Apollo, however,
list
of pro-
In honor of
great deity,
who Augustus
emperor erected
at Actium, the
and
set
up
in the
Rome, and caused to be transported from Egypt capital an immense obelisk, the emblem in Egyptian
In the year 14
a. d.
Augustus
last
His
have
words
my
part in
life's
drama, greet
my
By decree
was accorded
in the Orient,
him and temples were erected in his honor. The cult of Augustus had developed, particularly
At
first
seems
our-
and impious.
But
will
not seem so
if
we put
in a
Thus
in
was
Rome
in the
Empire as one
qualities.
to
become
From
became a
favorite
we
shall see
Grseco-Roman world was taking on this form, there was springing up in a remote corner of the Empire a new religion with which this imperial cult must necessarily come into
religion of the
violent conflict.
For
it
was
happy reign
of Augustus,
civilized world,
when
pro-
the doors of
4SO
the
[500
Temple
in
been closed
(sect.
390),
born
yet
it
Bethlehem of Judea.
Rome;
was, as
we have
Roman Empire
we
shall
Christianity to
Roman
TAET.E
emperor,
speak
SHOWING THE NUMBER OF ROMAN CITIZENS AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF THE REPUBLIC AND THE EMPIRE 1
Citizens of
Military Age
Under
(Mommsen's
. .
estimate)
.
20,000
.
338 B.C.
293 B.C.
251 B.C.
165,0002
262,322 279,797
...
.
.....
. . .
. .
270,213
214,000^
.
327,022
70 B.C.
27 E.C
...
...
.
.
394.336 900,000
4,063,000*
4,233,000 4,937,000
8 B.C 13 A.
...
D
...
47 A. D. (under Claudius)
6,944,000
1 These figures embody what is perhaps the most important matter in Roman history, namely, the gradual admission of aliens to the full rights of the city until every freeman in the civilized world had become a citizen of Rome. This movement we have endeav-
ored to trace
2
in the text.
These
figures
Consult particularly sects. 415-417, 465, 466, 487, 503, 516. do not include the inhabitants of the Latin colonies nor of the
allied states.
from the number of the preceding census of 220 B.C. was a result War. 4 These figures and those of the enumerations for S B.C. and 13 a.d. are from the Monumentum Aiicyranum. The increased number given by the census of 70 B.C. over
3
The
falling off
of the Hannibalic
that of 115 B.C. registers the result of the admission to the city of the Italians at the
end of the Social War (sect. 466). The tremendous leap upwards of the figures between 70 and 27 B. c. is probably to be explained not wholly by the admission during this period of aliens to the franchise but also, possibly, by the failure of the censors of the repubenumerations the Roman citizens living in places remote E. Meyer, however, that the census of 27 B.C. included the whole Roman citizen population (men, women, and children) while the republican census gave only the number of the male citizens above seventeen years
lican period to include in their
from the
capital.
It is the opinion of
of age.
REFERENCES
Selections from the Sources.
45
(Res Gesta Divi
Augusii
Monnmentum Ancyranum
"),
"
The Deeds
of
Augustus
vol. v,
No.
7,
of the Translations
and
Reprints from the Original Sources of F.uropean History, published by the Department of History of the University of Pennsylvania. This forms
one of the most important of the original sources for the reign of Augustus. It is a long bilingual inscription (Latin and Greek) discovered in 1595 on the walls of a ruined temple at Ancyra (whence the name), in Asia Minor. The inscription is a copy of a tablet which was set up in front of the mausoleum of Augustus at Rome. Tacitus, Annals, i, 2 (how Augustus made himself supreme at Rome). Munro, Source Book, pp. 143-148; Davis's Readings (Rome), pp. 166-185. References (Modern). Ferrero, The Greatness and Decline of Rome, vols, iv (chaps, vii-xi), v. Inge, Society in Rome under the CcEsars, chap, i, " Religion " (deals with the decay of Roman religion and the establishment at the capital of cjriental cults). Capes, The Early Empire, chap, i, "Augustus." Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, bk. V, chap. iii. BuRY, The Rovian Empire (Student's Series), pp. 1-163. Firth, Augustus Casar. Thierry, Tableau de VEmpire Romain (teachers and mature students will find this work very suggestive; the book might be entitled " Rome's Place in Universal History"). Topics for Class Reports, i. In theory the government of the early Empire was a dyarchy a joint rule of the emperor and the Senate. How real was the participation of the Senate in the government ? 2. The significance of the defeat of Varus: Creasy, Decisive- Battles of the World, chap. v. Friedlander, Roman Life 3. The life of the court under the early Empire and Manners, vol. i, pp. ja-^'j. 4. Means of communication Friedlander, Roman Life and Manners, vol. i, pp. 268-322 Davis, The Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome, pp. 80-105.
CHAPTER XXXVIII
FROM TIBERIUS TO THE ACCESSION OF DIOCLETIAN
(14-284 A.D.)
Tiberius,
the adopted
was
still
to
became his successor. One of his first acts take away from the popular assemblies the right which they
to
bestow the same upon the Senate, which, however, as a rule elected
candidates presented by the emperor.
in thfe
government of the
state.
During the
first
all
and
The
"
and
benefiin his
shown
to increase the
A
^
good shepherd," he
said,
and not
flay
his sheep."
jealous
him, in his contest with his political and personal enemies, soon
institute there
to
latter
An
old law,
known
as the
Law
of
Majestas, which
made
it
was oppressively enforced. Rewards were offered to informers, and hence sprang up a class of persons called delators,
the emperor,
1
Eduard Meyer
in history."
He
452
50r]
PRINCIPATE OF TIBERIUS
upon
;
453
were made
to
who
acted as spies
society.
Often
false charges
gratify personal
enmity
and many,
their property
might be confiscated.
commander
in the
of the
corrupt
life.
Then he
left to this
retired to
Capreae, an
islet
Bay of
Naples, and
man
at
the
management
very
Rome
much
way
according to his
own
He
citiiens,
in
He
even grew
His became known to Tiberius, and the infamous and minister was arrested and put to death. During the remainder
" I care not that the people hate me," he
if
of his principate Tiberius ruled sternly, disdainfully indifferent to the love of his subjects.
is
they approve
my
deeds."
that, in
was
in the
a remote
province of the
Roman
crucified.
Animated
by an unparalleled missionary
glad tidings."
Men's
and
liberalizing influence of
Greek
whole
civilized
soil
new
doctrines.
In
name but also very largely in fact. This conversion of Rome, of which we have here during the rule of Tiberius the beginning, is one of the most important events in all history. A new element is
only in
civilization,
and character
to
much
of the history of
^ This was a corps of select soldiers which had been created by Augustus, and which was designed for a sort of bodyguard to the emperor. *It numbered about ten thousand men, and was given a permanent camp alongside the city walls and near one of the gates. It soon became a formidable power in the state and made and unmade emperors
at will.
454
[502
was followed
by Gaius
known
as Caligula.
follies.
which time
his
many
the
mind of
the
and piety won for him young emperor seemingly became disordered.
the affection of
all
classes,
He He
the
life
of
dissipation.
The
cruel sports
him a strange
fascination.
lists
upon
some
guard
whom
he had wantonly
insulted.
A. D.).
The
successor of Caligula
was
acts.
man
of strangely inconsistent
moods and
At times
his acts
Rome by
Roman
Senate
made
The emperor
touched
first
upon the
fact
that his
own most
ancient ancestor,
although of Sabine origin, had been received into the city and made
member
This
liberal policy
of the fathers
Men
. .
.
of special
"
talent,
trans-
Rome.
Nor am
unmindful of the
all
he continued,
have been
to
Italy persons
Roman
Senate.
was extended
the Alps, so that not single individuals but entire provinces and tribes
Roman name.
to us
Is
it
came
migrated to
Rome
from Spain? that men not less distinguished from Gallia Narbonensis ? The descendants of
among
us,
their
As
in the
prffitorians.
was proclaimed emperor by the insolent do otherwise than to ratify their action.
504]
RULE OF NERO
What
and of Athens,
states
455
the
of Sparta
once powerful
in
"
The generous
at
who were
given admission to
Roman
Senate.
The
and
They
by
not only admitted foreigners to the Senate, but freely granted Latin
Roman
rights to provincials.
This
liberal policy
was
justified
its fruit.
The
provinces gave to
Rome
especially signalized
by the/'conquest of
Nearly a century
the: island
by Julius Caesar.
made
it
into a
Roman
province
under the name of Britannia (43 a.d.). Many towns soon sprang up here, which in time became important centers of Roman trade and culture, and some of which were the beginnings of great English towns of
to-day.
The rule of Claudius was further distinguished by the construction of many important works of a utilitarian character. The Claudian
Aqueduct, which the emperor completed, was a stupendous work,
bringing water to the city from a distance of forty-five miles.
Throughout
Agrippina,"
his
life
For
who
in
mushrooms,
order to
make
in
having for
563); years
(sect.
For
five
Tacitus, Annals^
(sect. 417).
xi,
23.
Manilas
2
4S6
[504
Nero, under the influence of Seneca and Burrhus, the latter the commander of the pra2torians, ruled with moderation and equity; then
gradually breaking
with crimes of almost incredible enormity. It was in the tenth year of his reign (64 a.d.) that the so-called Great Fire laid more than half of Rome in ashes. For six days and
nights the flames surged like a sea through the valleys and about
hills
covered by the
city.
It
was rumored
that Nero
to be
more magnificent
plan,
poem
of his
own
composi-
entitled
To
ac-
conto
The
docof
the
Fig. 169. Vespasian.
at
new
sect
respecting
the second
destruction
(Museum
Naples)
The
was one
Many
names
Paul as victims of
this persecution.
Among
mensely
victims
was
his
old
preceptor Seneca,
treason,
who was
imto
rich.
On
the charge of
he condemned him
At last the Senate declared him a public enemy and condemned him to death by scourging, to avoid which, aided by a servant, he took his own life.
SOS]
GALEA, OTHO,
AND VITELLIUS
all
457
uneventful.
The
succession,
the Julian-Claudian
line,
pute,
in different quarters
supported
leaders.
claims
of
their
aspirants
the
in
three
bloody
struggles
FiG.;i7o.
The
and
in
last, Vitellius,
"JuD^A Capta"
(Coin of Vespasian)
Palestine,
by the
beloved
commander
engaged
in
the
legions
which were
at this time
A. d.).
The
known
as
Age (69-96
a.d.).
One
of th& most
memorable events
of Vespasian's reign
Fig. 171.
(From a
Jerusalem
Showing the seven-branched candlestick and other trophigs from the temple
458
[ 507
the
city
was taken by Titus, son of Vespasian. of the it was the period who had crowded into the city
over perished. In imitation of Nebuchadnezzar, Titus robbed the temple of its sacred utensils and bore them away as trophies. Upon be seen at the triumphal arch at Rome that bears his name may
seven-branched the present day the sculptured representation of the which was one of the memorials of the war. golden candlestick,
Fig. 172.
a.d.,
emperor
of
after
death.
He
was
favors.
Having
he
is
let
slip
by without some
said to
have
lost a day."
gun by
known
as
as the
Colosseum
The
now regarded
an exaggeration.
i508]
DOMITIAN
given
it
459
name
either because of
its
The
disasters.
The
first
was a conflagration
The second-
was the
cities
by an eruption of Vesuvius, of the Campanian of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The cjties were buried beneath
destruction,
Pliny the
Fig. 173.
photograph)
Elder, the great naturalist, venturing through curiosity too near the
mountain
to investigate the
phenomenon,
the
lost his
life."^
Domitian, whose
rule, after
however,
northern frontier
lines.
^ During the past century extensive excavations have uncovered a large part of Pompeii and revealed to us the streets, homes, theaters, baths, shops, temples, and
monuments of the ancient city presenting to us a vivid picture of during the imperial period eighteen hundred years ago.
various
Roman
life
460
[508
crowded back the father-in law of the historian Tacitus, subjected or the Empire the warlilie tribes until he had extended the frontiers of
far into
land.
what
is
now
Scot-
Then, as a protection
the
ancestors
Caledonians,
he constructed a
tresses
line of forof
Behind
shelter
Roman
to
civilization
now
began
what
is
known
as of
in
Church
second
history
"the
the
persecution
Christians,"
who
special
incurred
Domitian's
hatred
through refusal to
cense
before
his
bum
in-
statues.
The name
niece
of the emperor's
Domitilla
as
has
of
been
the
preserved
one
This
Fig. 174.
is
significant,
since
faith
it
in the
museum
at Naples)
was
among
even
the
higher
classes,
itself.
the British
Museum
the reader
may
see the
^Domitian was
palace
killed in his
Fowler
to
by members
of
his
own
household.
The
Senate
name
and
to
Roman
state.
iS09]
461
emperors
Nerva, Trajan,
The
Rule
of
Nerva
(96-'98 A.D.).
The
assumed something of
of the Empire.
rulers, under whom the theory of a joint control by Princeps and Senate became something of a reality, won for them the distinction of being called the five good emperors." This
ernment by these
'"
Fig. 175.
a relief
on
Column)
Nerva,
He
died after a short reign of sixteen months, and the scepter passed
whom Nerva
government.
by profession and
talent.
He was
this
the
first
provincial to
sit
From
Empire.
It
was the
of his successors
in
policy of
Augustus
a
in
policy adopted
by most
to
make
the
Danube
Roman Empire
dominions beyond
462
both these
[510
in
These troublesome enemies were subjugated, and Dacia was made The modem name into a province.
Danube.
Rumania
is
monument of
this
Roman
a language that in
As a memorial
of his achievements
came
to
splen-
eighteen
in
centuries, the
presforty-
great pillar
ervation.
almost perfect
It is
wound
from
of
more than
figures.
twentyIts pic-
hundred human
sides
tured
the only
record
we now
possess
of
In the 116
A. D.)
latter
Trajan led
Euphrates, reduced
Armenia,
thians
Fig. 176.
Trajan's
Column
"'^<^
(From
a photograph)
^ed
"A
monarchy.
conquered
Out
almost
text."
Trajan
made
three
new
Mommsen
1 The Romanic-speaking peoples of Rumania and the neighboring regions number about ten millions. It seems probable that during media:val times there was a large immigration into the present Rumania of Latinspeaking people from the districts south of the Danube.
THE
AT
9
I10:MAX E3IPTEE
KXTENT
^oo
r,oo "()0
ITS GIli:ATESr
^nn
nfio
10
10
511]
HADRIAN
names
Another province which he created
Petrsea,''-
463
of Armenia, Mesopotamia,
in these remote which included the ancient
and Assyria.
regions
Bible land of
Edom
Empire
with
its
To Trajan
daries of the
most
distant points to
which
Roman
new
faith,
and the
world,
light in
which
very
Roman
we have
in
new
only but the lesser towns also, and the open country."
Yet
new
doctrines.
Notwith-
sacrifice to
the
Roman
gods, he ordered
many
to
be put to death
His
was
Roman
people.
He
possessed great
ability
and
government.
beyond the Euphrates that had been acquired by Trajan, and made that stream once more the eastern boundary of the Empire.
1 The Roman province of Arabia Petraea corresponded roughly to the biblical Edom and Moab. Petra (probably the Sela, " the Rock," of the Bible writers) was the stronghold and capital of the former region. Its ruins lie in a vast natural amphitheater in the sterile mountains of Edom. The importance of the place was due to its control of several of the great commercial routes of the ancient East. It was a city of note in Hellenprosperity istic times, and in the second and third centuries of our era enjoyed great under the Romans. Many of the later rock-cut tombs (of Gra=co-Roman type) which line the high cliffs inclosing the site of the city were, the tombs of Roman merchant princes and military officers. The exquisite rock-cutting shown in Plate XIV (it probably dates from the first century A.D.) is one of the best-preserved rock-hewn fa5ades to be
seen to-day in any of the lands included within the boundaries of the old
Roman
Empire.
464
[5I1
in
More than
making tours
Empire.
of inspection through
Britain,
all
He visited
Roman
possessions there
Tyne
to
the
Solway
Agricola
Firth.
508).
The Hadrian
and broken
at intervals
Fig. 177.
a photograph)
can
still
from sea
There
exists
nowhere
once formed
impressive memorial
of her world-wide dominion than these ramparts, along which for three hundred years and more her sentinels kept watch and ward
for civilization against the barbarian
On
marauders of Caledonia. the Continent, in the upper regions of the Rhine and the
pali-
Danube, Hadrian likewise secured the frontier by constructing a sade and a chain of forts extending from one river to the other.
1 The best work on the rampart is J. C. Bruce's Ttie Roman Wall (London, 1851). Handbook to the Roman Wall, by the same author, is an abridgment of his larger work. One of the best-preserved sections of the wall can be easily reached from the Haltwhisde
on the railroad between Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Carlisle. The student traveler those parts should not fail to examine these interesting memorials of the Roman occupation of Britain.
station
512]
THE ANTONINES
visit to
46s
to Gaul,
After his
Britain
all
Hadrian returned
and then
in-
Many
sums
Upon
glories
-^
who had
their
in
a measure
had given
nation
(sect.
Roman
most desolate
of Jerusalem,
the
holy
temple.
More than
half a million
Jews
the
survivors
into exile
were driven
The
was
did
latter
princely
splen-
most
Among
these
Venus
castle of St.
Angelo)
tomb
for himself.
The Antonines
(i38-l80 A.D.).
Pius), the
Roman
Throughout
464
[511
in
More than
Empire.
He visited
Britain,
Roman
possessions there
Tyne
to the
Solway
Firth.
distance to the
The Hadrian
by
and broken
at intervals
and
stations,
Fig. 177.
a photograph)
can
still
from sea
There
exists
nowhere
impressive memorial
for
more her
sentinels kept
marauders of Caledonia.
frontier
On
by constructing a
pali-
sade and a chain of forts extending from one river to the other.
1 The best work on the rampart is J. C. Bruce's The Roman Wall (London, 1S51). Handbook to the Roman Wall, by the same author, is an abridgment of his larger work. One of the best-preserved sections of the wall can be easily reached from the Haltwhistle
station
on the
railroad
in those parts
should not
between Newcastle-upon-Tyne ai^d Carlisle. The student traveler fail to examine these interesting memorials of the Roman
occupation of Britain.
512]
THE ANTONINES
visit to
46 s
to Gaul,
After his
Britain
all
Hadrian returried
visited
and then
in-
Many of
sums
the
cities
which he
Upon
glories
who had
in
a measure
nation
(sect.
re-
Roman
most desolate
Jerusalem,
the
holy
temple.
More than
half a million
Jews
hopeless struggle,
of the
survivors
into exile
The
was
did
latter
Fig. 178.
princely
splen-
Roman
it
builder erected
structures.
Ms most
Among
these
be noticed have the face clean-shaven. Hadrian introduced the practice of wearing a beard. This now became the mode, as is shown by the portraits from this time forward
Hadrian
will
Venus
St.
Angelo)
512.
The Antonines
(138-180 A.D.).
Pius), the
gave the
Roman
Throughout
1 Besides erecting many new structures, he completed the great temple of Olympian Zeus begun by the tyrant Pisistratus (see sect. 202).
466
[512
in
a state of
profound peace.
striking events,
The
attracted by no
illus-
which
many have
Happy
is
that people
brief."
Antoninus, early in his reign, had united with himself in the government his adopted son Marcus Aurelius, and upon the death of
the former (i6i a.d.) the latter succeeded quietly to his place and work. Aurelius' studious habits won for him the title of philosopher.
He
Fig. 179.
writer.
He
established an
home
throughout Italy burdened by their taxes and greatly in arrears paying them, he caused
all
the Forum
and burned.
The
hostile
tastes
life
to
choose a
and study
at the
capital;
but
movements
barbarians along the Rhenish and Danubian frontiers, called him from
his
'of
his
The
Parthians,
who had
Plate XIV.
A Rock-hewn Facade
Most of the numerous rock-cuttings at Petra are tombs, but several of the largest and most elaborate, including the one here shown, were probably temples or public shrines.
512]
THE ANTONINES
fell
it
467
Rome, were
of
Mesopotamia again
This war drew after
under
Roman
a series of
terrible calamities.
The
return-
them the Asiatic plague, which swept off vast numbers, especially in Italy, where entire cities and districts were depopulated. The Empire never wholly recovered from the
ing soldiers brought with
effects of this pestilence.
stitious
sect of Chris-
tians that
had
called
down upon
Aurelius
be instituted against
Rome and
It
the
and
social rather
than from
religious motives,
why we
find the
list
names
of the best
It
of persecutors.
state
performance of the
and hence,
forms
of every
while the
Roman
among
rulers
of worship
faith
their subjects,
men
Roman
and
emperor
gods and
500).
Their neglect
was
state,
bringing upon
it
drought, pesti-
and every
disaster.
But pestilence and persecution were both forgotten amidst the imperative calls for immediate help that now came from the North.
in the
Roman
as the Marcomanni even crossed the Alps and laid siege to Aquileia, " the g^te of Italy." Not since
tribe
known
and Teutones
this
(sect.
ants of any city of Italy seen the barbarians before their gates.
the panic of the plague
To
was added
new
terror.
Aurelius placed
himself at the head of his legions and hurried beyond the Alps.
He
468
[513
checked the inroad of the barbarians, but could not subdue them, so weakened was the Empire by the ravages of the pestilence and
was the treasury from the heavy and constant drains upon it. At last his weak body gave way beneath the hardships of his numerous campaigns, and he died in his camp at Vindobona (now
so exhausted
his reign
(i8o
A.D.).
The
Never was Monarchy and works of Antoninus As MerivalCj in dwelling upon their
to his statue.
The
illustrious
after ages."
The
that
we may
As we
in the
Empire was a revolution which redounded to the interests of the provincials (sect. 495). Even under the worst emperors the administration of affairs in the provinces was as a rule prudent, humane, and
just.
It is
all
the
the
Roman
Christian era
Without
contrast,
earlier
question there
Roman
their
arbitrary
and rapacious
says
Asia Minor, " neglected under the desolation of the fifteen hundred years which separate us from that time,
vestigation,
opened up
is
to in-
there the
first
that of
Roman
age."
The
cities
vol.
i,
p. 384,
513]
469
local
self-government
most advanced
of the countries of
wise system had preserved or developed the sentiment of local patriotism and civic pride.
The
cities
Fig.
180.
Roman Aqueduct and Bridge, dating from the Early Empire, near NfMES, France. (Present condition)
finest
This
is
one of the
Roman
in the
builders.
and most impressive of the existing monuments of the old The lower row of arches carries a modern roadway
utili-
tarian nature.
liberal
contributions
made by
endowment
of educational
this
and charitable
liberality,
institutions.
As
the representative of
form of ancient
we have
He
With a
own expense
at
470
[S14
To
Minor he made
an aqueduct.
Scores of majestic ruins scattered throughout the lands once forming the provinces of the ancient empire of
Rome
bear impressive
Roman
the
to
fostering,
the
514.
perors."
" The
Marcus
Aurelius,
was a most
his
illus-
unworthy successor of
trious father.
His name,
is
like
that
of
Nero,
his
infamous.
Through
crimes
and
de-
after his
a. d.)
the emperors were elected by the army, and hence the rulers
for this period have been called
is
time
all
except
the
four
came
to death
by
violence.
To On
internal disorders
was added
breaking into the Empire to rob, to murder, and to burn. 515. The Public Sale of the Empire (193 A.D.). The beginning of
these troublous times
part of the praetorians.
was marked by a shameful proceeding on the These soldiers, having slain the successor of
sell
highest bidder.
Commodus, gave out notice that they would It was accordingly set up for
sale at their
camp and
516]
CARACALLA
who promised
to
471
twentythis
thousand sesterces
So the
price pi the
dollars).
As soon
legions
on the
its
Each army
of the
proclaimed
favorite
commander emperor.
that there
The
leader
He knew
and that
the prize
his
it.
would be
seized
who
first
Instantly
he
set his
veterans in
motion
soon
and
at
was Rome.
The
praetorians
the fron-
even
defend their
peror,
em-
who
was
Fig. 182.
Caracalla. (Museum
at
Naples)
As
a punishment for
had offered
to the
Roman
state the
unworthy
praeto-
guard of
were disbanded and banished from the capital, and a new bodyfifty thousand legionaries was organized to take their place.
Severus, after a prosperous reign,
Empire
Geta.
make a
public
argument
in vindication of
" it was the fratricide. When that great lawyer refused, saying that than to justify it," he put him to death. easier to commit such a crime
fear,
he
fied
from the
capital
and wandered
4/2
[517
marked by
many deeds
monster was
slain in Asia.
of citizenship
upon
all
he
did,
collect
which only
it
Roman
citizens
had
to
mark
of special favor,
But by
Empire that did not already possess the rights of the city was made Roman, at least in name and nominal privilege. That vast work of making the whole world Roman, the beginnings of which we saw in the dawn of Roman history (sect. 378),
the entire free population of the
was now completed.' " Rome was the world, and the world was Rome." 517. The Age of the Thirty Tyrants (2S1-268 a.d.). For about a
generation after Caracalla the imperial scepter passed rapidly from
the hands of one emperor to those of another.
so-called
Age
it
the
by
weak emperors,
petitors for
there sprang
up
Empire comat
the
same
time.
The
barbarians pressed
all
upon
all
the provinces.^
on
emperors
284 A.D.)
1 It
must not be supposed, however, that the edict of Caracalla did much more than It seems probable that by this time the greater part of the freemen of the Empire were already enjoying the Roman franchise. 2 The Parthians were a menace in the East, the Franlcs crossed the Rhine and harried Gaul the Goths, crossing the Danube, raided Mossia, Thrace, and Macedonia, while their fleets from the Euxine ravaged the seaboards Si Asia Minor Athens, Corinth, and other cities of "continental Greece were sacked.
register an already accomplished fact.
;
;
this period that the Emperor Valerian (253-260 A. D.), in a battle with the Persians before Edessa, in Mesopotamia, was defeated and taken prisoner by Sapor, the Persian king. A large rock tablet (Fig. 183), still to be seen near the Persian town of
3 It
was during
Shiraz,
of
517]
473
But the Empire bore the marks of the long anarchy. Large districts were almost depopulated, and the land was lying
waste. Industry
to a standstill.
during the period of anarchy was Zenobia, the ruler of the celebrated
of Palmyra in the Syrian desert.
title
Queen
Fig. 183.
(See
p. 472, n. 3)
her,
open
field,
city
Palmyra are among the most interesting remains of Greek and Roman civilization in the East. For a long time even the
The
ruins of
'
1 During the reign of Aurelian the Alemanni made an incursion into Italy and threatened Rome. After their expulsion the emperor, in order to insure the safety of the capital in case of future inroads of the barbarians, began the erection of a new wall around the city, which had now greatly outgrown the old Servian defenses (sect. 395.) This
which was completed by Probus, was over twelve miles in extent. Zenobia was carried a captive to Rome. After having been led in golden chains in the triumphal procession of Aurelian, the queen was given a beautiful villa in the vicinity of Tibur, where, surrounded by her children, she passed the remainder of her
wall,
2
checkered
life.
474
site of
[517
was
The
Bedouins, howwitli
ever,
knew
desert.
city,
and
The
and Layard
at
Nineveh
(sect. 68).
TAcri'US, Annals, i, 74 (the "Informer "at The Early Christian Persecutions (Translations and Reprints, University of Pennsylvania, vol. iv, No. i) (read Pliny's letter to Trajan and Trajan's reply). Marcus Aurelws, Meditations. Munro, Source Book, pp. 148-174, 217-234; Davis's Readi7igs (Rome), pj). 186-290. References (Modern). Gibbon, chap, ii, " Of the Union and Internal Prosperity of the Roman Empire in the Age of the Antonines." Mommsen, The
Rome), and
of Agricola.
Provinces of the Roman Empire from CcEsar to Diocletian, Pelham, Oittlines of Roman History, pp. 470-548. DiLL, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus AunFarrar, Seeliers after God. Davis, The Influence of lius (a notable book).
Roman
}Vo7-ld
of Nero and
Merivale, History of the Romans under the Empire (for general reference). Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire before A.D. lyo, chap, x, " Pliny's Report and Trajan's Rescript chap, xi, " The Action of Nero "
Paul.
;
towards the Christians " chap, xv, " Causes afld Extent of Persecutions." BoissiER, Rome and Pompeii, chap, vi, " Pompeii."' Wa'i'Son, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, chap, vii, " The Attitude of Aurelius towards Christianity." Capes,
;
chap,
The Age of the Antonines and The Early Empire (in this latter work read xii, " The Position of the Emperor," and jchap. xix, " The Revival of Religious Sentiment"). Hardy, Christianity and the Roman Government (i
valuable study of the relations of the Christians to the imperial government during the first two centuries of the Empire).
life
Topics for Class Reports, Pompeii and what we have learned of Roman from its remains Mau, Pompeii: its Life and AH. 2. Letters, books, and
j..
:
libraries
tion
campaign
Johnston, The Private Life of the Romans, pp. 287-298. 3. An elecin Pompeii: Abbott, Society and Politics in Ancient Rome,
pp. 3-21. 4. The Hadrian Wall in Britain: Bruce, The Roman Wall. 5. The spread of Christianity in the first two centuries Eriedliinder, Roman Life and
:
Majiners, vol.
and
pp. 186-214. 6- The Catacombs: Lanciani, Pagan Christian Rome, chap. vii. 7. Zenobia, "Queen of the East": Wright,
iii,
chap,
ii,
An
II.
(284-305 A. D.)
accession of Diocletian
marks an
matters
Roman
Empire.
The two
changes he
government and
Diocletian's
were
salutary,
519.
Up
to
a new lease of life for a term of nearly two hundred years. The Empire becomes an Undisguised Oriental Monarchy. the time we have now reached, the really monarchical charac-
ter of the
less Carefully
concealed under
and names of the old Republic. Realizing that republican government among the Romans had passed away forever, and that
the forms
its
forms were
now
all
masks with which Augustus had concealed his practically unlimited power and which fear or policy had led his successors, with greater or less consistency, to retain, and let the government stand an forth naked in the true character of what it had now become absolute Asiatic monarchy. In contrasting the policy of Augustus
the
Gibbon
truly says
" It
one to diguise, and the object of the other to display, the unbounded
Roman
and
his adoption of
He
took the
475
title
476
whence
this
[520
called
sometimes
of
The Dominate. He clothed himself in magnificent robes gold. All who approached him, whether of 'low or of high
servile adoration
silk
and
rank, were
hitherto, with
rulers.
manly
and
The
now assumed a
marked
distinctively oriental
all
character.
the appointments
of the palace.
and
oflScers of
all
around with
of oriental monarchy.''
course, the
still
The incoming
blow to
in the
of the absolute
monarchy .meant, of
last
local municipal
The
little
Uberty that
survived
away.
cities or municipalities of the Empire was virtually swept There was no place under the new government for any
Italy was
now
and was
the Administrative
System.
The
century
of
by assassination during
made manifest the need of a system which would discourage assassination and provide a regular mode of
of the imperial purple,^ had
'First, he chose as a league a companion ruler, Maximian, who, like himself, bore the
an
assistant,
Then each of the co-emperors associated with who took the title of Cassar and was considered
in
Italy,
himself
the son
'Milan,
;
There were thus two Augusti and two became the capital and residence of
Maximian
became the
seat of the
court of Diocletian.
younger
1
and more
active,
Thirty Tyrants, of
whom many
met death by
521]
477
more
of the
government
this
and turbulent provinces. The vigorous administration in every quarter of the Empire was thus secured.
to diminish the
it
doing
was
of the, provinces.^ His purpose power of the provincial governors imoossible for them to raise successfully the
many
standard of revolt.
To
civil
give
still
military authority.
Under the new regime the Senate was deprived of all share in and became merely a local body concerned only with the affairs of the city of Rome. A most serious drawback to this system was the heavy expense
imperial matters,
officials
needed
that
was complained
state
the
was
who
contributed to them.
in
The burden
ceased,
brig-
some regions
The
were made
was
this vicious
of
to
taxation
the
downfall
of the Empire.
521.
Growth
of
a Caste System.
To
burdens
many
became
freedom
evade
monks
among
1
The
way
to
fifty-seven to ninety'six. His successor Constantine one hundred sixteen. The provinces were gathered into larger divisions, called dioceses, which were apportioned among four great divisions of the Empire caSied prefectures. The prefectures were probably created by Constantine.
He
increased the
number from
raised the
number
to
478
[522
The member
was bound
sion
;
to his office
'
without permis-
the colonus
was bound
to his trade,
Moreover,
all
offices, trades,
and
pro-
was
possible,
made
hereditary, children
Every one
the son of a
;
was
member
soldier,
of a local senate
must take
;
the son of
and so on through
all
Classes thus
tended to become
Perhaps
we
the
new relation to the Empire into which the head of the Roman state was brought by the innovations of Diocletian and his successor than by saying that the Empire now became the private estate of the sovereign and was managed just as any great Roman proprietor managed his domain. The imperial household and the entire civil
service of the
Roman
historical
Roman
later nations
Charlemagne and
The colon! (cultivators of the soil) were originally free peasants who tilled for a rent money or in kind the imperial domains or the estates of great private landowners. By the third century of the Empire many of them, through debt and other causes, had sunk into a scmiservile condition and had become virtually attached to the soil they
1
paid in
tilled.
This status was now, for the imperial reasons mentioned in the text, made the class. We have here the beginnings of mediseval serfdom (see
in
of Diocletian.
to
The trade guilds that supplied necessaries of life had already, in order bring them more completely under the imperial control, been transformed into
hereditary castes.
523]
479
Holy Roman
all
Empire
form that
it
the sovereigns of
modern Europe.
Towards the end
of his reign
continued long after his abdication, and which was the severest, as
it
was the
last,
waged
against the
The
the amphitheater,
and put
to death
constancy.
They courted
upon a life of unending happiness. was during this and the various other persecutions that vexed the Church in the
second and third centuries that the Christians
Rome.
Here
'they
Fig.
184.
Christ
as
chambers sketched rude symbols of their hope and faith. It was in the darkness of these subterranean
abodes that Christian art had
its
beginnings.
Diocletian
abdicated
the
Maximian also to lay down his authority on the same day. 6alerius and Constantius were, by this act, advanced to the purple and made Augusti; and two new associates were appointed as Caesars.
throne and forced or induced his colleague
then retired to his country seat at Salona, on the eastern shore of the Adriatic, and there devoted himself to rural pursuits. It is related that, when Maximiah wrote him urging him
Diocletian
endeavor with him to regain the power they had laid aside, he replied, "Were you but to come to Salona and see the cabbages
to
which I raise in
talk to
my
garden with
my own
me
of empire."
48o
II.
[525
(306-337 A. D.)
"In
this Sign
Conquer." Galerius and Constantius, who became Augusti on the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian, had reigned together only
in Britain.
His
soldiers,
Six comeighteen
different
quarters.
For
One
of the
r-^^.
in Wjhich
was defeated by
cross.
He
had been
led to
adopt
Fig. 185.
emblem through
.
The
he prayed to ^ .^, ,,
^^"'
Labarum
tine
sun-god, of a cross over the setting ^ ,, .^ ^ mscription upon it, In this sign con' .
quer."^
had
at
was beneath
this
new emblem
marched
Milvian Bridge.
make
will.
had come into the world as a religion of peace and good The Master had commanded his disciples to put up the sword. For two centuries and more, obedience to this command by a large
Christianity
his followers
body of
spirit
1 /i!
tliat
a Quaker, nonmilitary
had throughout
hoc sigm vince
;
new
sect.
Some of
2 The new standard was called the Labarum (from the Celtic lavar, meaning " command "). It consisted of a banner inscribed with the Greek letters XP, the first being a symbol of the cross, and the two forming a monogram of the word Chnst, since the
Greek
XPISTOS
(Christos).
526]
the early
481
patible with
at the
life.
But
Milvian Bridge a change passed over the Church. It leaned more and more upon earthly power, and became militant. This infusion into
the
tant
Church of the
military spirit of Rome was one of the most imporconsequences of the story of the miraculous cross in the sky, and
Fig. 186.
Erected
fay
as it Appears
To-day
Max-
the
commemoration of Constantine's
victory over
526. Constantine
of the Court.
Milan 313 a.d., the year after the battle at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine placed Christianity on an equal
footing with the other religions of the Empire.
this
By a decree issued
The language
it
of
famous
Magna
Charta, as
has been
grant to
called,
of the Church,
was
others
in
import as follows:
liberty of
first
"We
Christians
and to
all
full
which each
may
choose."
was
down."^
1 The Cambridge Medicevat History, vol. i, p. 5. An earlier edict of toleration by the emperor Galerius gave the Christians freedom of worship, but did not recognize the
482
[S27
But by subsequent
made
Christianity in effect
By
the Christian societies the right to receive gifts and legacies, and he
himself enriched the Church with donations of
of land.
money and
grants
of a worldly spirit
its
From
plicity
this
moment can be
its
well-known
.
lines
Ah, Constantine
of
how much
ill
Was mother,
!
Not thy
Which
the
religion
is
of
and importance.
soldiers
He
Sunday
work on
civil
that day,
the
authority of
for the
first
meant much
week.
It
Now,
time in the history of the Indo-European peoples, the slave had one
day of
rest in each
happier
time coming
when
all
of
among
the Chris-
and
to
settle
equality with
God
the Father,
Constantine
the
first
of
known
The Arians were the followers of Anus, a presbyter of Alexandria in Egypt; the Athanasians, of Athanasius, archdeacon and latfr bishop of the same city, and the champion of the orthodox or Catholic view of the Trinity.
528]
483
on the
Bosphorus (330
Bosphorus, as the
new
capital of the
Empire.
new
capital in
First, there were urgent military_xeasons ^or making the change. The most dangerous enemies of the Empire now were the barbarians behind the Danube and the kings of the recently restored Persian
monarchy.
for military
and pointed
to
Byzantium, with
all
admirable strategic
above
imperiled Empire.
Through the Roman conquest of Greece and Asia, the and commerce of the Empire had shifted eastward. Now, of all the cities in the East, Byzantium was the one most favorably situated to become the commercial metropolis
the capital.
all
chief seat of
motives.
Now,
homage
monarchy proclaimed by
The
artistic
new
capital
and material resources of the whole Graeco-Roman world were called into requisition to create upon the spot a city worthy its predestined fortunes. The imperial invitation and the attractions
of the court induced multitudes to
that alrnost in a
crowd
into the
into
new
capital, so
city.
a great
In
484
[S29
honor of the emperor the name was changed to Constantinople, the " City of Constantine." The old Rorne on the Tiber, emptied
of
its
provincial town.^
a.d.).
death of Constantine the Great, and then the imperial scepter came
into the
hands of
Christianity
and labored
later, in
to restore the
pagan worship. In
his earlier
years Julian had been carefully nurtured in the doctrines of the new
religion
;
but
he pursued
his studies,
and
means of persuasion,
" the
sword, the
the lions,"
old
for the
reason that, under the softening influences of the very faith Julian
Roman
for he
satirist of
no
mean
It
was
faith
to uproot the
new
and
eternal
character of
in vain
it
name
to live.
Equally
were
Rornan
divinities.
now outgrown
great
The
disabilities
removed by
(363-364 a.d.). In the army the were replaced by the Labarum, and Christianity
1 It should be borne in mind that the old Rome had already been in a measure deposed from its imperial position by Diocletian, and Milan made the residence of the subordinate emperor. But Constantine, by the founding of the new capital in the East,
made
final.
REFERENCES
Selections from the Sources.
Pennsylvania, vol.
eration
iv,
485
No
by Galerius").
Translations and Reprints, University of (read " Edicts of Diocletian " and " Edict of TolMunro's Source Book, pp. 174-176, 235, 236; Davis's
Readings (Rome), pp. 291-296. Refeiences (Modern). Milman, The History of Christianity, vol. ii, bk. ii, chap, ix, " The Persecution unde Diocletian." Gibbon, chap, xv, " The
Progress of the Christi
dition of the Primitive Christians "
Religion and the Sentiments, Numbers, and Conchap, xv (on the founding of Constanti;
'&\ifCi,.Later
Roman Empire,
vol.
i,
History, pp. 551-559. Uhlhokn, Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism, bk. iii, chaps, i-iii. BoiSSIER, Rome and Pompeii, chap, iii, " The Catacombs." Firth, Constantine the Great.
iv.
chap.
Pelham,
Outlines of
Roman
Stanley, Lectures on the History of the Eastern Church, lects. ii-v (for the Nic^a, 325 B.C.) lect. vi (for events concerning the Church during the reign of the emperor Constantine). Sf.eley, Roman Imperialism, lect. iii, " The Later Empire." Lanciani, Pagan and Christian Rome, chap. i. Newman, The Arians of the Fourth Centuiy, chap, iii, " The Ecumenical Council of Nicsea." The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. i,
history of the Council of
chaps,
i-vii.
Topics for Class Reports, i. Motives underlying the Diocletian persecution bf the Christians Mason, The Persecution of Diocletian, chap. iii. 2. The Council of Nicasa Carr, The Church and the Roman Empire, chap. v. 3. The founding of Constantinople Oman, The Byzantine Empire, pp. 13-30. 4. Julian and the pagan restoration Carr, The Church and the Roman Empire, chap, vii;
: : : :
and
Abbott, The
Common
CHAPTER XL
THE BREAK-UP OF THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST
(376-476 A.D.)
530. Introductory
vital
The two
most
century were
the
this,
German barbarians and Christianity. They had, as we have seen, come into certain relations to
to
centuries before
the
Roman
gov-
ernment and
importance.
Roman
life
new
the century yet remaining for our study will be (i) the struggle
between the dying Empire and the young German races of the North and (2) the final triumph of Christianity, through the aid of
;
The
The
whom
vaded
their territories
homes nor
their
lives.
river
of the
Roman
state.
Their
give
up
children as hostages.
that
The enemy
had so
fierce
monstrous race of
terrified the Visigoths were the Huns, a nomadic horsemen from the vast steppes of
iValens (364-378 a.d.) was emperor of the East. Valentinian (364-375 a.d.), emperor in the West, had just died, and been succeeded by Gratian (375-383 A. D.).
486
532]
487
Asia.
(Eastern Goths), also driven from their homes by the same terrible
enemy, crowded
also
to the
drfeaded foe.
at the presence of so
many barbarians
upon they crossed the river with arms in the^ir hands. Once within the Empire they, joined by their Visigothic kinsmen,
soon began to overrun and ravage the Danubian provinces.
Valens
dispatched swift messengegrs to Gratian, epperor in the West, asking for assistance
legions
;
he imprudently risked a
with
the
barbarians near
Adrianople.
himself
annihilated
and Valens
was
his colleague
Valens when
his
news of
associate
He
at
once appointed as
Theodosius (379-395 a.d.), known afterwards as the Great, and intrusted him with the government of the East. Theodosius quickly reduced the Goths to submission. Great multitudes of them
were settled upon the waste lands of Thrace, while more than forty
thousand of these warlike barbarians, the destined subverters of the
Empire, were enlisted in the imperial legions.
332.
dosius
The Prohibition
of the
Pagan
Cults.
were zealous champions of the orthodox Church, and a large portion of the edicts issued during their joint reign had for aim the
uprooting of heresy or the suppression of the pagan worship.
ing generally,
(Speak-
from the accession of Constantine down to the time which we have now reached, the pagans had been allowed full liberty of worship.) At first the pagans were merely placed under certain
disabilities,
but
cult,
finally
it
any pagan
The
sacred
fire
which
had burned so long on the national hearth in the temple of Vesta (sect. 390) was extinguished. In the year 392 a.d. even the private
worship of the Lares and Penates was prohibited.
The
struggle
virtually
ended
and
488
[533
however, especially
in
A memorable incident,
that
illustrative of
new
religion
was now
marks the
reign of
imin
officers of the
garrison
in
that
place.
When
intelligence
of the event
reached Theodosius,
through
all
restraint,
who was at Milan, his hasty temper broke and, moved by a spirit of savage vengeance,
at
least
seven thousand
persons perished.
Shortly after the massacre, the emperor, as he
was
entering the
met
at the threshold
in the
name
The
of the
God
him
place until he
commander of all the Roman legions was constrained to obey the unarmed pastor. In penitential garb and attitude Theodosius made
public confession of
his
sin
in the
made
manifest
new moral
force
name
their self-willed
and arbitrary
of
rulers.
Administrative
Division
the
Empire
(395 A.D.).
Upon
the death of Theodosius, in 395 a. D., the imperial government, as he had prearranged, was divided between his two sons, Arcadius
and Honorius,
Arcadius,
who was
only
eighteen years
still
of age,
a mere
no way
different
government of the West. This division was in from those that had been repeatedly made since the
535]
THE EMPIRE
was not
IN
THE EAST
in the
489
Empire from
this
allowed this division of the imperial rule to constitute a dividing line in the history of the Empire, and have begun here to trace separately
the story of
each
part.
535.
The Empire
in the
in {he East.^
The
Empire
ern
emperors lasted over a thousand years Constantinople by the Turks, 1453 a.d. It
its
The
line of East-
will
Up
to
Empire
in the
of their
different
by Alaric (402-403 a.d.). Only a few had elapsed after the death of the great Theodosius before the
all
parts of the
from Thrace and Mcesia came the Visigoths, led by the great Alaric. They poured through the Pass of Thermopyte and devastated almost the entire peninsula of Greece but being driven
Empire.
First,
;
Stilicho,
the
of
Honorius, they crossed the Julian Alps and spread terror throughout Italy.
Stilicho followed the barbarians cautiously, and, attacking
inflicted
northern
Italy.
with the
spoils' of
Rome by a sudden
Alaric
537. Last
Triumph
at
Rome
terrible
danger had
been averted.
joy.
All Italy burst forth in expressions of gratitude and of the Cimbri and Teutons were recalled, and the
The days
name
of Stilicho
that
of
Marius
(sect.
463).
magnificent triumph at
Rome
"
It
last
1
triumph that
Rome
of this
ever saw.
phrase
such
was the
is
Empire
i.
490
[S38
asserted to be the
the
The same
last military
triumph
at
Rome
combat
in the
Roman "amphitheater.
tions
is
entirely, or
almost
entirely, due.
The pagan
often with
philosophers
favor.
usually regarded
them with
indifference,
Thus
Pliny
commends a
spirit
They were defended on the ground that among the people and inured the the battlefield. Hence gladiatorial games
set out
on
their
campaigns.
But the Christian Fathers denounced the combats as immoral, and labored in every possible way to create a pubhc opinion against
them.
At
length, in
325
them
was issued by Constantine. From this time forward the exhibitions were under something of a ban, until their final abolition was brought about by an incident of the games that closed the triumph of Honorius. In the midst of the exhibition a Christian monk
named Telemachus, leaping into the arena, .rushed between the combatants, but was instantly killed by a shower of missiles thrown by the people, who were angered by his interruption of their sport. The
people, however, soon repented of their act
;
and Honorius
Christianity
himself,
who was
was moved by the scene. ened the conscience and touched the heart
present,
had
lawak-
of
Rome. The
martyr-
dom of the monk led to an imperial edict " which aboUshed forever the human sacrifices of the amphitheater." 539. The Ransom of Rome (409 A.D.). Shortly after the. victories of Stihcho over the German barbarians,^ he came under the suspicion
of the
weak and
after the
was executed.
Thus
fell
the
Soon
German host
led by a chieftain
Gothic invasion of the year 403, Italy was again invaded by a mixed named Radagaisus. At Florence the barbarians were
Stilicho
surrounded by the
and fofced
to surrender.
540]
great general
491
the barbarians,
whose sword and counsel had twice saved Rome from and who might again have averted similar dangers
;
already at
in the
hand
for just
now
Roman
service
were
incited to revolt
by the massacre,
at the
who were
held
the
Alaric again
crossed the mountains and led his hosts to the very gates of
more than Not since the time of the dread Hannibal (sect. 439) had Rome been insulted by the six hundred years before this
Rome.
Famine soon forced the Romans to sue for terms of surrender. The ambassadors of the Senate, when they came before Alaric, began, in lofty language, to warn him not to render the Romans
desperate by hard or dishonorable terms
despair, they represented,
:
was
terrible,
and
"
The
mow
was
reply.
The
named
it
Small as
Romans were able to raise it only by the most extraordinary measures. The images of the gods were first stripped of their ornaments
of gold
themselves were
melted down.
540. Sack of
Rome by
Upon
The
retiring
from
Rome, demanded
camp
in Etruria.
chieftain
now
for his followers lands of Honorius, who, with his court, was safe behind the marshes of Ravenna but the emperor treated
;
foolish insolence. all the proposals of the barbarian with penalty. Alaric turned upon the city, resolved Rome paid the
upon
its
plunder.
The
"and
of
Just eight hundred years had passed since Now it is given over for the its sack by the Gauls (sect. 413). second time as a spoil to barbarians. Alaric commanded .his soldiers to spare the lives of the people,
and
to leave
untouched the
citizens
492
[541
he permitted them
which they loaded
dered world.
It
was a
their
had befallen the Imperial Gity produced a profound impression upon both pagans and Christiaris throughout the Roman The pagans maintained that these unutterable calamiEmpire.
ties
Roman
the
gods
of
"
their
forefathers,
under
the mistress of
The
Christians,
of the Apocalypse.
ity
was
and despair of the times. " Henceforth," says the historian Merivale, " the power of paganism
that gained credit amidst the panic
entirely broken,
was
of
its
Christianity stepped
from Rome, Alaric led them southward. As they moved slowly on, they piled still higher the wagons of their long trains with the
rich spoils of the cities
and
villas of
districts of
southern
Italy.
In the
villas
of the
Roman
and
were frustrated by
how, with
his death,
a. D.
Tradition
tells
body of
their
was turned from its course with great labor, and in the bed of the stream was constructed a tomb, in which
his jewels
and
trophies.
The
king, with to
its
old
channel, and, that the exact spot might never be known, the prisoners who had been forced to do the work were all put to death.
543]
THE DISINTEGRATION OF
;THE EMPIRE
493
543.
Barbarian
The Disintegration of the Empire and the Beginnings of the Kingdoms (410-451 a.d.).'- We must now turn our eyes
Italy in order to
from
the
Rome and
in
fol-
Rome
by
Alaric, the
German
and established
in
known as the barbarian kingdoms. The Goths who had pillaged Rome and
their great chieftain Alaric,
the Alps,
and establishing
camps
in the
Kingdom
a
is known as the West Goths (sect. 577). While the Goths were making these migrations and settlements, kindred but less civilized tribe, the Vandals, moving from their
up
finally in
of the Visigoths or
seat in
preserves the
memory
of
its
'
barbarian
Roman
of a
About
established themselves in
southeastern Gaul.
still
A portion
retains from them the name of Burgundy. Meanwhile the Franks, who about a century before the sack of
Rome by
Alaric had
made
Roman
of
territory
fall
Rome was
to
in the
remote province of
In
his efforts
Stilicho
left
drawn the
from
Britain,
(sect.
unguarded the
We
great events
choose these dates for the reason that they -set off the interval between two (sect. 544). the sack of Rome by Alaric and the battle of ChJlons
494
[S44
the continent.
of
Caledonia,
taking
advantage of
the
the
unsentineled rampart and pillaged the fields and towns of the south.
no match for their The half-Romanized and effeminate provincials hardy kinsmen who had never bowed their necks to the yoke of
Rome
were
Fig. 187.
(After
drawing by Alphonse
in their
the
soil
rude boats, drove back the invaders, and, being pleased with and climate of the island, took possession of the country for
themselves and became the ancestors of the .English people. 544. Invasion of the Huns; Battle of Chalons (451 A.D.).
barbarians
The
who were
ance of the dying Empire were now in tufn pressed upon and terrified by a foe more hideous and dreadful in their eyes than they
themselves were in the eyes of the
the
Roman
provincials.
These were
whom
,we
545]
across the
495
whom
God."
Danube (sect. 531). At this time their leader was Attila, the affrighted inhabitants of Europe called the " Scourge of
It
was
is
asserted, seven
to
fire
and
Romans and
against the
their
German conquerors
united to
Theodoric
Roman general
Aetius.-'
Attila
drew up
his
mighty
hosts
upon the
Romans and
their allies.
The
conflict
was
long and terrible, but at last fortune turned against the barbarians,
in escaping
from the
placed
among
Roman Empire
The
year
Rome;
plundered
all
Chalons, Attila crossed the Alps and burned or the important cities of northern Italy. The Veneti fled
morasses
at the
Upon
in
the islets
where they
built
head of the Adriatic (452 a.d.). their rude dwellings there grew up
Roman
Empire," the "Carthage of the Middle Ages." The barbarians threatened Rome; but Leo the Great, bishop of the capital, went with an embassy to the camp of Attila and pleaded
for the city.
He
recalled to the
mind
of Attila
how
after
1 Aetius has beSn called " the last of the Romans." For twenty years previous to this time he had been the upholder of the imperial authority in Gaul.
496
[546
down upon
to spare
was induced
the city and to lead his warriors back beyond the Alps.
Shortly after
like
was buried
secretly.
546. Sack of
Rome by
Rome
new
had been
destruction
was about
to
upon it by way of the sea from the South. Africa enemy whose greed for plunder proved more fatal Rome than the eternal hate of Hannibal; The kings of the Vandal
to burst
in the
in the
days of her
all
Vandal
corsairs
by the
dread
up the Tiber.
with
before saved his flock from the fury of Attila, went forth to intercede
in the
name
pious bishop the lives of the citizens, but said that the movable property of the capital belonged to his warriors.
to the barbarians.
were
piled, as
with
of
trophies
of a
hundred
off the
Roman
From
borne
(sect. 506).
The greed
to withdraw.
of the barbarians
was sated
at last,
ready
The Vandal
1 It would seem that, in some instances at least, after the closing of the temples to the pagan worship, many of the sacred things, such as war trophies, were left undisturbed in the edifices where they had been placed during pagan times. 2 " The golden candlestick reached the African capital, was recovered a century later, and lodged in Constantinople by Justinian, and by him replaced, from superstitious motives, in Jerusalem. From that time its history is lost." Merivale
547]
own barfcarian conquerors, was at last avenged upon her hated rival. The mournful presentiment of Scipio had fallen true (sect. 454). The cruel fate of Carthage might
Carthage, through her
have been read again in the pillaged city that the Vandals
behind them.
547. Last Act in the Break-up of the
left
Empire
in the
Franks, the Goths, the Vandals, and varioiis other intruding tribes.
Italy,
as well as
Rome
herself,
spoil
The
by Geiseric affords only a repetition of the events we During these years several puppet emperors were set up by army leaders. The last was a child of only six years. By what has been called a freak of fortune this boy-sovereign bore the name of Romulus Augustus, thus uniting in the name of the last Roman emperor of the West the names of the founder of Rome and
have been narrating.
the establisher of the Empire. the "little Augustus.''
He
when Odoacer, German tribe, dethroned the child-emperor. The Roman Senate now sent to Constantinople an embassy to
reigned only one year,
He
emperor Zeno
with
the
that the
its
West was
willing
up
its
claims to an emperor of
chief,
title
that
Italy
the
German
of patrician,
title
might rule
as his viceroy.
With
this
rank and
Odoacer assumed
while remaining
Italy,
reality
an independent
been
set up marks not
barbarian
kingdom,
like
those
which had
already
The
transaction
only the
end of the
line
of Western
Roman
of the
Roman
Empire-^ the
culmination of a century-long
living at Salona.
He was
ignored by Odoacer.
498
548.
[54
It has
Empire.
It
is,
in truth,
was a steady decline in the population. This resulted from many causes, some of which had been at work from the time of the later
Republic.
(later, serf-
Empire
in the reign of
Marcus^ Aurehus
above
wars,
all,
tory of
and foreign, which make up so large a part of the hisRome. But a more potent cause of the weakness of the Empire than this decline in the number of men was the general decline in public spirit
civil
and
in the intellectual
Roman
people.
The
and em-
many
We
final catastrophe.
that
began
in
the republican
land by
was caused
largely
a few persons.
all
remedy
freje
this evil
and
to re-create
in Italy
and
in
who
turned the
soil
had not
is,
a clod
own.
serfs, that
laborers
with
the earlier slave class and had naturally sunk to the intellectual and
moral
The weakening
upon
the Empire of
this Virtual
free peasantry of
be
overrated.
548]
499
Contributing in like
ruin
class of
society.
How
the
growing needs of the imperial government led to the laying of everheavier burdens
of this policy,
upon
this order,
effects
" It
was
to the
conversion of the curiales into an hereditary caste, loaded with incalculable liabilities, that the
large extent due."
^
fatal
barbarian prisoners
along the frontiers.
inhabitants of the
empty provinces was adopted by the emperors. Multitudes of were settled as coloni or serfs on the waste land
By
the
fifth
Empire were Germans. Now these barbarian settlers brought in an anti-Roman spirit, and especially a spirit of personal freedom, which was directly opposed to the absolutism of the Roman imperial government. When their kinsmen came as invaders and conquerors they welcomed them as deliverers. At the same time that the civil population of the Empire was being thus Germanized, the army was in like manner being transformed. The growing dislike among the Italians of the military service brought it about that the army was recruited more and more from among the
Germans beyond the
or semibarbarians,
frontiers.
and leaders
filled
with barbarians
Stilicho
and Odoacer
gained as
Scipios.
commanders
the entrance come than what we have seen to be the issue of it all into the legions of an un-Roman spirit and the final seizure of the
reins
of
government by
disaffected or
ambitious leaders
of
the
mutinous soldiers.
Still
another reason of the breakdown of -the Empire was the lack The imperial crown never beelective.
'aspir-
ant for the imperial dignity reached the throne through violent or
1
Dill,
Roman
Society from
Nero
to
Marcus Aurdlus
(1904), p. 213.
500
THE BREAK-UP
.OF
THE EMPIRE
[ 549
irregular means.
a monarchical government
the sentiment of
its
weaktoo
Rome had
much.
She could not absorb and assimilate the diverse races, creeds, and civilizations included in her extended frontiers. She had, it is true, Romanized the West, and a large part of it remains Roman (Latin) to this day, but she could not Romanize the East. The result,
as
we have
seen,
was the
division of the
Empire
into
an Eastern and
a Western section.
Empire
and
the
cities.
cities,
vital
city pride
responding to what
is
was
cities into
was the
chief
With the
first
blows of
the
fell
to pieces.
Lastly, in the growing strength of the German tribes outside the Empire must be sought the immediate cause of the destruction of
the
Roman
art of war.
The
But
from without
from decay
within.
The Germans,
not destroy
as a great historian
civilization
;
said, did
Roman
it
was
West.
549. Import of the Downfall of the Roman Government in the " The emancipation of Italy and the Western provinces from
sion,"
writes
which was signalized by Odoacer's succesan eminent historian of Rome, '" has rightly been
549]
501
reach here
We
The
revolution,
ing light,
"
second century of the Empire had burned with ever lessenwas almost extinguished. It ushered in the so-called
this period the
new race was slowly attaining Greeks and Romans had reached.
loss.
It
meant
new and
three of the
and the
endowed race. Within the Empire during several centuries most vital elements of civilization, the Greek, the Roman, Christian, had been gradually blending. Now was added a
Germanic.
It is this elerhent
do
in
making
modem
of the
civilization richer
any preceding
civilization.
The downfall
further,
Roman
West was,
western Europe
Empire.
in the
fall
of the
Roman power
West
West
built
up an
empire that
in
some
of the old
carried on
its civilizing
work.
from the Sources. Tacitus, Germania (the most valuable origiwe possess of the life and manners of our German ancestors about the first century of our era). Jordanes, Origin and Deeds of the Goths (Mierow's trans.), xxxiv-xli (on Attila and the battle of Chalons). St. AugusSelections
nal
account that
References (Modern).
Davis's Readings (Rome), pp. 297-325. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vols,
i,
ii
(on the
Hunnish, and the Vandal invasion). Pelham, Outlines of Roman History, pp. SS7-S72- Milman, The History of Christianity, vol. iii. Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire (a book of unsurpassed value). CuRTEis, History of the Roman Empire (from 395 to 800 a.d.),
chaps, vi-ix.
Gibbon, chap,
1
ix,
"
The
State of
Germany
till
the Invasion of
p. 572.
S02
the Barbarians in the Time of the Emperor Dec'ius." of the Middle Ages read the introduction and chap.
;
Beginnings
and the Teuton, lects. i-iii. Creasy, Decisive Battles of the World, chap, vi, " The Battle of Chalons, 451 A.D." Emerton, An IntrQduction to the Study of
Middle Ages, chaps, ii, iii. (These chapters cover admirably the following " The Two Races," " The Breaking of the Frontier by the Visigoths," and " The Invasion of the Huns.") The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. i, chaps, viii-xiv, xix, xx. For the causes of the failure of the Empire in Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vol. ii, the West, see the following
the
subjects
pp.
532-613; Seeley, Roman Imperialism, lect. History of the Later Roman Empire, vol. i, chap,
ii,
pp.
iii
oppressive taxation, the importation of barbarians, and Christianity the four chief causes of the weakness and failure of the Empire).
pp. 84-98.
Topics for Class Reports, i. Alaric the Goth Bradley, 7)5^ Go^y^j, chap, x, 2. St. Jerome Curr, The Church and the Roman Empire, chscp.yxv. 3. St. Augustine and his CityofGod; Carr, The Church and the Roman Emf ire, chap, XV Cutts, Saint Augustine, chap, xx, pp. 184-194; Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western Empire, pp. 59-73. 4. Causes of the downfall of the Empire in the West Hodgkin, Seeley, and Bury, as cited above in " References " Davis, The Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome, chap. viii.
:
:
o
<;
s o s
>
Pi
CHAPTER XDI
ARCHITECTURE, LITERATURE, LAW, AND SOCIAL LIFE
550. Rome's Contribution to Architecture. The architecture of the Romans was, in the main, an imitation of Greek models. But the Romans were not mere servile imitators. They not only modified
the architectural
their structures
builders
seldom
emprin-
ployed,
acquainted with
ciple.
By means
artistic
of
it
the
Roman
builders gave
effect
new
to
edifices,
sages
ried
and chambers,
stupendous aqueducts
have resisted
saults
all
the as-
These
which the
Roman
architects
made to the science and art of building. The temples of the Romans were in general Greeks that we need not here take space to enter
Mention, however, should be
53
504
5S2]
505
made
was a
style of building
The
the Pantheon, at
to,
is
our
own
The immense
con-
dome which vaults the building is one of the boldest pieces of masonry executed by the master builders of the world.
552. Circuses, Theaters, and Amphitheaters. The circuses of the Romans were what we should call race courses. There were several at Rome, the most celebrated being the Circus Maximus, which was
Fig. 190.
(A restoration)
first laid
was capable,
it is
said,
spectators.
The
Flavian
more impressively
ancient world.*
" the
The ruins of this immense structure stand to-day as embodiment of the power and splendor of the Roman Empire." Many of the most important cities of Italy and of the provinces
all
essential respects to
in
size,
Colosseum
much
inferior
save the
See
sect. 507,
and Fig.
191, p. 506.
5o6
[ 553
utility exe-
cuted by the Romans, and the most expressive of the practical genius
of the people, were their military roads.
capital,
the coun-
to
Rome
of
state,
modem
engineers.^
Fig. 191.
"
a photograph)
its
Monument
and of
shame."
Dill
dis-
These
Roman
energy and
in
and on a
level,
tunnels,
and
valleys crossed
Near Naples
may be
in use.
It is nearly half
1 Besides the Via Appia (sect. 418), which connected Rome with Campania and southeastern Italy, there were three other specially important roads issuing from Rome and affording communication between the capital and northern Italy, These were the Via
Flaminia, which ran to Ariminum on the Adriatic the Via Aurelia, which ran up the coast to Pisa and the Via Cassia, which traversed the midland districts. The plains of the Po were fairly netted with roads. One of the most important of these was the Vw
; ;
to Placentia
on the Po.
554]
a mile in length,
It
AQUEDUCTS
and
is
so;
Appian
Way
its
this
point presents
an obstacle to
course.
The usual width of. the roadway was from four to five yards. The bed was formed of cement and broken rock, upon which was sometimes laid, as in the case of the Via Appia, a solid pavement
of stone.
In the great
Forum
at
Rome
was a gilded post, from which distances on all the roads of the peninsula were
measured.
554. Aqueducts.
cient
The aqueducts
of an-
Rome
works of the Romans. The water system of the capital was commenced about 3 13 B.C. by Appius Claudius, who secured the building of an aqueduct
tant of the utilitarian
aqueducts in
the
During the Republic four were completed under aA emperors the number was increased to
hills.
all
fourteen.^
fifty-five
The
longest of these
was about
Fig. 192.
miles in length.
usually ran
beneath the
A Roman
Mile-
a depression
vr,
1
was
1
to
litted
on
arches,
These
lofty
Roman
Rome
are
at
most
Campagna
the ancient
Among
art.
Romans
bathing be-
came
in time
a luxurious
Under
numbers. But
still
in use.
The Romans
of masonry,
carried their aqueducts across depressions and valleys on high arches not because they were ignorant of the principle that water seeks a level,
make
enough
to resist the
508
[555
thermm
were very
different
era,
They
con-
dressing-rooms
for
museums and
covered colonnades
filled
beautiful
grounds
with statues;
Fig. 193.
a photograph)
relaxation.-'
builders, they
It
capital alone that had converted There was no town of any conanywhere within the limits of the Empire that was
its
thermae
and such spots became the favorite watering-places of the Romans. Thus Baden-Baden was a noted and luxurious resort of the wealthy Romans centuries before it became the great summer
baths,
Lanciani
calls
556]
VILLAS
Every wealthy
509
possessed his
villa,
556. Villas.
Roman
and many
kept up several in different parts of Italy. =These country residences, while retaining all the conveniences of the city palace, such as baths,
museums, and
a place
aviaries, fish
libraries,
added
by the
olive
restricted
room of
the capital
extensive
were denied
gardens,
ponds,
or-
vineyards,
of
that of
was intended
to
lower world.
part of the
grounds
Tempe and
Fig. 194.
scenery,
which
doubtless
his
Hadrian in and
ad-
A visitor's
fills
extended travels
seen
in the
man
fills
had
mired. Subterranean
labyrinths
the visitor to
into
enabled
a water-wagon. At the right an invalid receives a glass of water from an attendant. The other two persons (one obviously poor and the other well-to-do) at the altars make offerings or pour libations
descend
to behold the fabled scenes of that dolorous region.
Hades and
557. Sepulchral
Monuments.
The Romans
their
dead by burial
but towards
close
of the republican
common.
alent
The incoming
of Christianity with
to
doctrine of the
resuirection of the
mode.
5IQ
The
favorite
;
[ 558
among
the
Romans was
along the
highways
this life."
the
gates
the
capital,
was
with
sepulchral
monuments.
Fig. 195.
a photograph)
Many
line
the
ancient highway
monuments
in
Greek models
still
civilization
by
being the
.rich
medium
For examples of Roman triumphal columns and arches, see Figs. 176 and 1S6. There will here be in place a word respecting ancient publishers and books. There
were in Rome several publishing-houses, which, in their day, enjoyed a wide reputation and conducted an extended business. " Indeed, the- antique book trade," says Guhl,
559]
It
511
was the dramatic productions of the 'Greeks which were first Romans. For nearly two centuries, from
B.C.,
240 to 78
composition cultivated at
the great dramatists ever
Rome.
During
this
epoch appeared
race.
all
The
most noteworthy of these were Plautus (about 254-184 b.c.) and Terence (about 185-160 B.C.), both writers of comedy. Their works
were drawn from or based upon the pieces of the Greek
edy.^
New Com-
Some
from
Roman
predecessors.
During the
and Catullus. Lucretius (95-51 B.C.) Athens, wh ere he becam e deeply imbued with the philos(sect.
oph y of Epicuru s
364).
In his great
how
the generations of
were evolved
about earthly
affairs,
pestilences are
the celestials
for
;
and finally_rea<^'^^s the^ conclusion that death ends all and s o need not be feared. Catullus (bom about 87 b.c.) was a lyric poet. He has been called the Roman Bums, as well on account of the waywardness of his life
m an,
as
his song.
Vergil (70Three poets have cast Horace (65-8 b.c), and Ovid (43 B.C.-18 a.d.) an unfading luster over the period covered by the reign of Augustus.
19 B.C.),
The place of the "was carried on on a scale hardly surpassed by modem times. was taken by the slaves." Through practice they gained surprising facility as copyists, and books were multiplied with great rapidity. And, as to the books themselves, we must bear in mind that a book in the ancient sense was simply a roll of manuscript or parchment, and contained nothing like the amount of matter held by an ordinary modem volume. Thus Cesar's Gallic Wars, which makes a single volume of moderate size with us, made eight Roman books. Most of the houses of the wealthy
.
Romans contained
libraries.
The
collection of
1
Sammonicus Serenus,
p. 310, n. z.
tutor of Gordian,
See above,
512
[560
which they
any period
in
literary taste
and refinement
in allusion to this
Roman
era,
an Augustan Age.
The
very
(sect.
The
imitations
the
poems
of
Theocritus, the
Sicilian
352).
man and
Maecenas,
his
The work was written at the suggestion labor. who hoped by means of the poet's verse to allure
of
his
countrymen back to that love for the art of husbandry which animated the fathers of the early Roman state. Throughout the work Vergil follows very closely the Works and Days of the Greek poet
Hesiod
(sect.
337).
the Seasons of
Thomson
for this
work
is in
large measure a
The ALneid
his
holds a place
Vergil
among
In
this,
chief work,
was a
is
Odyssey,
and
to
to
them he
many
chief origin
of his finest
A
its
aim
of the
history
exalt
in
poem was
glorify
Rome
by connecting
and
with the story of Troy and the purposes of the gods, and to
Augustus as the
an era of peace.
desolating
all
widespread fame
but the
first
work
is
the innumerable
fables
of
the
and tainted atmosphere of an age of selfishness, immorality, and vice. Such an age was that which followed the Augustan at Rome.
Hence
561]
the
same
species of literature.
" the
Two names stand out in special prominence Persius (34-62 a.d.), Roman Puritan," and Juvenal (about 40-120 a.d.). The works
and
interest since
upon
life
at
Rome
The indignant
and
follies
of their time
almost the
Latin
Muse.
Roman
We
have seen
Athens
(sect.
the
same
truth exemplified
by the records
of the
Republic.
Roman state. All the great orators of Rome arose under the Among these Hortensius and Cicero stand preeminent.
name adorns
jurist
and as
law practice,
His forensic
won
easily the
first
of
Roman
As
" the
most
eloquent of
all
many
others of the
Roman
his
he was
sent to
Greece to
Italy,
finish
Returning to
influence at the
Roman
three
letter-writer.
letters
to
his
nearly
are
among
514
[S6Z
Rome
may
for
them
fame
of
Cassar,
in this
Sallust, Livy,
Suetonius
also be
mentioned
historical,
War and
Memoirs of
the
Civil
will
always be
cited
Xenophon
as
a model of the
(86-34
B.C.)
As
fortune,
by harsh,
if
was the contemporary and friend of Caesar. he amassed an immense not unjust, exactions, and erected at Rome a
palatial residence
The two
his
fame
of Catiline and
Augustan Age.
his
Livy (59 B.C.- 1 7 A.D.) was one of the brightest ornaments of the Herodotus among the ancient, and Macaulay among the modern, writers of historical narrative are the names with which
is
is his
Annals, a
history
of
Rome from
Unfortunately,
only thirty-five of the one hundred and forty-two books of this admirable production have been preserved. Many have been the laments over " the lost books of Livy." Livy loved a story equally well with
Herodotus.
relates with
least ques-
myths
Rome.
is
it is
Modern
criticism
entirely unreliable
However,
a most entertaining
believed
city,
in
and
fuller list of
Roman
first
historical authors
would have
to admit the
;
name
of Fabius
Pictor,
who was
the
of
who wrote
563]
SCIENCE, ETHICS,
highly prized
AND PHILOSOPHY
is his
515
treatise
The most
sets in
work
of Tacitus
Germania, a
In
this
Romans.
Under this head may be grouped the names of Seneca, Pliny the Elder, Pliny the Younger, Marcus Aurelius, and Epictetus.
school,
Seneca (about 1-65 a.d.), moralist and philosopher of the Stoic has already come to our notice as the tutor of Nero (sect. 504).
a disbeliever in the popular religion of his countrymen, and
He was
entertained
conceptions
of
God and
his
almost
as a natu-
work
his
of his
that
Natural
of Pliny
History, a sort of
Roman
encyclopedia.
name
must be mentioned
that of his
(sect. 510).
His
n
slave hold the first
his
among
the
Roman
prose pro-
come down
to us.
among
but the
latter, like
we know
only through
one of
by name.
many
some way
is
his
name
Marcus Aurelius
as a teacher of the
Epictetus and
were
Zeno
(sect.
363).
was already
fast
Si6
[564
Christian authors
New
Testament,
culture,
As
came
into
more general
all
use
it
Hence almost
in the
the writings of
Church produced
From
Jerome
among
period
the
many names
shall
Church
literature of this
we
select only
two for
special
mention
St.
and
St.
Augustine.
For many
This
slight
at Bethlehem.
He
is
especially held in
version
as the
Vulgate,
and
is
used
in the
Roman
Catholic Church.
" It was
for
Homer
in
was
to Greece."
bom
near Carthage,
He was
Roman period. His City of God, a truly wonderful work, possesses a special interest for the historian. The book was
during the later
written just
It
was designed
of
Roman
state.
565.
writers
in all the
literary effort
which we have so
far reviewed
did
much
Roman
Its
inces
work was
largely imitative.
course, the
But
field
in another
was
different.
We
the
mean, of
Here
Romans
ceased to be
and became teachers. Nations, like men, have their mission. Rome's mission was to give laws to the woTld. Our knowledge of the law system of the Romans begins with
pupils
B.C.
(sect 406).
565]
517
Throughout
more liberal and scientific. 250 a.d. lived and wrote the most famous of the Roman jurists and law writers, who created the most remarkable law literature ever produced by any people. The great unvarying principles that underlie and regulate all social and pohtical relations
From 100
B.C. to
illustrated,
writings
and opinions
in the East.
Roman
Empire
He
the
manner
immense mass
of
Roman
decemvirs
The
result
of the
work
of the commission
is
known
as the
Corpus
Body
and opinions on
legal subj.ects
;
promulgated by the
the Pandects ("
all-
different
The
Institutes
most eminent of the old Roman jurists and lawyers. were a condensed edition of the Pandects, and were an elementary textbook for the use
of students in
intended to form
the great
law schools of the Empire. The body of the Roman law thus preserved and transmitted was
It
has
later
work
a wonderfully
Notwithstanding that the Romans had much political experience and developed complex unwritten constitution, still, aside from their municipal and
made no permanent
constitutional law.
It
ment or
virtually
to the science of
was
left for
unaided by Roman precedents, to work out the constitution of the prefree state. The primary assemblies of the Romans could afford no instructive the cedents in the department of legislation. The practical working of the device of
modern
5I&
SOCIAL LIFE
upon the law systems of almost Thus does the once little Palatine city
[566
all
the
European peoples.
Tiber
still
of the
The
Rome
modem
civilization.
III.
SOCIAL LIFE
Under
"public
566. Education.
in
Under
Rome
and lecturers were usually paid by the municipalities, but sometimes from the imperial chest.
salaries of the teachers
The
Romans. Teachers were made exempt from many public burdens and duties and were even invested with inviolability, like heralds and tribunes.
among
the later
The
education of the
Roman boy
differed
from
practical.^
;
The laws
of the
committed
to
memory
attention, as a
Roman
cutizen
who
aspired to take
Magna
Romans
were brought
into
closer
relations
with
Greek
hitherto existed.
for
we
hear Cato the Censor complaining that the boys of his time
own
language.
Young men
just as
The
namely, the giving of seats in that body to ex-magistrates, has not been imitated by modern constitution makers, though James Bryce, in his commentary on the American commonwealth, suggests that they might have done so to advantage in the making up
of the upper chambers of their legislatures.
1 Cf, sect. 368.
567]
SOCIAL POSITION OF
of the
WOMAN
as,
519
for instance,
Many
received
567. Social
Position of
the
Woman.
was kept
the
daughter
of
family
almost
oriental
seclusion.
races of the circus and the shows of the theater and amphi-
theater
Roman
and
in the
household, and
it is
said, until
the right to
all.
In
this
may doubtless be found one cause of the degeneracy and failure of the Roman stock. 568. Public Amusements; the Theater and the Circus. The enterdisregard of the sanctity of the family relation
games of the circus, and the combats of were the three principal public amusements of the
in general, increased in popularity
Republic.
sense, the
their
The
and the
in
high esteem at
Rome
much
much
The
entertain-
ments of the theaters usually took the form of comedies, farces, and pantomimes. The last were particularly popular, both because the
vast size of the theaters
made
it
heard throughout the structure and for the reason that the language of signs was the only language that could be
make
his voice
readily
many
different
nationalities as
520
beginning the
of the
SOCIAL LIFE
Roman
stage was gross and immoral.
to
It
[569
was one
main agencies
of
Roman
society.
More important and more popular than the entertainments of the theater were the various games of the circus, especially the
chariot races.
other public
But far surpassing in their terrible fasciamusements were the animal baitings and the
gladiatorial
The
Empire
Rome and
the other
cities
of the
enormous expense. The wildernesses of northern Europe Scotland sent fierce dogs Africa confurnished bears and wolves Asia added elephants and tributed lions, crocodiles, and leopards
; ; ;
tigers.
pitted
conceivable way.
terrific
ensued became at
populace.
last
too tame to
Roman
Hence a new
species of entertainment
was demanded by
The
Gladiatorial Combats.
Etruria,
had
It
their origin in
were allowed to
fight
and
kill
one another,
blood.
at
Rome was
presented by two
This
exhibi-
was arranged
in
no amphitheaters
this
in existence.
From
this
become an At
infatuation.
It
was no
longer the
manes
tives,
of the dead, but the spirits of the living that the spectacles
to appease.
first
;
were intended
or
condemned
criminals
but at
i570]
521
even
Training-schools
Free
men
of
all
classes
beyond a
fray.
certain
;
number
of years.
in pairs
on foot
in
They fought
on
in
the
ways
which
soldiers to fight
were accustomed
in actual
battle.
The
contestants
were
with
every
nets
them.
The
life
of a
wounded
Gladiators. (From an
ancient mosaic)
'
mercy, which
tors
was made by
waved
their handkerchiefs
but
signal for the victor to give him the death stroke. dying were aroused and forced to resume the fight by being burned with a hot iron. The dead bodies were dragged from the arena with
hooks, like the carcasses of animals, and the pools of blood soaked
These shows increased to such an extent that they entirely overshadowed the entertainments of the circus and the theater. Ambitious
533
officials
SOCIAL LIFE
and commanders arranged such spectacles
;
connection with the public festivals; the heads of aspiring families provided them " in order to acquire social position " wealthy citizens
;
catching
imitated them in
The
rivMries
later years of
Fig. 198.
Pompeian
wall painting)
to popular favor.
hibit
It
to ex-
them on a
upon the
dedication of
the Flavian amphitheater, provided games, mostly gladiatorial combats, that lasted
Trajan celebrated
his victories
thousand gladiators fought upon the arena, and more than thousand wild beasts were slain.''
571. Luxury.
By
luxury,
as
we
shall
living.
have been
almost
of
unknown
habits,
in early
frugal
Rome. The primitive Romans were men who, like Manius Curius Dentatus (sect. 450),
in poverty
found contentment
1
and disdained
gladiatorial
riches.
sect. 538,
games, see
572]
STATE DISTRIBUTION
great change, however, as
:OF
CORN
523
we have
Roman
conquest of the East and the development of the corrupt provincial system of the later Republic. The colossal fortunes
quickly
class
marked
its
the in-
coming at
Rome
capital of the
height in
of the Empire.
Never
perhaps has great wealth been more grossly misused than during this
period at
Rome.
characteristically
Roman
was
The
Rome
It will
Roman
life.
be recalled that
had
its
beginnings in
the legislation of
Gaius Gracchus
lishment of the
number
is
The com
for this
tribute
from a grain
wine,
and pork.
The
hardly
evils that
resulted from
this misdirected
all its
state
charity can
vices
be overstated.
Idleness and
accompanying
were
fostered to
in
we
demoralization of society at
Rome
earlier
573. Slavery.
the later
The number
it
of slaves in the
Roman
state
under
great,
some
large
equal to the
number
Some
as
many
as twenty thousand.
The
love of osten-
kind of work.
Thus there was the slave called the sandalio, whose and another called sole duty it was to care for his master's sandals the nomendator, whose exclusive business it was to accompany his master when he went upon the street and give him the names of
;
524
SOCIAL LIFE
The
[574
these
last
slaves
serviceable in posi-
Slaves skilled in
medicine or other
professions were often let out for hire, or were set free
that they should give their former master
on
condition
The
slave class
was
chiefly recruited, as
Some
The
republican period
by Varro's
classification of slaves as
recommendation
and decrepit
(sect. 450).
slaves in
Sick and
left
and exposure. In many cases, as a measure of precaution, the slaves were forced to work in chains and to sleep
in subterranean prisons.
As many enemies
Slaves were treated better under the Empire than under the
Republic
a change
is
later
to
of
From
the
first
forward there
the bondsman.
right
him
treat
were
at
work ameliorating
had developed
in the ancient
574]
525
world into the milder system of serfdom, which characterized the society and life of the Middle Ages. We have seen how in the
Middle
the soil
the
Empire the
and made a
originally
free
tenant
poor agricultural freeman was thus being reduced to a semicondition, the practice
servile
slave of the
great
to
Roman
which he belonged on conditions similar to those on which the little farm. Custom soon decreed that the pos-
be disturbed
in its
enjoyment so
furthermore, that
of the
it
By
the time
was far was hastened by the incoming of the barbarians, and was well-nigh completed by the seventh or eighth century. The former slave had become a serf. His lot was still hard, but he had gained much. He was no longer a mere chattel he could not be bought and sold. He could not be separated from his family. Certain of the work days were his own. He could accumulate property. He had secured a part of the rights of a man. Thus gradually and silently was effected this great revolution, which perhaps more than any other change marked the transformathis revolution
advanced.
tion of
opening of a
Selections
a
new epoch
in the history of
western Europe.
ii
Agriculture, chap,
(the duties of
TACITUS, Dialogue concerning Oratory, chaps, xxviii, xxix (the old and the new education). Munro's Source Book, pp. 179-216; Davis's Readings (Rome), pp. 211-265. References (Modern). Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Fowler, History of Roman Discoveries and New Discoveries in the Forum. Literature. Skllar, The Roman Poets of the Republic and The Roman Poets of
proprietor).
the
Roman
Augustan Age.
lect.
iii,
Roman Law,
(for
"
Mackail, Latin Literature. Hadley, Introduction to The Roman Law before Justinian." Gibbon, chap, xhv
;
Roman
jurisprudence
this
chapter
is
great work).
Rome under the Cc^sars. GuHL and Koner, and Romans (consult index). Lecky, History of EuroCharlemagne
i,
(a
book of the
ii).
first
importance;
Society in
recommended
to read vol.
chap.
DiLL,
Roman
526
the Last
SOCIAL LIFE
Century of the Western Empire (read bk. v, " Characteristics of Roman Education and Culture in the Fifth Century"), Preston and Dodge, The Private Life of the Romans. GiLMAN, The Story of Rome, chap, xviii, " Some
i,
pp. 41-62.
4.
Roman
luxury: Friedlander,
Roman
Life
and Manners,
vol.
ji,
ii; Davis, The Influence of Wealth in Imperial Rome, pp. 152-187. Character and motives of Roman benefactions Abbott, The Common People of Ancient Rome, pp. 179-204.
chap,
5.
EUROPE
THEODORIC
About A. D. 300
I \
IX
THE REIGN OF
Roman
EmxJire
|
Cctls
| |
Triitoiih- Settlpjitertts
PART
IV.
THE ROMANO-GERMAN
(476-800 A.D.)
OR TRANSITION AGE
CHAPTER
XLII
In connection with the history of the break-up of the Roman in the West we have already given some account of the
German
tribes.
In the present
we
two
centuries
dissolution of the
Roman
govern-
ment
in the
575.
Kingdom
Odoacer
will
be
who dethroned
it
em Roman
emperors
(sect.
547).
when
set
was brought
a
to
an end by the
as the
who
of such quiet and prosperity as lialy had not known since happy era of the Antonines. The king made good his promise that his reign should be such that "the only regret of the people should be that the Goths had not come at an earlier period." His effort was to preserve Roman civilization, and to this end he repaired the old Roman roads, restored the monuments of the Empire that
the
years
The
were
and
in so far as possible
maintained
Roman
528
[576
The kingdom
by the rare
abilities
of Theodoric lasted
Justinian,
emperor of
the
from the
The
kings
fell in battle,
and
Italy,
in ruins,
576.
was Kingdom
Empire^ (544
a.d.).
the Visigoths
(415-711 a.d.).
The
Visigoths
man
imperial govern-
West
to
act
an
of
his
com-
They were
the
Franks,
but
Spain
was ended by the Saracens (sect. 622). When thus overturned, the Visigothic kingdom had lasted nearly three hundred years. During this time the conquerors had mingled with the old Romanized inhabitants of Spain,
ginning of the eighth century,
their rule
when
is
577.
Kingdom
of the
a.d.).
We
have already
oi the
Vandals, and told how, under the lead of their king, Geiseric, they
down
Rome (sect.
546).
Theodoric's chief minister and adviser was Cassiddorus, a statesman and writer of birtli, whose constant but unfortunately vain effort was to effect a union of the conquerors and the conquered, and thus to establish in Italy a strong and permanent
Roman
Romano-Gothic
2
state
See
sect, 6iJ.
578]
529
Moved by
the
expedition
was
successful,
from Africa. The and Carthage and the fruitful fields of the Empire after having suffered the inso-
years.
in the
after a
trace of
The Vandal nation had disappeared the name alone remained. 578. The Franks under the Merovingidns (486-752 a.d.). Even
long before the
fall
were on the
nation
soil
of Rome the Franks, as we have seen (sect. 543), of Gaul, laying there the foundations of the French
and monarchy.
Among
Upon
Roman Empire
Roman
power.
He
Roman governor
the barbarians,
forces
independent of
and
(486 A.D.).
Gaul of that
its
Roman
barbarian tribes
more than
five centuries
of Julius Caesar.
Upon his death (511 a. d.) his extensive dominions, accordance with the ancient Teutonic law of inheritance, were
among
his four sons. About a century and a half of disby the end of which time the Merovingians^ had become so feeble and inefficient that they were contemptuously called rois faineants, or "do-nothing kings," and an ambitious officer
divided
cord followed,
of the
in a
race.
S30
[579
way
line
be explained a
little
later,
the Carolingian.
579.
Kingdom
of the
Lombards (568-774
A.D.).
Barely a decade
the
had passed after the recovery of Italy from the Ostrogoths by Eastern emperor Justinian (sect. 6ii), before a large part of
peninsula was again lost to the Empire through
its
the
conquest by
they entered
;
known
as the
Lombards.
When
Lombards were Christians of the Arian sect but in time they became converts to the orthodox faith, and Pope Gregory I bestowed upon their king a diadem which came to be known as the " Iron Crown," for the reason that there was wrought into it what was believed to be one of the nails of the cross upon which Christ
had
suffered.
The kingdom
of the
the
Great, the most noted of the Prankish rulers, in the year 774; but
become
intermingled with
all
called
Lombardy
after
them
one
will
One important
result of the
Lombard conquest
Romans and
states.
th6
This
from the imperfect nature of the conquest and from the Lombard monarchy, which was rather
We
in
Rome's
distress the
footing
By
doms
somewhat
Heptarchy.
among
^'
Finally,
Egbert,
king
of
Wessex (802-839
brought
all
the
other
581]
531
kingdoms to a subject or tributary condition, and became in reality though he seems never, save on one dgcasion, to have actually
assumed the
of the
title
the
first
king of England.
tribes
Roman Empire
in the West,
modem
Beyond the boundaries of the old Empire were still other tribes and clans of this same mighty family of nations tribes and clans that were destined to play great parts in European history. On the east, beyond the Rhine, were the ancestors of the modem Germans. Notwithstanding the immense hosts that the forests and morasses of Germany had poured into the Roman provinces, the
and England.
crowded as before the great "migration began. These tribes were yet barbarians in manners, and, for the most part, pagans in religion. In the northwest of Europe were the Scandinavians, the
seemed
still
as
ancestors of the
as yet
modern Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians. They were civilization or the religion of Rome.
The Letters of Cassiodonts (Thomas Hodgkin's
ii, letters 32, 34; bk. iii, letters 17, 19, 29, 13; bk. xii, letter 20. (These letters are invaluable in showing what was the general condition of things in the transition period
bk.
i,
43; bk.
xi, letters
between ancient and mediaeval times.) References (Modern). Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders and Theodoric the Goth (Hodgkin is recognized as the best authority on the period of the migration). GuMMERE, Germanic Origins (an authoritative and interesting work on the early culture of the Germans). Gibbon, chaps, xxxviii, xxxix. Church, The Beginning of the Middle Ages, chaps, i-v. Emerton, An Introduction to The Cambridge Medieval History, the Study of the Middle Ages, chaps, vi, vii.
vol.
i, chap. XV vol. ii, chaps, iv-vii. Topics for Class Reports. 1. Life and work of Cassiodorus
;
;
his
state
Gaul
Adams,
1
pp. 160-173. ^- The The Growth of the French Nation, chap. ii.
ix,
German conquest
The
CHAPTER
XLIII
582. Introductory.
tribes that
Roman Empire in the West was Many of the barbarians were con;
to this
circumstance the
Roman
provinces
owed
their
immunity from
fail to inflict
the
upon a
subjected enemy.
of the
Roman
own
faith
was
also Christian
(sect. 540).
For
prayers of
Pope Leo
The more
tolerable
fate of
owing, in part at
overran those countries had become, in the main, converts to Christianity before
Saxons,
were
still
untamed pagans.
The
among the barbarians beyond the limits of the Empire were won from among the Goths. Foremost of the apostles that arose among them was Ulfilas, who translated the Scripconverts to Christianity
tures into the Gothic language, omitting
from
the Books of the Kings, as he feared that the stirring recital of wars
and
Word might
converts.
new
What happened
of
Goths happened
the time of the
the
Roman Empire
in the
West.
By
532
fall
of
Rome
the
584]
$33
Goths, the Vandals, the Suevi, and the Burgundians had become
proselytes to Christianity. They, however, professed the Arian creed, which had been condemned by the great council of the Church held at Nicasa during the reign of Constantine the Great (sect.
527).
had to be reconverted
to
by the Catholic Church, and the orthodox creed. This good work was
heretics
gradually
and almost
perfectly accomplished.
tribes of
whose conversion we
chief tribes of
faith.
shall
speak
Germany
they entered
in Britain,
were
until
still
pagans.
Christianity gained
among them
God
in their behalf
led the
faith.
The
In a
terrible
battle
king Clovis,
between the Alemanni and the Franks under their the situation of the Franks at length became desperate.
Then
upon his knees, called upon the God of the Christians, and vowed that if he would giVe victory to his arms he would become his follower. The battle turned in favor of the Franks,
Clovis, falling
and Clovis,
faithful to his
thousand of his warriors (496 a. d.). This story of the conversion of Clovis and his Franks
illustrates
how
omens and
their
they
in
wanted done they had a right to set them aside and choose others
their stead, contributed to their conversion,
the
of personal conviction.
585. Importance of the Conversion of the Franks. "The conversion of the Franks," says the historian Milman, " was the most
important event in
in
its
remote as well as
It
its
immediate consequences
for the reason that
European
history."
Franks embraced the orthodox Catholic faith, while almost all the other German invaders of the Empire had embraced the heretical
the
534
ITS INSTITUTIONS
[586
subjects
Arian creed.
Roman
West
and
them the
official
Thus was
the basis of
Frankish kings.
586. Augustine's Mission to England.
Gregory
I sent the
monk Augustine
market
captives
region.
who
listened
come
true,
being
persuaded
the
tidings
were
they
burned the
in
temples of
Woden and
One
Britain
of the
of
island with
the
Roman
fifth
century.
The
spiritual
conquest of Ireland
was
469
effected largely
A.D.), better
known
.With such success were his labors attended that by the time of
death a great part- of the island had embraced the Christian
faith.
The
Never did any race receive the Gospel with more ardent enthusiasm. Irish or Celtic Church sent out its devoted missionaries into the
Pictish highlands, into the forests of
Germany, and
into the
wUds
of Alps
and Apennines.
the numerous religious houses founded by the Celtic miswas the famous monastery established 563 a.d. by the Irish monk St. Columba, on the little isle of lona, just off the Pictish coast, lona became a most renowned center of Christian learning and missionaries
Among
The
Germany was
missionaries.
effected chiefly
by
Celtic,
The
great apostie of
Germany was
589]
better
S3S
a long
life
organized churches, preached and baptized,;and at last died a martyr's death (7 S3 a.d.). Through him, as says Milman the Saxon invasion of England flowed back upon the Continent.^
Thus were the conmet and conquered by Christianity. The victory, it must be confessed, was in a great degree a victory rather in name than in fact. The Church could not all at once leaven the great mass of heathenism which had so suddenly been brought within its pale. For a long
querors of the Empire
time after they
were
barbarians,
coarse
self-
and
supersti-
tious as
they were,
little
understood very
of the doctrines
Fig. 200.
and
exhibited
still
less of
they
pro-
" That man is little to be envied whose patriotism would not gain force upon the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow warmer among the ruins of lona." Dr. Johnson, A Journey to the Western Isles of Scotland
fessed.
To
this de-
upon the Church is, without measure the deplorable moral state
times.
St.
of the
Her-
was during the period between the third and the sixth century that there grew up in the Church the institution known as Monasticism. This was so remarkable a system, and one that exIt
mits."
erted so
that
1
later history,
we must here
its spirit
and aims.
The
story of the conversion of the Scandinavian peoples, of the Eastern Slavs, and
later period
of the
Hungarians belongs to a
536
ITS INSTITUTIONS
[591
life of
austere self-denial and of seclusion from the world, with the object
of promoting the interests of the soul.
As
persons
^
desolate places
who, retiring from the world, lived solitary lives in (2) cenobites or monks, who formed communities
and
his
lived usually
under a
common
roof.
St.
Anthony, an Egyptian ascetic (born about 251 a.d.), who by example and influence gave a tremendous impulse to the strange
is
enthusiasm,
his
life,
The romance
of
written by
the
celebrated
Christian world and led thousands to renounce society and in imitation of the saint to fiee to the desert.
It is
many
the
Egypt was
cities.
was favored by the mild climate of the Eastern lands and especially by that of Egypt, assumed in some degree the monastic form that is to say, the fame of this or that anchorite or hermit drew about him a number of disciples, whose rude huts or cells formed what was known as a laura, the
;
nucleus of a monastery.
Soon after the cenobite system had been established in the East was introduced into Europe, and in an astonishingly short space of time spread throughout all the Western countries where Chrisit
tianity
Here
of
it
total
mode
life.
The number
was
vastly augmented
and the overthrow of the Empire in the West. 592. The Rule of St. Benedict. With a view
sort of regularity into the practices
to introducing some
and
austerities of the
monks,
rules
re-
their observance.
The
St.
three essential
The
chastity,
and
obedience.
Benedict of Nursia
(480-543
593]
S37
in Italy.
Cassino, situated
His
code
was
to the religious
Civilis of
Many
of his
monk
to
were
The monks who subjected themselves to the rule of St. Benedict known as Benedictines. The order became immensely popular.
it
At one time
forty
embraced about
thousand abbeys.
by the
early
Monks
to Civilization.
The
establishment
of
the
monastic
new world
out of the
es-
was shaping
itself
The monks,
became
converted
lands
the wild
of Europe.
The monks,
in a
civilization
The monks
zeal
also became missionaries, and it was largely to Uieir and devotion that the Church owed her speedy and signal
The
piety.
well as quiet air of the monasteries nourished learning as teachers, and under the shelter of the
nurseries of learnmonasteries established schools which were the for centuries of ing during the earlier Middle Ages and the centers
the best intellectual life of Europe.
and with great painstaking and and thus preindustry gathered and multiplied ancient manuscripts,
The monks
also
became
copyists,
classical learning
538
and
ITS INSTITUTIONS
lost.
[594
the
Almost
all
we
Everywhere
sick,
inns, the
III.
of
Rome
there had
begun
ecclesiastical
state,
grow up within the Roman Empire an which in its constitutibn and its administrative
to
itself
This
spiritual
hierarchy of
officers, of
The
is
known
and
as the
At
is,
were
of
regions ruled by patriarchs. These centered in the great Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.
Among
the patriarchs,
the
patriarchs of
Rome
were accorded
They
and
claimed
authority
and
jiurisdiction,
this
was
was
what we may
call
an
ecclesiastical
monarchy.
men who
^such as
Leo
the Great,
St. Peter,
by the
Roman
In
we
shall
favoring circumstances.
These matters
marks
S95]
THE
The
of the
RISE OF
Primacy
THE EAPACY
of St. Peter
It
539
595.
Belief in the
by him
apostle
Church at Rome.
came
to
among
dom
man
to a
These
and interpretations of
enhance
history,
bishops the successors of Peter and the holders of his seat, contheir reputation
all
tributed greatly to
and
World.
The
claims of the
Roman
turies greatly
the
name and
Rome. Thence
it
tomed
ural,
to receive
commands
it
in all
temporal matters
in spiritual affairs.
in
thus
center of
other bishops
turies
and
The
halo
that
during
many
cen-
came naturally
Christian bishop.
Removal
this
of the Imperial
Government
to Con-
Nor was
city.
Roman
Rome
lost
when
be an imperial
The
power and
their
dignity of the
Roman
bishops, tended
greatly to
promote
claims and
authority.
foremost personage in
Rome.
Rome. Again, when the barbarians
came, there came another occasion for the .Roman bishops to widen their influence and enhance their authority. Rome's extremity was
their opportunity.
Thus
it
will
intercession
was
540
ITS INSTITUTIONS
(sect.
[S99
540); and
in a meas-
how
same bishop,
in the year
ure the wrath of the Vandal Geiseric and shielded the inhabitants
(sect. 546).
capital,
Thus when
the
able,
through the
inspired
by
could not but result in bringing increased honor and dignity to the
Roman
Empire
the
see.
Roman
West.
But
if
West tended
to the
Roman
bishops,
much more
did
its
final
same end.
Thus, upon the surrender of the sovereignty of the West
into the
Rome
became
at Constantinople, gradually
assumed almost
and the
They became the arbiters between the barbarian Italians, and to them were referred for decision the
cities, states,
did the
West
Rome
for advice
and
help.
It
is
easy to see
how greatly
Roman
bishops.
of of
Rome.
Church
of
Rome made
many
churches,
loyalty.
all
whom
Thus
Saxons, won to the faith by the missionaries of Rome, conceived a deep veneration for the holy see and became its most devoted children. To Rome it was that the Christian Britons made their most frequent pilgrimages, and thither they sent
the Angles and
their offering of St. Peter's pence,
And when
these
planted
into
the
heart
of
Germany
same
feelings of
attachment and
love.
601]
541
601. Result of the Fall of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria In the seventh centdry all the great cities of
hands of the Mohammedans.^ This was a matter of tremendous consequence for the Church of Rome, since in every one of these great capitals there was, or might have been, a rival of the Roman bishop. The virtual erasure of Antioch,
map
of Christendom left
only
one
city,
Constantinople,
that
could
of the
Roman
prelate.
Church.
Thus
dom
Roman
602.
the use of
in
of the Iconoclasts,"
the
which broke out in the eighth century between Greek churches of the East and the Latin churches of the West,
it
drew after
of the
power
Roman
to
the throne of
Constantinople
of the
'
East having been cleared of images, the emperor resolved to clear also the Latin churches of the West of these " symbols of idolatry."
To
this
bishop of
end he issued a decree that they should not be used. The Rome, Pope Gregory II, not only opposed the execution
'
of the edict,
off
the emperor
and
all
communion with
In
this
Roman
bishops
We
shall
little
render themselves more serviceable to each other. The popes consecrated the Frankish chieftains as kings and em-
Never did
allies
perors
their
the grateful Frankish kings defended the popes against all ; enemies, imperial and barbarian, and dowering them with cities
Iconoclast
means
"
image breaker."
542
Such
ITS INSTITUTIONS
in
[602
i,
chaps, xxiii-
XXV
bk,
il,
chaps,
i,
xili
bk.
ili,
chaps,
iii,
xxv.
Translations
ii, No. 7, "Life of Saint an Irish monk the subject of this biography is sometimes named Columba the Younger, to distinguish him from St. Columba of lona). Henderson's Select Documents of the Mikdle Ages, pp. 274-314, "The Rule of Saint Benedict " Robinson's Readings, vol. i, chaps, iv, v Ogg's Source Book of Media:val History, chap. vi. References (Modern). Zimmek, The Irish Element in Mediceval Culture (an authoritative and interesting account of the services rendered mediaeval civilization by the Irish monks). KiNGSLEY, The Hermits. Montalembert (Count de), The Monks of the West from Saint Benedict to Saint Bernard, 7 vols, (an ardent eulogy of monasticism). Lecky, History of European Morals, vol. ii, chap, iv (gives the light and the shade of the picture). Wishart, A Short History of Monks and Monasteries (the best= short account in English of the origin, ideals, and effects of the monastic system). Putnam, Books and their Makers during the Middle Ages, vol. i (for the labors of the monks as copyists and illuminators). Fisher, Histoiy of the Christian Church, the earlier chapters (concise, fair, and scholarly). Emerton, Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages, chap, ix, " The Rise of the Christian Church." Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap, vi, " The Formation of the Papacy." Cardinal Gibbons, The Faith of our Fathers, chap, ix, " The Primacy of Peter " and chap. .\, " The Supremacy of the Popes " (an authoritative statement of the Catholic view of these matters). The Cambridge Medieval
instructive biography of
History, vol.
i,
chap, xviii
vol.
ii,
chaps,
viii,
xvi, xxii.
i.
The
religion of the
Germans and
their con-
The
3.
Seignobos, History of Mediceval and Modem Civilization, chap. ii. scriptorium and the labors of the monks as copyists, chroniclers, and
:
authors
145.
St.
Putnam, Books and their Makers during the Middle Ages, vol. i, pp. 3Boniface and the conversion of the Western Germans: Merivale,
The Continental Teutons, chap. vii. 4. The monasteries as industrial colonies: Cunningham, Western Civilization (Mediaeval and Modern Times), pp. 35-405. St. Benedict and the Benedictine Rule Wishart, A Short History of Monks
:
and Monasteries,
chap.
iii.
CHAPTER XLW
THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON
603. Introductory.
The
and the
development in Western Christendom of the central authority of the Papacy prepared the way for the introduction among the Northern
races of the arts Spain,
and the culture of Rome, and hastened in Italy, and Gaul the fusion into a single people of the Latins and
which important matter we .shall
treat in the present
soil of
the Teutons, of
chapter.
old
We
shall tell
how
upon the
the*
Empire
their
tongues,
barbarian
in-
Roman
provincials
Romans. Of course the proportion varied in the different countries. In none of the countries named, however, was it large on the contrary, the enough to absorb the Latinized population
to the
;
barbarians were
essentially
Thus, about
dwellings,
us of
in Italy, Spain,
and France
reminds
Rome.
little
later
in.
place.
The
barbarians have
come
jostling
each other in the streets and markets, crowding each other in the
theaters
and
544
[605
Romanized subjects of the Empire and their uncouth Teutonic conBut by the close of the ninth century, to speak in very general terms, the two elements have become quite intimately blended, and a century or two later Roman and Teuton have alike disappeared, and we are introduced to Italians, Spaniards, and Frenchmen. These we call Romance nations, because at base they are Roman. 605. The Formation of the Romance Languages. During the five
querors.
centuries of their subjection to
Now
in exactly the
same way
more
Romans
In the
course of two or three centuries after their entrance into the Empire, Goths, Lombards, Burgundians, and Franks had, in a large measure,
dropped
their
had subjected.
But of course
Latin underwent a great change upon
the lips of the mixed descendants of the
Romans and
Teutons.
Owing
to the absence of a
common
that took place in one country did not exactly correspond to those
going on in another.
dialects springing up,
Hence,
we
find different
virtually disappeared as a
more
or less
and French languages resembling the ancient Latin, and all called Romance
Roman
speech.
tribes,
Barbarian
Codes.
The Teutonic
before
they
entered the
Roman
frame
the
As soon
codes.
as they
in imitation of the
Romans,
to
their
in
and customs
into
In some
the
countries, particularly
Spain and
Italy, this
supervision of
peoples in
and hence the codes of the Teutonic these countries were a sort of fusion of Roman principles
clergy,
practices.
and barbarian
laws
they were
But
between the
sixth and
607]
ninth centuries
TEUTONIC LAWS
S45
were not so essentially modified by Latin influence but that they serve as valuable and instructive memorials of the customs, ideals, and social arrangements of the Teutonic peoples.
607. The Personal Character of the Teutonic Laws.
the barbarians, instead of being territorial as with us,
The laws
of
were generally
personal
that
is,
instead of
all
subject to the
same
laws, there
were
different
classes of society.
The
Roman code, while the Teutons lived under the and regulations which they had brought with them from beyond the Rhine and the Danube. The curious state of things
resulting
from
it
is
tured
of a chronicler
"
For
it
would
men would
be
sitting or
walking
one of whom would have the same law with any other." Even among themselves the Teutons knew nothing of the modern
legal
maxim
that
all
The
penalty
his
inflicted
upon the
crime but
and serfs
upon his rank or that of the party injured. Thus slaves were beaten and put to death for minor offenses, while a
fine,
freeman might atone for any crime, even for murder, by the pay-
ment of a
the
amount
by the
to
The
agencies
relied
among them
was.
how One
was by What were called ordeals, in which the question was submitted to the judgment of God. Of these the chief were the ordeal by fire, the ordeal by -water, and the wager of battle. The ordeal by fire consisted in taking in the hand a piece of redhot iron, or in walking blindfolded with bare feet over a row of hot
ploughshares laid lengthwise at irregular distances.
If the
person
escaped unharmed, he was held to be innocent. Another way of performing the fire ordeal was by running through the flame of two
fires built
close together, or
by walking over
live brands.
546
[609
The
was
of
cold.
boil-
In the hot-water ordeal the accused person thrust his arm into
ing water, and
if
no hurt was
visible
after
was considered
In the cold-water
;
if
he
it
if
he sank, innocent.
The
water,
was
believed,
would
bosom.
The wager
or
trial
of battle
was
resorted to in
that
the
belief
God
would give
the right.
victory, to
Naturally
it
was a
of
ple
chief
ing.
trial
favorite
mode
peotheir
delight in fight-
The
deputy,
Fig. 202.
ordeal was
fre-
quently performed by
that
is,
one
Trial by Combat.
;
would undertake
fire
it
for another
and water
to serve one."
Especially
was such
substitution com-
mon
ecclesiastics
were
generally
Roman Law.
called,
Now
such
it
can be
we have
first
Roman
law in
all
and
in southern France,
609]
547
ad-
But the
superiority.
About the close of the eleventh century there was a great revival in the study of the Roman law as embodied in the Justinian code, and in the course of a century or two this became either the groundwork
or a strong modifying element in the law systems of almost
all
the
peoples of Europe.
What took
place
may be
illustrated
Italy,
by reference
and Spain.
As
the barbarian
gave place
which became
law the
longer,
new Romance languages, so now in the domain of barbarian maxims and customs, though holding their place likewise finally give way almost everywhere, in a greater
to the
or less degree,
more
Rome must
fulfill
Pennsylvania), vol.
Selections from the Sources. Translations and Reprints (University of Henderson's Select Historical iv, No. 4, " Ordeals," etc.
gicee in
Documents, pp. 176-189, "The Salic Law," and pp. 314-319, "Fonnula Liiuruse at Ordeals"; Lee's Source-book of English History, chap, v, "AngloSaxon Laws"; Ogg's Source Book of Medtceval History chap. xii. References (jyioderu). EmekTON, Introduction to the Middle Ages, chap, viii,
Germanic Ideas of Law." Lea, Superstition and Force : Essays on the Wager Wager of Battle, the Ordeal and Torture. Hadley, Introduction to Roman Law, lect. ii, " The Roman Law since Justinian.'' Topics for Class Reports. 1. The spread of the Latin speech and the formation of the Romance languages: Abbott, The Common People of Ancient Rome, pp. 3-31. 2. The contribution made by the Germans to civilization: Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. v. 3. Give summary of the history of the wager of battle (the judicial duel) between individuals and then draw a parallel between this institution and the wager of battle (the interna"
of Law, the
tional
duel)
i-vii.
:
between nations
4.
chaps,
The
influence of the
to
Lea, Superstition and Force (4th ed.), pt. ii, Roman law upon the law systems of
Europe
Hadley, Introduction
Roman Law,
lect.
ii.
CHAPTER XLV
THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST
610. The Era of Justinian (527-565
a. d.).
Throughout the
half
sack of
Rome
by the Vandals
546), the
awful calamities that had befallen the Imperial City of the West.
Had
the
New Rome
at this time
before the storm, the loss to the cause of civilization would have
527
a. d.,
ability, to
whom
of the great
Justinian
of
The
name
to the period,
called after
him the
One
is
Justinian
is
what
of the most important matters in the reign of termed the " Imperial Restoration," by which is
meant the recovery from the barbarians of several of the provinces West upon which they had seized. Africa, as we have seen (sect. 577), was first wrested from the Vandals. Italy was next recovered from the Goths and again made a part of the Roman Empire (553 a.d.). Besides recovering from the barbarians Africa and Italy, Justinian also reconquered from the Visigoths the southof the
distinction than
by the achievements of
was
him
548
Civilis, the
612]
"
549
Body
Roman Law."
all
This work, as
we have
already learned
(sect.
565), embodied
Romans,
of
Rome
to the world.
In causing
publication,
^
Justinian
earned
the
title
of
the
"Lawgiver
Civilization."
612.
the death
whom we
shall
tell
in
the
upon
which
in a
,'*.l,rN
.-"".V'
-Un,,,
,s-'\-^\4r.-^
~%/
^V,
"'
'
^.
Vr""<^'V-
Ti,n,,/
">" '^
"
iv
eJissi.
It?
"
"
L
\
/
Tprua~^
AWnndria^
Imperial Possessions at Opening of Jieign
[:>
J
T
f
Justinian
had the smallest Greek element, and thus rendered the population subject to the emperor more homogeneous, more thoroughly Greek. The Roman element disappeared, and though the
government
the
still
upon
it
by
Greek
on
1
ing to the
call it
and manners. Hence, instead of longer applyEmpire the designation Roman, rnany historians from this
Justinian also earned renown as one of the world's greatest builders. He rebuilt with increased splendor the church of Santa Sophia, which, founded by Constantine the Great, had been burned during a riot in his reign. The structure still stands, though
the cross which originally
crescent.
in 1453 replaced
In
its
550
IN
THE EAST
[613
Roman Empire
that
it
services to the
European
vs^orld
justly deserves
First,
as a military outpost
held the
civilization for
Second,
civilization
it
in
tecture,
Third,
this
fruitful idea
and
in the time
of
Charlemagne.
Without the
later
Roman Empire
of
the East
of
the
Romano-German Empire
and
West
(sect. 630).
it
Fourth,
religion
world
to-day largely
New Rome.
References (Modern).
chap, xliv deals with
chaps, iv-viii
;
Roman
Gibbon, chaps, xl-xliv (on the reign of Justinian; law). Oman, The Story of the Byzantine Empire,
v, vi.
The Imperial
Restoration."
Encyc.
Brit.,
Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, 2 vols, (a work of superior scholarship). Harrison, Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages (a brilliant
Bryce.
lecture).
The Cambridge Medieval Histoiy, vol. ii, chaps, i, ii. Topics for Class Eeports. i. Justinian as a builder; St. Sophia: Oman, The Byzantine Empire, chap, viii, pp. 106-111; Gibbon, chap, xl (consult
.
.
table of contents)
2 Introduction into Europe :of the silk industry Gibbon, chap, xl (consult table of contents). 3. The Hippodrome and the " Blues" and the " Greens " Oman, The Byzantine Empire, chap, ii, pp. 22-25 chap, vi,
:
pp. 75-80.
1
Roman
Empire,
vol.
ii,
chap. xiv.
CHAPTER XLVI
THE RISE OF ISLAM
614. The Attack from the South upon Ancient Civilization.
We
We
German
Roman Empire
its
watch a similar attack made upon the Empire by the Arabs of the South, and to see wrested from the emperors of the East a large part of the lands still remaining under their rule.^
to
now
615.
of Arabia before
Mohammed.
Be-
fore the
Mohammed
Here was
Their
holy city
shrine
the ancient and most revered was preserved a sacred black stone that was beheved to have been given by an angel to Abraham. To this Meccan shrine pilgrimages were made from the most remote
of the Kaaba,^ where
parts of Arabia.
was Mecca.
religion of Arabia,
still
were
in the land to
many
in
The Jews
persecu-
especially
were
be found
the
some
Roman
Arab teachers had been made acquainted with the doctrine of one sole God. From the numerous Christian converts dwelling among them they had learned something of the
From them
doctrines of Christianity.
616.
Mohammed. Mohammed,
in the holy city of
was
bom
Mecca, probably
before him.
1
The
student should
2
526, 554.
So named from
551
552
j617
Mohammed
mind.
stirred
He
to
manded
faith
make known
is
to his fellow
men.
:
The essence
is
of the
new
which he was
to te'ach
was
this
There
Mohammed
his prophet.
after having
Mohammed
but
Fig. 203.
a drawing)
at the end
numbered only
forty persons.
at last
The
teachings of
Mohammed
to persecute
Mohammed
fled to
and
his followers.
To
Mohammed
the
word
signifies,
lems as such an important event in the history of their religion they adopted it as the beginning of a new era, and from it
continue to reckon historical dates.
618]
553
He
declared
it
to
be the
will of
new
faith
caravans.
The year following the Hegira he began to attack and plunder The flame of a sacred war was Soon kindled. Warriors
all
from
Their
reckless enthusiasm
in
was
intensified
fighting
those
who
resisted
Mohammed,
Mecca had been conquered and the new orccd established widely among the independent tribes of Arabia. 619. The Koran and its Teachings. The doctrines of Mohammedanism or Islam, which means
tained in the
"'
Koran, which
all
is
believed
by thg orthodox
to
have been
written
from
eternity
on
tablets in heaven.
From
time to time
Mohammed
as
its,
book
"
him
in the
in
'"
his
dreams and
visions.
down upon
and the
ribs of
palm
leaves.-'
Soon
mented by
tradition,
to length.
the unity of
God
" There
is
no God save Allah " echoes through the Koran. To this is added the equally binding declaration that " Mohammed Ss the prophet of Allah."
The Koran inculcates the practice of four cardinal virtues or five times every day must the believer duties. The first is prayer turn his face towards Mecca and engage in devotion. Tjie^second requirement is almsgiving, or payment of the so-called holy tax. The third is keeping the fast of Ramadan, which lasts a whole month,
;
/,
*"
>
Mohammed
saysthat Palmer in the introduction to his translation of the KAran could neither read nor write."
it is
"probable
554
[620
throughout which period nothing must be eaten during the day. The
fourth_duty_is
possibly
to
Mgcca.
do so
required to
make
this journey.
Mohammed
in
the caliphs
were engaged
an almost unbroken
authority of
fire-
Persia
the
Koran was
was wrested from the Eastern Roman Empire and Asia Minor was overrun. Egypt and North Africa, the latter just recently delivered from the Vandals (sect. 577), were also snatched from the hands of the Byzantine emperors.
worshipers.
Syria
By
lost to
By
that of the
to the peoples
of that continent,
tion of the East.
and the
stagna-
From
Thus
in only
little
more
than
Mohammed
his
carried
by the lieutenants of
other.
his successors
lespont on the one side and across Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar
on the
We may
The
first
attempt was
made
in the East,
vainly
endeavored to gain control of the Bosphorus by wresting Constantinople from the hands of the Eastern emjjerors.
the
in im-
hordes a
little
later in
1 Abu-Bekr (632-634 A. d.), Mohammed's father-in-law, was the first caliph. He was followed by Omar (634-644 a.d.), Othman (644-655 A.D.), and All (655-661 A.D.), all of whom fell by the hands of assassins. Ali was the last of the four so-called orthodox caliphs. 2 Some historians regard 'ij as even more important.
IS
80
^e-^^
sarSt^
622]
555
in Spain.
and
all
the
submitted to
some mountainous regions in the northwest, quickly the invaders. By this conquest some of the fairest
hundred years.
No
religion. of
Battle
Tours (732
a.d.).
Four or
five
years after the conquest of Spain the Saracens crossed the Pyrenees
This advance
Moslem
by
all
Christendom.
It
looked as though
all
Mohammed would
it,
soon possess
the continent.
As Draper
pictures
upon
horn touching the Bosphorus and the other the Straits of Gibraltar,
seemed about
to
round
to the full
all
Europe.
A. D., just
under
and
their
Tours
in central
Gaul and
Christendom and
The Arabs
suffered
an overwhelming
defeat
The young
of western
(sect. 544).
624.
The Dismemberment
of the Caliphate.
"At
" the caliphs were the first century of the Hegira," writes Gibbon, monarchs of the globe." But in a short most potent and absolute
time the extended empire, through the quarrels of sectaries and the
556
[625
ambitions of rival aspirants for the honors of the caliphate, was broken
in
the Tigris,
were
the
issued the
commands
All,
whom
civil
was regarded by
successor of
and
Mohammed.
all
in
same reverence,
and
625. The
Civilization
of
Germans.
own
From the Greeks and the Hindus they received the germs of astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, algebra, medicine, botany, and other sciences. The scientific writings of Aristotle, Euclid, and Galen, and Hindu treatises on astronomy
bequeathed them to Christian Europe.
and algebra were translated from the Greek and Sanskrit into Arabic, and formed the basis of the Arabian studies- and investigations.
Almost
all of the sciences that thus came "into their hands were improved and enriched by them, and then transmitted to European
scholars. 2
is
as the Arabic or
instrument of
calculations.
In the lighter forms of literature romance and poetry the Arabs produced much that possesses a high degree of excellence.
The
valuable
Gibbon affirms that no Greek poet, orator, or historian was ever translated into See Decline and Fall, chap. lii. 2 What Europe received in science from Arabian sources is kept in remembrance by such words as alchemy, alcohol, alembic, algebra, alkali, almanac, azimuth, chemistry, elixir, zenith, and nadir. To how great an extent the chief Arabian cities became the
1
Arabic.
manufacturing centers of the mediaeval world is indicated by the names which these places have given to various textile fabrics and other articles. Thus muslin comes from Mosul, on the Tigris, damask from Damascus, and gait%e from Gaza. Damascus and Toledo blades tell of the proficiency of the Arab
workmen
in metallurgy.
figures or numerals, with the exception of the zero symbol, system, they seem to have borrowed from India.
The
employed
in their
625]
557
commentary on Arabian
and manners
and
found expression
In
all
estabhshment of schools,
universities,
and
libraries.
the
and Cordova,
refinement.
young Moslems and creating an atmosphere of learning and The famous " university " at Cairo, which has at the
is
a survival
the erection of
architects
of the
one
Arab
palace
to
preserved to us in the
style
modern
some
Selections fiom the Sources. The Koran is our chief source for a knowledge of Islam as a religion. The translation by Palmer, in Sacred Books of the East, is the best. The Speeches and Table-talk of the Prophet Mohammed (chosen and translated by Stanley Lane-Poole). European History Studies (University of Nebraska), vol. ii, No. 3, '" Selections from the Koran." Robinson's Readings,
vol.
i,
chap,
vi,
pp. 11 4-1 20
vii.
Muir, The Cordn : its Composition and Teachings; The Life of Mohammed; Annals of the Early Caliphate; and The Rise and they Decline of Islam (all these works are based on the original sources Smith, spirit). are, however, written in an unfriendly and unsympathetic Mohammed and Mohammedanism (has a short bibliography). Sprenger, Mohammed. IRVING, Mahomet and his Successors. GiBBON, The
References (Modern).
;
Life
of
and Hero-worship,
lect.
ii,
Mohammed and the Rise of Islam. CARhYTJE, Heroes "The Hero as Prophet." Freeman, HistoTy and
GiLMAN, The Saracens Conquests of the Saracens (a rapid sketch by a master). Ameer Ali, The Spirit of from the Earliest Times to the Fall of Bagdad. Syed Short History of the Saracens. Islam : or the Life and Teachings of Mohammed and MaBr,t., nth ed., Arts. " Mahomet," Poole, Studies in a Mosque. Encyc. " Mahommedan Religion. hommedan Institutions," " Mahommedan Law,"
;
The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. ii, chaps.>x-xn. Carlyle, Heroes and Herotopics for Class Reports, i. Mohammed,: Some teachings of Islam: wonhii, lect. ii, "The Hero as Prophet." 2. tales from the Arabian Nights. Oilman, The Saracens, chap. xv. 3- Selected
CHAPTER XLVII
CHARLEMAGNE AND THE RESTORATION OF THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST
636. Introductory.
We
return
now
to the West.
The
Franks,
who
the Saracens
jection to the
upon the
it
field of
fub-
our attention.
first
Among them
Romans.
is
that a
man
appears
who makes
the
grand
their king,
is
the imindeed,
in
who makes
universal history.
The
events which are to claim our attention will illustrate the important
We
shall tell
how
the Mayors
became the
actual kings of
liberality of the
popes
out
laid the
and how
Roman Empire
in
extended
limits, in the
fusion of things
Roman and
of things
Germanic,
modern civilization. 627. How Duke Pippin became King of the Franks
laid the basis of
(751 A-D.).
Charles
Martel,
who saved
the
Christian
civilization
of
western
Europe on the
nation,
(sect. 578).
field
of
the
Merovingian court
He
office.
and honors.
He
make
himself king.
20
EUROPE
IN
THE TIME OF
814
lU/man mfire of the 1
Tnif^re o/iht
depimdenl State
628]
559
Not deeming
and
wise, however, to
do
this
in reality
This was
vingian king
was
Childeric
such
name
of the Mero-
own
and for Christendom, was crowned king of and thus became the
first
the
line,
Franks (751
the
a. d.),
name
name
(756
to the house.
In the year 754 a.d. Pope Stephen II, troubled by the king of the Lombards, besought Pippin's aid against the barbarian. Pippin, quick to return the favor which the head of the" Church had
A. D.).
in
He
descended into
Italy with
an army, expelled
Lombards from their recent conquests, and made a donation to Pope of the regained lands ^ (756 a. d.). As a symbol of the gift he laid the k&ys of Ravenna, Rimini, and of many other cities on the tomb of St. Peter. This endowment may be regarded as having practically laid the for although Pope basis of the temporal sovereignty of the popes
;
Stephen, as
it
off allegiance to
up an independent Church
state,
still
not probable that he could have carried out successfully such an enterprise had he not been aided in his project by the Prankish king.
639. Charlemagne or Charles the Great.
his
son Charles' (768-814 a.d.), who by the almost unanimous pronounced the verdict of students of the medieval period. has been
emperor at Constantisovereignty of all these lands belonged nominally to the ignored by Pippin, His claims were ignor Carloman was associated 2 During the first three years of his reign a brother named ye with him in the government.
1
The
nople. iple.
56a
[630
and the
He
broad ocean."
in his
which he
is
best
filled
But
his
He
;
gave
kept
in
and established
intellectual
life
for Western
West
(soo a.d.).
The
great
Pope of the imperial crown of the Caesars. The circumstances famous transaction were these. Pope Leo III having called upon Charlemagne for aid against a hostile faction at Rome, the king soon ajjpeared in person at the
the of this
capital
of the
Church.
The
gratitude of
Leo
led
him
is
at this
many
services of the
needed.
emperors
at Constantinople.
Empress
Irene,
out his eyes that she might have his place, the Byzantine throne
was vacant, in the estimation of the Italians, who contended that the crown of the Cassars could not be wctrji by a woman. In view
Pope Leo and those about him conceived away from the heretical and effeminate Greeks the imperial crown and bestowing it upon some strong and orthodox and worthy prince in the West.
of these circumstances
630]
561
there
Now, among all the Teutonic chiefs of Western Christendom was none who could dispute in claims to the honor with the
illustrious house and the strongest champion of the young Christianity of the West against her pagan foes. Accordingly, as Charles was participating
in at
Day
in
Pope approached the kneeling king, and placing a crown of gold upon his head proclaimed him Emperor and
the
Rome,
Augustus (800
A.D.).
of Pope Leo was, by a sort of reversal of the act of Constantine the Great, to bring back from the East the seat of the
The mtention
imperial court but what he really accomplished was a restoration of the line of emperors in the West, which three hundred and twentyfour years before had been ended by Odd-acer, when he dethroned
;
(sect. 547). We say this was what he actually Greeks of the East, disregarding wholly what the Roman people and the Pope had done, maintained their line of emperors just as though nothing had occurred in Italy. So now
Romulus Augustus
;
effected
for the
from this time on for centuries there were, most of the time, two emperors, one in the East and another in the West, each claiming to
be the rightful successor of Ceesar Augustus.^ This revival of the Empire in the West was one of the most
important matters in European history.
centuries
'"
It
gave
to
the following
Church embodied
in the
Papacy,
to
1 From this time on it will be proper for us to use '-the terms Western Empire and Eastern Empire. These names should not, however, be employed before this time, for the two parts of the old Roman Empire were simply administrative divisions of a single
empire
but we may properly enough speak of the Roman Empire in the West, and the Roman Empire in the East, or of the Western and Eastern emperors. What it is very
;
is, that the restoration of the line of the Western emperors actually destroyed the unity of the old Empire, so that from this time on until the destruction of the Eastern Empire in 1453, there were, as we have said in the text, two rival emperors, each in theory having rightful suzerainty of the whole world, whereas the two (or more)
essential to note
emperors in Roman times were the co-rulers of a single and See Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire.
indivisible
world empire.
562
[631
He
It
died
814
A. D.,
and
to
his
fell
in
was
Germany
J^mpire.
and came
Roman
As Pope Leo
placed the imperial diadem upon the head of Charles he cried, " To Charleg the Augustus, crowned
pacific
emperor,
life
and
victory."
The Roman
the
populace within the church repeated the cry, which was taken up by
the Prankish warriors outside.
" In that shout
its
was pronounced
consequences, of the
Roman and
the
South with the fresh energy of the North, and from that
history begins."
^
moment modern
Eginhard (Einhard), Life of the Emperor by William Glaister recommended). (Einhard was Charles' confidential friend and secretary. " Almost all our real, vivifying knowledge of Charles the Great," says Hodgkiii, " is derived from Einhard, and the Vita Caroli is one of the most precious bequests of the early Middle Ages.") 2 rSn stations and Jieprints (University of Pennsylvania), vol. vi, No. 5, " Selections from the Laws of Charles the Great." Robinson's Jieadings^ vol. i, chap, vii; Ogg's Source Book 0/ Mediaeval History, chap. ix. References (Modern). Hodgkin, Charles the Great, and Mombert, History of Charles the Great (the first is the best shcat biography in English). Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, chaps, iv, v (giv^s a clear view of the import of the restoration of the Empire). Emerton, introduction to the Middle Ages, chaps, xii-xiv. Sergeant, I'he Franks, chaps, xvi-xxii (an admirable sketch, with a moderate appraisement of Charles's work). West, Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools, and Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. vii. Davis, Charlemagne. The Cambridge Medieval History, vol. ii, chaps, xviii, xix, xxi. Topics for Class Reports, i. Charlemagne and his court: Davis, Charlemagne, chap. X. 2. Alcuin and the Palace School: West, Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools, chap. iii. 3. The import of the restoration of the Empire: Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire (8th ed.), chaps, iv, v, xxi (a subject for the advanced student).
Selections from the Sources.
the Great (translation
Karl
The Holy Roman Empire, p. 49. Bryce here uses the phrase modem comprehending both the mediasval and the modern period. For the moment he conceives history as presenting only two phases, thd ancient and the modern.
i
Bryce,
history as
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London. 1896-190(11. 7 vols. J. B. Bury. Methuen, Gibbons, J. (Cardinal), The Faith of our Fathers. Murphy, Baltimore. Oilman, A., The Stoiy of Rome. Putnam, New York. 1896. The Story of the Saracens. Putnam, New York. 1896. Granrud, J. E., j?<7;aK Constittitional History Allyn, Boston. 1901. Greenidge, A. H. J., Roman Public Life. Macmillan, London. 1901. A History of Rome (vol. i). Dutton, New York. 1905. Gummere, F, B., Germanic Origins. Scribner, New York. 1892.
.
1888.
Gwatkin, H. M., The Arian Controversy. Longmans, London. 1898. Hadley, J., Introduction to Roman La-w. Appletop, New York. 1873. Hardy, E. G., Christianity and the Roman Government. Longmans, London.
Macmillan, LonHarrison, F., Byzantine Hi'^tory in the Early Middle Ages. don. 1900. Havell, H. L., Republican Rome. Stokes, New York. 1914. [Eng.] University Press. Heitland, W. E., The Roman Republic. Cambridge
1909.
Hodgkin,
Italy
Macmillan, London. 1897Press, Oxford. 1880-1899. 8 vols. Putnam, New York. 1900.
S70
Holmes,
R., Casar's
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
Conquest of Gaul. Clarendqn Press, Oxford, igii. D., History of Ronii^ Longmans, London. 1898.
Ihne, W., Early Rome. 6th ed. Longmans, London. 1900. History of Rome. Longmans, London. 1871-1882. 5 vols. O.p. Inge, W. R., Society in Rome imder the Ccesars. Scribner, New York.
Irving, W.,
Mahomet and
his Successors.
Putnam,
New
York.
2 vols.
Johnston, H. W., The Private Life of the Romans, Scott, Chicago. 1903. Jones, H. S., The Roman Empire. Putnam, New York. 1908. Kingsley, C, The Hermits. Macmillan, London. 1868. Lanciani, R., Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries. Houghton, Boston. 1892. Pagan and Christian Rome. Houghton, Boston. iSgg. Ruins and Excavatio7is of Ancient Rome. Llbughton, Boston. 1897. Lea, H. C, Superstition and Force. 4th ed. Lea, Philadelphia. 1892. Lecky, W. E, H., A History of Eiiropean Morals. Appleton, New York. 1870. Leland, C. G.-, Etruscan-Roman Remains in Poptilar Tradition. Unwin, London. 1892. O.p. Long, G., The Decline of the Roman Republic. Bell, London. 1864-1874. 5 vols. O.p. Macaulay, T. B., Lays of Ancient Rome. Houghton, Boston. 1895. Mackail, J. W., Latin Literature. Scribner, New .York. 1900. Mahan, A. T., The Influence of Sea Power upon ffistory. Little, Boston. Margoliouth, I). S., Mohammed and the Rise of Islam. Putnam, New York. 1905. yia-son. A.]., The Persectition of Diocletian. Deighton, Cambridge. 1876. O.p. yisM, K., Pompeii : its Life and Art. Macmillan, New York. 1902. Merivale, C, The Fall of the Roman Republic. Longmans, London. 1853. 7X1? Continental Teutons. Soc. Prom. Chr. K'nowl., London. A History of the Romans under the Empire. Longman^, New York. 1862-1865. 8 vols. Mierow, C. C, The Gothic Histoiy of fordanes. Princeton University Press.
1915.
Mombert,
J. I.,
Mommsen,
T.,
New
1888.
The Provinces of the Roman Empire from C<sar to Diocletian, Scribner, New York. 1SS7. 2 vols. Montalembert, Count de. The Monks of the West from St. Benedict to St. Bernard, Longmans, New York. i8g6. 6 vols. Morey, Wm. C, Outlines of Roman Law, Putnam, New -York. 1884. Morris, W. O., Hannibal. Putnam, New York. 1897. Muir, Sir W., The Life of Mahomet, Smith, Elder & Co., London. 1894. Annals of the Early Caliphate. Smith, Elder & Co., London. 1888. The Cordn. Soc. Prom. Chr. Knowl., London. 1878. The Rise and Decline of Islam. Relig. Tract Soc, London. 1883. Mullinger, J. B., The Schools of Charles the Great. Stechert, New York. 1877. Newman, J. H., The Arians of the Fourth Centurji. Lumley, London. 1854. Oman, C, Seven Roman Statesmen of the Later Republic. Arnold, London. 1902. The Byzantine Empire. Putnam, New York. iSgS. Pelham, H. F., Outlines of Roman Hisioty. Putnam, New York. i8g3. Poole, S. L., Studies in a Mosque. Allen, London. 1883. Preston, H. W., and Dodge, L., The Private "Life of the Romans. Leach,
Boston.
i8g3.
Putnam, G. H., Boohs and their Makers during the Middle Ages, Putnam, New York. 1896, 1S97. 2 vols.
GENERAL BIRLIOGfeAPHY
571
Ramsay, M., The Church in the Roman Empire before A.D. 170. Hodder ' London. 1893. Reid, J. S., The Municipalities of the Roman Empire. Cambridge
Robinson,
versity Press. 1913. J. H., and Breasted,
Gmn,
'&^f^\e.y,].^.,
J.
Boston.
1914.
Roman
Seignobos, C,
1902.
Imperialism. Roberts, Boston. 1871. O.p. History of the Roman People. Ed. by Fairly. Holt,
New York
York. 1909. The Roman Poets of the Au^i^tan Age. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 2 vols. The Roman Poets of the Republic. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1S89 Sergeant, L., The Pranks. Putnam, New York. 189S. &h\ickbnrgh,^.S., History of Rome. MacmiUan, New York. 1894. ^m\th,K.'^., Mohammed and Mohammedanis?n. Harper, New York. 1875. O-PCarthage and the Carthaginians. Longmans, London. 1879.
Sellar,
History of Ancient Civilization. Scribner, Ivfew York. 1906. History of Mediisval and Modem Civilization. Trans, by James. Scribner
New
W.
'
Y.,
Carthage. 8th ed. Longmans, London. 1893. The Life of Mohammed. Allahabad. 1851. Stanley, A. P., Christian Institutions. Murray, London. 1881. Lectures on the History of the Eastern Chmrh. Scribner, New York.
Silirenger, K.,
Rome and
1862.
Strachan-Davidson, J. L., Cicero and the Fall of the Roman Republic. Putnam, New York, 1894. ThicxTy, Amidie, Tableau de I' Empire Romain. .Didier, Paris. 1862. O.p.
Roman Life under the Casars. Unwin, London. 1899. De7jelopment of the Roman Constitution. Appleton, New York. 1886. TroUope, A., The Life of Cicero. Harper, New York. 1881.^ 2 vols. O.p. Tucker, T. G., Life in the Roman World of Nero and St.' Paul. Macmillan, New York. 191 1. Uhlhorn, G., The Conflict of Christianity with Heathenism. Scribner, New York. Watson, P. B., Marcus Aurelius Antonintis. Plafper, New York. 1884. West, A. F., Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools. Scribner, New York. Wilkins, A. S., Roman Antiquities. American Book Company, New York. Wishart, A. W., A Short History of Monks and Monasteries. Brandt, Trenton. ViTight,V^., An Account of Palmyra and Zenobia. Nelson, New York. 1895. O.p. Zimmer, H., The Irish Element in Mediceval Culture. Putnam, New York. 1891
Thomas,
E.,
T'lghs,
Pi..,
SOURCES
(Most of the primary works to which we have made reference are to be found in the Bohn Library, Harper's Classical Library, or the Loeb Classical Library. We name here by way of special recommendation editions of a few of the most important translations, together with several valuable collections of translations and extracts.)
Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, Meditations. Trans, by Long. Lee & Shepard, Boston. Appian, The Foreign Wars and The Civil Wars. Loeb Classical Library. 4 vols. Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander. Trans, by Chinnock. Bell, London. 1893. Cassiodorus, Letters. Trans, by Hodgkin. Frowde, London. 1886.' Cicero, Letters to Atticus. Macmillan, New York. 1912. 3 vols. Code of Hammurabi, The. Trans, by Harper. The University of Chicago
Press.
1904.
572
Davis,
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
W.
S.,
Allyn, Boston.
1912.
2 vols.
Demosthenes, Ora/ZoMj. Trans, by Kennedy. Scribner, New York. 1889. 5 vols. Dillard, D. H., Fifty Letters of Cicero. Ginn, Boston. 1901. Eginhard, Life of the Emperor Karl the Great. Trans, by Glaister. Bell, London.
1877.
Egyptian Book of the Dead, The. Trans, by Davis. Putnam, New York. 1894. Extracts from the Sources. Department of History of Indiana University. Fling, F. M., Source Book of Greek History. Heath, Boston. 1907. Harper, R. F., Assyrian and Babylonian Literature. Appleton, New York. 1901. Henderson, E. F., Select Historical Documents. ]^ell, London. 1892. Herodotus. Trans, by Rawlinson. Scribner, New York. 1S75. 4 vols. Homer, Iliad. Trans, by Bryant. Houghton, Boston. 1870. Odyssey. Trans, by Palmer. Houghton, Boston. 1891. Jordanes, Origin and Deeds of the Goths. Trans, by Mierow. Princeton University Press.
Koran
Livy.
Trans, by Palmer. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 18S0. 2 vols. Trans, by Spillan and others. Bell, London. 1900-1903. 4 vols. Monroe, P. N., Source Book of the History of Education for the Greek and Roman Period. Macmillan, New York. 1901. Munro, D. C, Source Book of Roman Histoiy. Heath, Boston. 1904. Ogg, F. A., Source Book of Medicmjal History. American Book Company, New
lQu?-'dn].
York.
1907.
Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1892. 5 vols. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1881. Plutarch, X'. Trans, by Stewart and Long. Bell, London. 1880-1882. 4 vols. Polybius, Histories. Trans, by Shuckburgh. Macmillan, London. 1889. 2 vols. Records of the Past. Trans, of the Assyrian and Egyptian monuments. Ed. by Birch. Bagster, London. 12 vols. New Series. Ed. by Sayce. 6 vols.
Plato, Dialogues. Trans, by Jowett. The Republic. Trans, by Jowett.
^ohin&OYi., ].\l... Readings in Eu7'opean History. Ginn, Boston. 1904,1906. 2 vols. Sacred Books of the East. Ed. by Max Miiller. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1S791904. 50 vols. St.Axigu&X.me,TheCityofGod. Trans. by Dods. Clark, Edinburgh. 1S88. 2voIs. Tacitus, Works. Oxford translation. Bell, London. 1886, 1887. 2 vols. Thallon, L C, Readings in Greek Histoiy. Ginn, Boston. 1914. Thucydides. Trans, by Jowett. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1900. 2 vols. Translations and Reprints. Department of History of the University of Penn-
sylvania.
Webster, H., Readijigs in Ancient History. Heath, Boston. 1913. Xenophon, Anabasis and Hellenica. Trans, by Daykins. Macmillan, London.
4 vols.
INDEX
AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY
Note. In the case of words whose correct pronunciation has not seemed be clearly indicated by their accentuation and syllabication, the sounds of the letters have been denoted thus a, like a in gray a, like a, only less prolonged a, like a in have; a, like a in/ar; a, like a in al/; e, like ee in meet;
to
: ; ;
e,
I,
like
i,
e,
;
like e in
&a';
e,
like e in
Here
e,
like e in err;
like ;
in/r^;
in nSt
;
i,
like
mpiii
5, like o in
;
note;
6, like o,
;
o, like o
u, like
u in j?
have in
j;
fi,
oo, like oo in moon 66, like oo French ii and 5 have the same sound as the same position e and eh, hke / 9, like g, like g in get
;
o, like o in Srb
yw^
ii,
like the
j-
would g, hke
g,
like z; ch, as in
German
ri
ach
G {small
capital) as in
German Hamburg;
like ni in
minion
ng
in song.
.^milianus.
See Scipio
Academy,
the, at
/E ne'as, 126, 357 /R 6'li ans, the, 120 early settlements in Asia Minor, 136 ^oHs (e'6 hs), 136
;
enemies of Rome,
A chiries,
125 See Agrigentum Acropohs, the, at Athens, 177 ings on, 2:9
Aetius
(ae'shius),
Roman
general,
Ac'ra gas.
495
;
"
build-
j'E to'li
an League, 270
125, 126 See Public lands
Ag a mem'non,
A'gerpiiblims.
Actium
(ak'shi um), battle of, 439 dri an o'ple, battle near (378 A.D.),
487
iE'gae, 251 n. i yfigatian (e ga'shi an) battle near, 388
Islands, naval
ra, the, 334 Agrarian law of Tiberius Gracchus, 410 A gric'o la in Britain, 459 Agrigen'tum founded, 169
Ag'o
./Egean term,
j'E
civilization,
128-137;
;
the
Ag rip pi'na,
455
how
used, 13S n. 2
relation
Greek culture, 136 ge'an Sea, islands in, 117 gi'na, island, 292 n. i jE gis'thus, 126 jE gos pot'a ml, capture of Athenian fleet at, 238
to classical
Ah'ri man, 102 A hu'ra Maz'da, 102 Alaric, his first invasion of Italy, 489; wrings ransom from Rome, 491 sacks Rome, 491 his death, 492
; ;
574
INDEX
;
Al 5! bl'a des, personal traits, 233 speech in favor of the Sicilian Expedition, 235 charged with mutilation of the Herma5, 236 n. 6 his recall to Athens, 236 his flight and counsel to the Spartans, 236 his recall, 238 is deposed from his command, 238
;
his
youth and
accession to the throne, 256; decrosses the stroys Thebes, 257 at the battle of Hellespont, 257 cuts the Gorthe Granicus, 257 dian knot, 258 n. i at the battle of at the siege of Tyre, Issus, 258 258 in Egypt, 258 at Arbela, 259 at Babylon and PersepoHs, 259; in Bactria and Sogdiana, 260 in India, his speech to 261 his plans, 262 mutinous soldiers at Opis, 263 his death, 263 results of his conquests, 264 partition of his empire, 268 Alexandria in Egypt founded, 258 Alexandria in India founded, 261
; ; ;
;
Andalusia (an da lu'shi a), origin of the name, 493 Angles, See Anglo-Saxons Anglo-Saxons, invade Britain as setthe " Heptarchy," 530 tlers, 494 their conversion, 534 Anshan (an'shan), in Elam, 95 An tal'ji das. Peace of, 243 n. 4 An tig'o lie, 309 Antioch, 276 An ti'o chus III (the Great), king of Syria, 398 An tip'a ter, 269 An to nj'nus Pi'us, Roman emperor, 465 Antony, Mark, the triumvir, delivers funeral oration over Caesar's body, opposed by Octavius, 437 437
;
enters the Second Triumvirate, 438 his revels with Cleopatra, 439 at the battle of Actium, 439, 440; his death, 440
;
A pel'le^,
Aph ro
of,
314-
at Cnidus,
AU
A pol'lo,
370
Al pac'a, 1 1 n. 3 Alphabet, the Semitic, origin of, 14; disseminated by the Phoenicians, 90 Al phe'us, river, 117 Altamira (al ta me'ra), 4 n. a Ambrose, bishop, 488 A men ho'tep IV, 30, 31 Amos, Hebrew prophet, 82 Am phic'ty o ny,'The, 1 50. See Sacred wars Amphitheaters, spectacles of, arranged by Augustus, 448 the Flavian, 505; shows of, 520-522 Am'y tis, 76 n. i A nac're on or A na'cre on, lyric poet, 174, 305 An ax ag'o ras, 221, 319 A nax i man'der, 318 n. 2 An ax im'e nes, 318 n. 2 Ancestor worship, among the Chinese, 113; among the Romans, 344 Anchi'se^, 126 Ancus Martins (an'cus mar'shius), king of Rome, 353
;
his oracle at Delphi, 146; the patron of colonies, 147 Appian "Way. See Via Appius Claudius. See Claudius Apulia, 337 A'quas! Sex'ti 9e, battle of, 415 n. 1 Aqueducts, Roman, 507 Aquileia (a kwe la'ya), 467 Arabia Pe tree'a, Roman province, 463 ^ and note Ar'abj. See Mohammedanism
58
Achaean
4
115
of,
Roman emperor
115 of the
East, 488
326 Architecture, Babylonian, 53, 76; Egyptian, 44 Persian, 105 Greek, 284-290 Roman, 503 Archohs at Athens, 178 re op'a gus, council of the, 178
; ;
INDEX
A'rej, 144
S75
115
the Clisthe-
Athenian Empire, outgrowth of the Delian League, 208, 209 strength and weakness of, 223
;
tyranni-
Ar is toph'anes, comic
poet, 310
Ar'is tot le, life and works, 323-324 Ar'i us, 482 n. 2 Ar roin'i us defeats Varus at the
Athenians, the, their part in the burning of Sardis, 191 Galton's remarks on, 224 n. I Athens, relation of, to villages and towns of Attica, 177; history of, under kings, 177; history of, up to the Persian wars, 177-186; monarchy transformed into an oligarchy, 178; classes at, 179; abandoned by Athenians, 202 Ijurned by the Persians, 203 rebuilding of, after the Persian wars, 207 in the Periclean Age, 212-224; ''sr fall (404]!. c), 238; Thirty Tyrants _ at, 240 as a university city, 271 A'thos or Ath'os, Mount, destruction of Persian fleet at, 193; canal at, cut by Xerxes, 198
; ; ; ; ;
At
lan'tis,
island
of,
Egyptian tradition
Amo
concerning, 137 n. 2 At'talus III, king of Pergamum, bequeaths his kingdom to the Roman people, 418 Attica, central point of Greek history, 115; consolidation of the villages of, 177; the four so-called ten new Attic tribes, 184 n. i
;
n.
1.
See Indo-Europeans Asia, Roman province of, 418, 419 Asia Minor, migrations to, of Greeks,
..
Attic ;tribes formed by Clisthenes, 184 n." I Atticus Herodes (at'i kus he ro'dez),
469
At'ti la, leader of the
Huns,
;
his deItaly,
127, 136
pal, 68
;
As shur ban'i
invades
excavations
52; politi-
of,
Augur, birds of, 387 Augurs, College of, 351 Augustus Caesar. See Octavian Aurelian, emperor, 472, 473; constructs new wall around Rome,
473
nI
among
the
Babylonians,
Au re'li us,
reign,
Astronomy,
among the Egyptians, among the Babylonians, 62 45 among the Greeks, 326
;
515 Aus'pi ces, taking of the, 351 taken by means of sacred fowls, 387
Athanasius (ath ana'shius), 482 n. 2 Athe'na, goddess, 144; statue of, by Phidias, 294, 295
576
;
INDEX
Cser'i tan rights,
; ;
Babylonia, geology, 49 productions, 49 remains of its cities, 53 excavations and discoveries in, 53 becomes part of Persian Empire, 77 Babylonian Empire, Old, political history, 52; civilization, 53-62. See
;
the, 60
by Alexander,
373 n. 2 Caesar, Augustus. See Octavian Caesar, Gains. See Caligula Caesar, Gains Julius, in the SuUan in the First proscAption, 422 consul, 430 Triumvirate, 429 assigne<l as proconsul to Gallic provinces, 43c campaigns in Gaul, 430 invades Britain, 430 results of his Gallic wars, 431 rivalry with
; ; ;
;
cJo chis tan'), 262 Barbarians, German, movements in the last century of the Roman Empire, 486-501 the so-called barbarian kingdoms, 527-53 1 conversion, 532-535 fusion with Latins, 543their codes, 545 547 Barca. See Hamilcar
;
;
433
Pompey, 432 crosses the Rubicon, civil war between him and Pompey, 433 defeats Pharnaces, 433 as an uncrowned king, 434
;
;
Barrack emperors,
the,
470
Be
his tun'
Bel i sa'ri Be'ma, the Athenian, 178 n. 2 Ben e ven'tum, battle of, 378 Be ro'sus, 314 Bi'as, 317 n. i Bithynia (bi thin'i a), 418 n. 2 Bee p'ti a, 1 1
as a statesman, 434 his assassination, 436; his literary works, 514 Caesariop (se za're on), 439 Cairo (kVro), university at, 557 Ca la'bri a, 337 Calendar, Egyptian, 46; Babylonian, 62 Julian, 435 Gregorian, 435 n. 2 Calig'uja, Roman emperor, 454
; ; ;
Ca'liphs, 554 11. I dismemberment of the caliphate, 555 Cal lic'ra tej, architect, 219
;
117
507
Brah'ma, 108
79 events
after,
394 Can u
con;
le'i
Cap'i to line
494
Hill,' 350 Ca'pre ae, island, 453 Cap'u a, revolts from Rome, 394 Hannifial's winter quarters, 394 n. i; fall of,
Age
of,
8 n.
395
um, 337
Car
a cal'la,
Roman
emperor, reign,
Brutus, Marcus, 436 Buddha (boo'da), 108 Buddhism, 108; in China, 113 Burgundians establish kingdom southeastern Gaul, 493
471
in
Burrhus, 456 Bu sen ti'nus, river, 492 Byzantium (bi zan'shium), founding of, 166. See Constantinople
Cad'mus, 122
Cas're, gives
,
tals,
370
Carloman, king of the Franks, 559 n. 2 Car ma'ni a, 262 empire of, Carthagfe, founded, 89 compared 382 government, 382 navy at with Rome, 382-384 beginning of Punic wars, 3S4; Truceless War, 390; prosperous condition just before Third Funic War, 403 destruction, 404 Carthaginians, their empire in Spain, unpromising character of 390 their civilization, 405
;
INDEX
Cas
si o do'rus, 528 n. i Cassiterides (kas i ter'i dez), the. S^^ Scilly Islands Cas'sius, Gaius, conspirator, 436; death, 439 Caste, Hindu system of, 107 growth
; ;
577
Roman Empire, 477 Catacombs, 479 Cathay (kath a'). Ste China Cat i li'na, Lu'ci us Ser'gi us, spiracy of, 428
of, in
classes, 460 under Trajan, 463 martial spirit enters the Church, 480 made in effect state religion by Coflstantine, 481 effects upon, of imperial patronage, 482 one of the ipost vital elements in the
; ; ;
heresy and
idolatry suppressed by Theodosius and Gratian, 487 ; represents a new morat force, 488 influence in sup;
Catiline.
Sen Catilina
Cato, 401
(the Censor), counsels the destruction of Carthage, 403 Cato, Marcus Porcius (the Younger), his suicide, 433
;
Marcus Porcius
poet, 511 Cat'u lus, C. Lutatius, consul, 388 Cayster (ka is'ter), river, 93 Qe cro'pi a, 122 (|)e'rops, 122 ^elt 1 be'ri ans, 544 Censors, creation of office, 369 functions and duties, 369 Century, unit of Roman military organization, 355 ^e phis'sus, stream, 117 -Chaer o ne'a, battle of, 253 -hal ^id'i 9e, the name, 165; relation to Slacedonia of colonies in, 165 -Ghal'jis, colonies of, on Macedonian shore, 165
tul'lus,
Ca
pressing the gladiatorial combats, 490; among the German races, 532reaction upon, of Teutonic 535 barbarism, 535. See Christians Christians, the persecution of, under Nero, 456 under Domitian, 460 under Marcus Aurelius, 467 motives of persecutions, 467 persecutions under Diocletian, 479;
; ;
status
under
Julian,
484
;
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, his prosecution of Verres, 425 J'irsi Oration against Catiline, 428 his death,
;
letters,
513; as an orator,
(j;im'bri, the,
414
^imon, son
Cin cin
Cinna.
Circus, Cir'cus
of Miltiades, 210 na'tus, legend of, 363 See Cornelius games of the, 352 Max'i mtis, description, 505
Cirrha
(sir'a),
destroyed by Amphicprivileges
of,
Chaldean Empire, the, 7578 Chaldeans, early home, 75 n. i ChSlons (sha lofi'), battle of, 494 Champollion (sham pol'i on), 36 Charlemagne (shar'le man), accession, 559; wars, 560; restores the Empire in the West, 560
Roman,
;
Che Hwang-te
nese ruler, Ghe'ops, 27
no
Chilo (krio), 317 n. i China, early history, no Chinese, writing, 103 literature, 112 competitive examinations, 112 Chinese Wall, the, no -hr6s, island, 1 18 Chlodwig. See Clovis Christ, birth, 450; crucifixion, 453 preached, 453 first Christianity, gains adherents from the higher
; ;
347 -rights bestowed in installGaius Gracchus proments, 347 poses that Latins be made citizens, 412; demanded by the Italians, 416; secured by Italians as result of the Social War, 416; Caesar's liberality in conferring, upon provinconferred by Caracalla cials, 435 upon all free inhabitants of the Empire, 472 City-state, the Greek, 140-142; Rome
;
as a, 346 Clan. See Gens Claudius, Roman emperor, reign, 454; admits Gallic nobility to Roman Senate, 454; conquest of Britain,
Claudius, Appms, decemvir, 366 Claudius, Appius (C^cus), 378 Claudius, Publius, consul, 3S7
455
578
Cle ar'chus, a general
of
INDEX
the
Ten
a nonrepresen-^
Comitia
iribiita,
362
n.
the, 354
of
the
Roman
dus, Roman emperor, reign, 470 Confucianism, 112 Confucius, Chinese sage, iii Co?imtbium- See Jits Constantine the Great, reign, 480484 defeats Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge, 480 makes the cross his standard, 480 grants tolera-
Com'mo
.
murdered
by
Alexander,
260 n. 2, 261 Cly tem nes'tra, wife of Agamemnon, 126 Clo S'ca Max'i ma, 353 Clovis, king of the Franks, 529 his conversion, 533 Cnossus (nos'us), Cretan city, 131,
;
tion to Christians, 481 recognizes the Sabbath as a day of rest, 482 summons Council of Nicaea, 482
;
founds Constantinople, 483 Constantine VI, 560 Constantinople, founded, 483 besieged by the Saracens, 554 Consuls, first chosen, 360 original powers, 360 immunity from prosecution, 360 authority restricted
; ; ;
;
by the Lex
Valeria, 361
term- of
office -shortened,
i
444
n.
Co
lo'ni,
478
n.
Colonies,
Greek: causes
162
;
colonization,
the mother city, in Chalcidice, 165; on 163 n. I the Hellespont, the Propontis, and the Bosphorus, 165 in the Euxine region, 166; on the Ionian Islands, 167; in southern Italy, 168; in Sicily and southern Gaul, 169; in North Africa and Egypt, 170 place of, in Grecian history, 170 Colonies, Latin why so called, 380 rights of colonists, 380 status of settlers in, compared to that of settlers in a territory of the United States, 380 number of, at time of Second Punic War, 381 influence of, in spreading Roman culture, 381 Colonies, Roman, rights and privi; ; ;
: ;
Cor9y'ra, city, founded, 167; quarrel with Corinth, 226 Corcyra, island, 118 Cor'do va, 557
Cor fin'ium, 416 Corinth, Greek council at, in 481 B.C., 199; quarrel with Corcyra, 226;
congress convened at, by Philip of Macedon, 276; destroyed by the Romans, 400 Corinth, Listhmus of, 115
Corinthia, description
of, 115 Corinthian War, 243 n. 4 Corn, free distribution of, at Rome,
Cornelius Cinna, Lucius, consul, 421 Co roe'buS, victor at Olympia, 147 Cor'pus Ju'ris Civi'lis, 517
Corsica,"'3S9 Crassus," Marcus
Licinius,
;
leges, 379
defeats
of,
266 Col OS se'um, 458, 505 Colossus of Rhodes, 273 Comitia (ko mish'i a) centuriata, outgrowth of Servian reforms, 356
the gla'diators, 424 n. i his great wealth,,429 enters the First Triumvirate, 430 his Parthian campaign, 472 his death, 472 Cre mo'na, Roman colony, 390 Crete, in Greek legend, 122-124
; ;
INDEX
Cris'sa,
Crit'i as,
S79
oracle, the, 145-147;
;
destroyed by Amphictyons,
Delphian
coninflu;
its
^ Cu
between Cyrus
;
its
decipher-
colonization, 147 attitude in the Persian wars, 199; message to the Athenians at the time of the Persian wars, 202 oracle given Spartans at beginning of Peloponnesian
its
;
Greek
War, 227
346; number of curiae
Rome, 346
Cu
Deme (dem), the Attic, 184 n. De me'ter, goddess, cult of, 144
i
n. 1,
477 Curiatii (ku ri a'shi T), 358 (Jy ax'a rej, king of the Medes, 95 5yc-la des, the, 117
ri a'les,
n.
De mos'the
237
pics,
nes,
Athenian
admiral,
Cyclopes (si klo'pez), the, 144 n. 2 ^y'lon, rebellion of, 179 n. i ^yn'ics, the, 324 ^yn OS 9eph'a 1^, battle of, 398 (Jyr e na'i ca, 170 ^y re'ne, founded, 170; brought under Persian rule, 189 bequeathed
;
Demosthenes, the
to Rome, 418 n. 2 Qyrfipcedta, the, of Xenophon, 312 Cyrus the Great, 95-97 Cyrus the Younger, 240
reduced to a province by Trajan, 462 Daedalus (de'da lus or ded'a lus), legendary architect, 124 Dam'o cleg, story of, 249 n. i Darius I, reign, 97-99; reorganizes the empire, 98 conquests in Europe, i8g; first expedition against Greece, 192; second expedition, 193-19S David, king, 80 Da'tis, Persian general, 193 De^ e le'a, its occupation urged on the Spartans by Alcibiades, 238 effects upon Athens of its occupation by the Spartans, 238
Dacia
;
253; his death, 269; his Oration on ike Crown, 313 Den ta'tus, Manius Curius, 402 Di cas'te ries, Athenian, description of, 207 method of fixing penalty, 243 n. 2 Dictator, his powers, 360 how nominated, 360 term first made indefinite in Sulla's case, 423 Dioceses (dl o se'sez), 477 n. i DT cle'tian, Roman emperor, reign, 475-479 persecution of the Chris;
;
tians, '479
Dl DI DI
do'rus Sic'u lus, 315 og'e neg, the Cynic, 324 nys'i us I, tyrant of Syracuse, 248 Dionysius II (the Younger), 249
DIony'sus, 144 11.2; Theater Athens, 289 Dis cob'o lus, the, 293
of, at
Do
do'na, oracle
1
at,
146
n.
Domestication,
plants,
of
animals,
10
of
Domitian,
Roman
emperor,
reign,
Decelean War,
the,
238
Do mi til'la,
136
459
De
cem'virs,
first
;
second, 366 overthrow, 366 De la'tors, 452 Delian League. See Delos, Confederacy of De'IOs, Confederacy of, its formation, transformed into an empire 208 by the Athenians, 208 Delos, island, 117
;
460 Dorian invasion, the, legend of, 127 Dorians, conquer the Peloponnesus,
Do ris'cus,
Dowry
plain of, 200 of the dead, 6; in ancient Egypt,, 41 Draco, his code, 179 Drama, the Attic, origin of, 306 leading idea of Greek tragedy,
37
58o
Dravidians, the, io6 n. 2 Dru'sus, Marcus Livius,
INDEX
E tru'ri a,
tribune,
;
416
n. 2
Du il'i us,
Ec
at Mvlas, 385,
cle'ji a,
386
Athens,
in
to,
at
earliest
location, 337 southern part Romanized, 369, 370 E trus'cans, their early civilization, 339 decline of their power, 370 Euboe'a, island, 108 Eu'clid, the mathematician, 326 Eu'menej II, king of Pergamum,
;
276
n-.
Thetes admitted
by Solon,
Eumenides
180; in the Age of Pericles, 214 Education, Chinese, 112; Greek, 329; Roman, 518; Spartan, 159 Egbert, king of Wessex, 531 Egypt, geology, 23 ; Delta of the Nile, 23; climate and products, 24; Prehistoric Age in, 25; the thirty-one dynasties, 25; Old King-
(0 men'I dez), the, 144 Eu'patrids, the, at Athens, 179 Euphrates, valley of the, 48
n. 2
Eu Eu
116
colonies
Euxine
on,
1
Sfea (uk'sin),
Greek
66
trade
of, 1
Evans, Arthur
J., at
66 Cnossus, 131
under the Ptolemies, 278 under the Romans, 440 conquered by the
tribution to civilization, 46
;
Arabs, 554
Festivals.
Fetiales.
the, 144 n.
games
;
i,
MS
Lord, 294 11. I Elijah, the prophet, 82 E'lis, description of, 116 ^lisha, the prophet, 82 Elysium (8 lizh'i um), 144 ped'o cleg, 319 n. 2 E pam i non'das, at Leuctra, 244 ravages Laconia, 245 his death, 246 Eph'e sus, 192 Eph i al'tej, Greek statesman, 212 n. i Ephialtes, Greek traitor, 202 Eph'ors, the, at Sparta, 156, 157 Ep ic te'tus, the Stoic, 515 Ep i cu'rus. School of, at Athens, 272; doctrines, 324 E pi'rus, district of, 114 Equites (ek'wT tez), 412 n. i Er a tos'the nes, geographer, 326 Er'e bus, 145 Er ech the'um, the, 220 E re'tri a, destroyed by the Persians, 193 Eridu (a'ridoo), city, 49 Erinyes (e rin'iez), the, 144 n. 2 E'ros, 144 n. 2 E sar had'don T, 68 n. i
(el'gin).
methods of
Elgin
fire-making, 9 Fire-worshipers.
See Zoroastrianism
i
Flam'ines, 352 n.
Flam
nl'nus,
Roman
general, 398
Em
Forum,
ransoms
Future
with steel, 371 doctrine of, Egyptian, 39; Babylonian, 58; Hebrew, 85;
life,
Rome
Greek, 151
Galsii, 374 n. i Ga'dej, 89 Gaius, jurist, 517 Gaius Cassar, See Caligula Gal'Ii a Gis al pi'na, geographical situation, 337 origin of name, 337 Galton, quoted, 224 n. i Gaul, conquest of, by Cassar, 430; results of the Gallic wars, 431 Romapization of, 431. See Gauls
;
INDEX
Gauls, their invasion of Greece, 269 early settlement in North Italy, 337 sack Rome, 370; victory over the Romans near the Allia, 370; Rome's
;
581
(ha'dez), 143
Hades
war with, between First and Second Punic wars, 389 Gau'ta ma. See Buddha Gaza, reduced by Alexander, 258
Gedrosia [ge dro'shi a), 262 Geiseric (gi'zer ik). Vandal leader, 496 Gens (clan), the, among the Greeks, 141 n. 2 in early Rome, 346 Gen'ser ic. See Geiseric Geometry, science of, among the Egyptians, 46
. ;
Germans. See Barbarians Gideon, Hebrew "Judge," 79 Gil'ga mesh. Epic of, 60 Gladiatorial combats, given by Augustheir suppression, 490 448 attitude of Christians towards, 490
tus,
;
;
Hadrian, emperor, reign, 463-465 Hadrian Wall in Britain, 464 Hal i car nas'sus, mausoleum at, 289 Ha'lys, river, 91, 96 Ha mil'car Barca, Carthaginian general, 390 Hamites, 19 Hammurabi (ham moo rii'be), Babylonian king, 52 his code, 60-62 Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 76 n. i Hannibal, as a youth, 391 attacks Sagurjtum, 391 marches from Spain, 392 passage of the Alps, in Italy, 393-396 his death, 392 396 n. I Har mo'di us, the Athenian tyranni;
;
cide, 183
by
Xerxes, sent back by Alexander, 259 Ha rils'pi 963, art of the, 350 Has'dru 6al, brother of Hannibal, in Spain, 395; at the Metaurus, 395 Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar,
391
Hatti, royal city of the Hittites, 91 He'be, 144 n. 2
Go
Granl'cus, battle of the, 257 Grecian games, influence of, 149 Greece, homeland of the Hellenes, 114; divisions of, 114-116; mountains of, 117; rivers and lakes of, 117; islands round, 117; climate and productions of, 118; influence of land upon the people, 119; oriental settlers in, 120 Greeks, their legends, 121-127; inheritance of, 140-153; religious ideas and institutions, 143-151 their mytholtheir language, 151
; ;
Hebrews, the, in Egypt, 79 the Exodus, 79 Patriarchal Age, 79 Age of the "Judges," 79; founding reign of of the monarchy, 80 David, 80; reign of Solomon, 80; division of the monarchy, 81 King;
;
dom
of Israel, 81, 82
;
Kingdom
; ;
of
literature, S3 reliJudah, 81, 82 ideal of gion and morality, 84 universal peace, 84 ideas of the future life, 85 Hector, son of Priam, 125 Hegira (hejl'ra), the, 552 Hel'en, wife of Menelaus, 125 He li ffi'a, the, 217 n. 3
;
'
gy' ' 52 their early literature, 152; their early art, 153. See Hellenes
;
Hel'i con. Mount, 117 Hel'las, term defined, 114 Hellenes (hel'enz), divisions of, 113, 114; Greece proper their homeland, 114; influence of land upon,
119. See Greeks Hellenistic culture, 266-268 Hel'les pont, the, bridged by Xerxes,
Gregory
II, Pope, 541 Grotefend (gro'te fend), 57 n. i Guadalquivir (gwa dal ke ver'),
river,
556
Gy lip'pus.
Gymnastic
influence
upon
sculp-
198 He'lots, the, at Sparta, 155; jnassacre of, by Spartans, 155 n. j He phass'ti on, 263 n. 2
58z
INDEX
Ide'ogi'ams defined, 13
Iliad, subj ect of the,
1
He
phecs'tus, 144
26. See
Homeric
poems
Il'i OS.
I lis'sus,
Imperator, the
India,
title,
early history,
in,
443 106-110;
;
con-
Hermann.
See Arminius
Her'mej, 144 Hermits, 536 Her'mus, river, 93 Herodes, Atticus. See Atticus Herodes
311 Hesiod (he'shiod), 137, 304 Hes'ti a, 144 Ili'e ro II, tyrant of Syracuse, 385 Hieroglyphics, Egyptian, 36; decitus, 220,
lona
(e 6'na),
monastery, 534
136; cities
of,
He rod'o
subjected
reduced
36, 37 n. 2
of,
205
n.
Hip par'ehus, astronomer, 327 Hipparchus, Athenian tyrant, 183 driven from Athens, Hip'pi as, 183 184 goes to Susa, 185 guides the Persians to Marathon, 193 Hip'po, 8g
;
;
suppression against Persians, igi of the revolt, 192; at the end of the Ionian revolt, 192 Ionian Islands, the, 118 lonians, settlements of, in Asia Minor, 136. See Ionia Iran (e ran'), plateau of, 95
Irene
I'ris,
(I
144 n. 4
Hip
His
poc'ra
I soc'ra te,
Greek
orator, 313 n.
;
sar'lik,
excavations
Kingdom
of,
82
258 Isthmian games, the, 148 Italian allies, status before the Social
Is'sus, battle of,
Italians,
Italy,
303
Ho
emperor, 488 suppresses gladiatorial games, 490 Horace, poet, 512 Horatii (ho ra'shiT), 358 Horatius Codes (ko'klcz), 358 Horatius, Marcus, consul, 367 Hortensian Law, 372 n. 2
no'ri us,
Roman
I tal'i ca.
337
;
mountain
;
sys-
tem, 338
rivers,
habitants, 339
379
Ja nic'ulum, 358
Ja'nus,
Ilortensius (horten'shi us), jurist, 513 Ho'rus, Egyptian deity, 38 n. 2 Hosea, Hebrew prophet, 82 Hos tiri us, TuUus, king of Rome, 353 Huns, drive Goths across the Danube,
486 defeated at Chdlons, 494 Hyk'sos, the, 29 Hy met' tus. Mount, T17
;
Japanese, the, racial relationship, 18 Jason, legendary prince of Thessaly, 124 Jealousy of the gods, doctrine of, 150 Jeph'thah, Hebrew hero, 79
Jeroboam, 81
INDEX
Jerusalem, taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 75, 82; taken by Pompey, 427;
583
;
taken by Titus, 458 Jews, revolt of, in reign of the emperor Hadrian, 465. See Jerusalem
and Hebrews
Josephus, historian, 84 Jovian, Roman emperor, 484 Juda!h, Kingdom of, 81, 82
Latins, ethnic relationship, 341 revolt of Latin towns in 340 B.C., 375; how treated by Rome after the Latin War, 376 Latium (la'shium), 337; before the rise of Rome, 342 Lau'ri um, silver mines at, 197 n. i
;
revenue from, used by the Athenians for building a navy, 197 n. i La vin'ium, 357 Lebanon, Mount, 87 Legion, Roman, its normal strength
Judgment
Rome, 413
and
tactical
formation
in
early
times,^3S5
Jus,_auxiHi, of the plebeian tribune, 363 commercii, defined, 347 connubii, defined, 347 /tonontm, defined, 347 provocaiioiLis, defined, sujfragii, defined, 347 en347 joyed by plebeians in early Rome, imaginum, defined, 368 348 Justin Martyr, 467
; ;
; ;
Lem'nos, island, 118 Lenormant (leh nor moh'), quoted, 44 Leo the Great, Pope, turns Attila back, 495 intercedes for Rome with Geiseric, 496 Leo the Isaurian, Eastern emperor,
;
541
561
Justinian, Eastern emperor, his code,517; era of, 548; reign, 548-549
Sparta, at Thermopylae, 201, 202 Lepidu^, Marcus yErailius, the triumvir, 437> 438. 439 Les'bos, island, 118; settled by .Cohans, 136 Leuc'tra, battle of, 243-245 Lex Julia Municipalise 435 n. I Licinian Laws, 371 Lictors, attendants of the Roman king, 346 consular, 360 Li gu'ri a, 337 Egyptian, Literature, Assyrian, 71 36; Babylonian, 57, 60; Hebrew, 83, 84; Chinese, 112; Greek, 302; ;
Juvenal,
satirist,
513
Kaaba
Kheta
(ka'ba), 551
of,
Kar'nak, Temple
(ke'ta).
30
See Hittites
name
of largest
mound
at
Nine-
veh, 70, 71
Lab'a rum, the, 480 n. 2 Labyrinth (lab'i rinth), Cretan, 123, 124 epithet La9 e da^'mon, descriptive hollow, 116 Lacedsemonians. See Spartans La co'ni a, geography of, 116 classes ravaged by .Epaminondas, in, 1 54
; ;
n. 3 Italy,
530
king
Pope, 530
Charles
53
245
Long
n.
Language, formation
of,
12
Laocoon
(la oc'o on), the, 298 La're, cult of, prohibited, 487 Latin colonies. See Colonies Latin League, in earliest times, 342
their demolition by the Peloponnesians, =39 Lu ca'ni a, 337 Lucretius (lu cre'shi us), poet, 511 Lu cul'lus, Lucius Licinius, 427 n. i
&^
Latins
Lusitanians, 406
584
INDEX
Medes,
tlie, 95 Medicine, science of, among the Egyptians, 46 among the Greeks, 327 Medina (ma de na), 553 Me'los, taken possession of, by the Athenians, 232 Memphis, in Egypt, 27 Me nan'der, 310 n. 2 Mencius (men'shlus), Chinese sage,
;
Ly
cur'gus, legend of, 156 conquered Lydia, the land, 93 Cyrus the Great, 96 import this for Greece, 96
;
;
by
of
Ly Ly
san'der, Spartan general, captures Athenian fleet at ^^gospotami, 238 Lys'ias, Athenian orator, 313 n. i
sip'pus, sculptor, 297
112
Men
Mac'ca bees, the, 82, 277 Macedonia, submits to Darius, 181 under Philip II, 251-255; its rulers,
251
;
e la'Us, 125
Me'nes,
'^
its
population,
251
after
Macedonian War,
;
First, 398 n. i Second, 398 Third, 399 je'nas, patron of literature, 447 Magna Grtecia, the name, 16S colo;
Mer'ne ptah, 32 Merovingians, Prankish kings, 529 Mesopotamia, the name, 48 n. i Mes sa'ria, Greek colony, 161 Mes se'ne, founding of, by Epami-
Mx
Mes
nies
of,
168,
169;
cities I of
quered by Dionysius
248
of, conSyracuse,
physical character116 Mes se'ni an wars, 160 MessSnians, liberation of, by Epaminondas, 245
istics,
Magnesia
(mag ne'shi
a),
battle
of,
Metals,
Age
of, 7
;
399 Ma'go, brother of Hannibal, 394 Man'e the, 25, 314 Manlius, Titus, consul, opposes de-
a turnre-
Ml
le'tus,
colonies
of,
in
Euxine
mands
Mantine'a, battle of (363 i). c), 246 Mar'a thon, battle of, 193-195; results
of,
195
cel'lus,
Marcus Claudius, Roman general, 395 Mar CO man'ni, the, 467 Mar do'ni us, Persian general, 193,
Mar
gion, 466; fall of, 191, 192 Mil ti'a de, in command at Marathon, 195 Milvian Bridge, battle at, 480 Min o'an, the term, how used, 135 n. 2 Mi'nos, .king of Crete, founder of
20.3,
204
Ma'ri us, Gaius, in Jugurthine War, 414; destroys the Cimbri and Teutons, 414; contends with Sulla for command against Mithradates, 420 massacres the is proscribed, 421 aristocrats, 421 Mars, Roman god of war, 350 Marsic War. See Social War
;
maritime empire, 122 Min'o taur, the, 123, 132 Mith ra da'tes VI (the Great), king of Pohtus, 418; his characteristics, 419; orders massacre, of Italians invades Europe, 420; in Asia, 420
;
Mohammed, 551-553
Mohammedanism,
its
teachings, 553
Mas i nis'sa, 403 Mas sa'li a, founded, 169 Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, 289
se'no), 536
Mau
Moses, Hebrew lawgiver, 79 Mucius Scsevola (sev'o la), 359 Mulvian Bridge. See Milvian Bridge Mun'da, battle 'of, 434 n. i
INDEX
-Municipal system, Roman, 373-375; the Lex Julia Municipalis, 435 n. I.
See Mitnicipla
58s
a),
destruction
406
of lose self-government
under later emperors, 477, 499 Myc'a le, battle of, 204 Myce'nae, seat of prehistoric race,
116, 130, 136
Obelisks, Egyptian, 44 Octavian, Gains, opposes Antony, enters the Second Trium437 virate, 438; at the battle of Actium, 439, 440 character of his
;
Mycenae'an
civilization,
use of term,
^' S^^ ."ligean civilization 135 My'lse, naval battle near, 385 My'ron, sculptor, 293 Myt i le'ne, revolt of, 230
"
government, 442 his reign, 442450; reforms the administration of the provinces, 445 literature and
; ;
o nfdus, king of Babylon, 78 las'sar, 75 Naples, 339 Nar bo nen'sis, Gothic province, 414 Nau'cra tis, founded, 170 Nax'os secedes from the Delian League, 209 Ne ap'6 lis, 169 Ne ar'chus, Alexander's admiral, 262 Neb u chad nez'zar II, 75-77 Ne'cho II, 34 Negative Confession, the, in Egyptian theology, 4244 Ne'roe a, 148
Nab
Nabo po
See
Homeric poems
CEd'i pits at Colonus, 309
Olym'pi.a, location
of,
116; national
;
temple of
excavation
of
i
lym'pi ad. First, 147; mode designating dates by, 148 n. Olympian Council, the, 144
Ne me'an
Nem'e
sis,
Olympian games,
n. 2
;
doc-
Greek tragedy, 233 n. i, 307 Ne o lith'ic Age, 6 Nero, Roman emperor, reign, 455, 456 Nerva, .Roman emperor, 461 Nes'tor, 125 Ni 9as'a. Church council at, 482 Nicias (nish'i as or nij'i as), Athenian
trine of, in
the, 147 revival of, influence upon* Greek 149 n. I sculpture, 149, 291 lym'pus. Mount, 117
;
;
Omar,
Oracles among the Greeks. See Delphian oracle Oratory, Greek, 312-313; Roman, 513 Ordeals, 545 Orders of Greek architecture, 284 Or'mazd. See Ahura Mazda
in Sicily, 237
his
sl'ris,
Egyptian
deity, 37
Nicias, Peace of, 232 Nile, the. Delta ai, 23; First Cataract,
23
deposits
of,
23
n. 2
inunda-
tion, 24 Nin'e veh, decoration of, by Senpalace its fall, 68 nacherib, 66 mound at, 70, 7 r Royal Library
; ;
Othman,
O'tho,
Roman
emperor, 457
Otto
54; excava-
54
tor,
Pac
523
to'lus, river,
!
93
Pa'dus.
See
Po
SS6
Pse o'ni us, JVi'&e of, 295 Painting, Greek, 298-300 Pa le o lith'ic Age, 3-5
INDEX
Per i an'der, tyrant of Corinth, 173 Per'i cleg, opposes Cimon, 210; comes to the head of affairs in Athens,
210; hegotiates the Thirty Years'
Palmyra,
fall of,
473
Pansetius (pa ne'shi us), 273 Pan ath e nae'a, the Great, established by Pisistratus, 182 the Lesser, 182 n.
;
his posi-
Pan
tion at Athens, 213; his law limiting citizenship, 215; adorns Athens with public buildings, 218-220; funeral oration of, 227 ; his death,
230
Pericles, the Age of, 212-224 Per ice' ji, the, in Laconia, 154 Per seph'so ne, cult of, 144 n. i Per sep'o lis, structures at, 105
Pa
Papyrus paper, 36 n. i Par'a lus, Atjienian state ship, 238 Macedonian general, Par me'ni 5,
260 n. 2 Parnas'sus, Mount, 117 Pa'ros, marbles of, 119 (para'shlus), Parrhasius
painter,
de-
Greek
300
;
Parthenon, the, 219; treasure in, description of, 287 286 n. 2 sculptures of, 294 n. 1 Parthia, 276 n. 3
stroyed by Alexander, 260 Per'se us, king of Macedonia, 399 Persian Empire, political history of, 95-100; extent, 100; population, nature of government, loi loi cramp's the Greek world, 187-igo; wars with Greece, 191-206; conquered by Alexander the Great,
;
257-265
Persians, relation to the Medes, 95 literature and religion, 1 01- 104 Per'sius, poet, 513
Pe'tra, 463 n. i Pha'do, 322 Phalanxj Macedonian, of, 252 n. I
Pa sar'ga
da2,
97
Pa
ier fa mil'i as, power of, 344 Patricians in early Rome, 348
Pa
tro'clus, 125
Theban
25
origin
mil'i us,
consul,
393
Pharaoh
(fa'ro), title,
Paulus, Lucius ^milius, son of preceding, victor at Pydna, 399 Pau sa'ni as at Platsea, 204 n. i Pausanias, traveler and writer, 327 Pax Romana. See Roman Peace Pe'li on. Mount, 117 Pel'la, 251 n. i Pe lop'i das liberates Thebes, 244 Peloponnesian (pel o pon ne'shi an) League, 161
Phar'na cej, defeated by Caesar, 433 Pha'ros, the, at Alexandria, 278, 280,
281
Phar
sa'lus, battle of, 433 Phei'don, king of Argos, 161 n, 1 Phid'i as, his masterpieces, 293-295 Phi dip'pi des, Greek runner, 193 Philas, island, 23 n. i
Peloponnesian War, the, causes of, 226; events of, 227-239; results of, 239. See Contents Peloponnesus, the name, 114; conquered by the Dorians, 127
Pe'lops, fabled colonizer of the Pelo-
Philip II, king of Macedon, his youth, 252; his accession to the throne, his conquests in Chalcidice 252 and Thrace, 252 in the Second Sacred War, 253; his victory at Chseronea, 253 his plan to invade results Asia, 276 his death, 276 of his reign, 276
; ;
Phi
of,
lip'pl,
founded, 252 n.
i i
interdicted, 487
Pe
Phocians,
2 C2
in
Second
Sacred War,
Pentel'icus, Mount, 117 Per'ga mum [or Pergamus), center of Hellenistic culture, 274-276
INDEX
Phoenicia (fe nish'i a), the land, 87 products, 87 Phoenicians, their commerce, 88 colonies, 89 routes of trade, 90 n. i arts disseminated by, 90
;
; ;
587
Pompey, Gnse'us
(the Great), given against the pirates, 426 given: charge of war against Mith-
command
Phonograms
defined, 13 Phra'try, the, 140, 141 Pi ce'num, 337 Picts ravage province of Britain, 494
conquers Syria, 427 takes Jerusalem, 427 his triumph, 438 enters the First Triumvirate,
radates, 427
; ;
;
429, 430 rivalry between him and Caesar, 432 his death, 433 Pompey, Gnaeus, son of the preced; ;
Pindar, 305
ing.
434
n.
Pippin III, becomes king of the Franks, 55S makes donation of lands to the Pope, 559 Pi rse'us, the, fortified by Themistocles, 207 dismantled by the Peloponnesians, 239 Pirates, in the Mediterranean, 425 punished by Pompey, 426 Pi sis'tra tus, makes himself tyrant of Athens, 181 character of his rule,
; ; ;
n.
Pom
po''ni us,
517
Pontifex Maxinius^ 351 Pontiffs," College of, 351 Pontus, state in Asia Minor, 419 Popes. See Papacy
Po
Pes
182
Pistoria (pis to'ya), 429
Pit'ta cus,
317
n.
Placentia,
of,
Roman
battle
204
;
Potidas'a, Corinthian colony, 226; revolt of, against Athens, 226 Praetorian guard, created by Augustus, 453 disbanded by Septimius Severus, 471 Pras'tors, original title of the consuls, 360 creation of the office,
; ;
372
Prax
it'e les,
296
Plautus, dramatist, 511 Plebeians (pie be'yanz), origin of the order, 348 n. i their status in early Rome, 348 first secession, 362 second secession, 367 marriage with patricians made legal, 368 secure admission to the consulship, 371, 372; to the dictatorship and
; ; ;
other
offices,
372
n.
Pleb is fTta, 367 Pliny the Elder, 4^9, 515 Pliny the Younger, letter to Trajan, 463 literary notice, 515 Plu'tarch, 315
;
III Prod'i cts, 320 Prometheus (pro me'thiis 07- pro me'thius), the Titan, 30S n. i
Prop y
Pro
Iffi'a,
the,
tag'o_ras,
of,
219 319 n. 3
Provinces,
first
ernment
;
Pnyx
(niks)
Hill,
the,
at
Athens,
Po
315
Psammetichus (sam met'i kus) I, 33 Ptolemy (tol'e mi), Claudius, astronomer, 337
father, 467 Poly cli'tus, sculptor, 295 Po lyc'ra tes, tyrant of Samos, 174, 189 Pol yg no'tus, painter, 299
Pol'y carp.
Church
Po
PubUc lands, Roman, how acquired and how administered, 409 at the
;
Pompeii
459
nI
(pom pa'yee)
destroyed,
588
;
INDEX
Romance
nations, origin, 543
;
Punic War, First, 382-388 Second, 392-397J_ Third, 403-405 Punjab (poon jab'). See Panjab
Pyd'na, battle Py'los, 231
of,
society
;
under
399
Pyramid
builders, 27
;
Pyramids, the, 27 as tombs, 41 Pyrrhus (pir'us), takes command of the Tarentines, 378 campaigns in Italy and Sicily, 378 defeated at Beneventum, 378 Py thag'o ras, 318 Pyth'i a, the, 146 Pythian games, 148
; ;
the kings, 353-359; under the Tarquins, 353; legends of, 357r3S9; sacked by the Gauls, 370 its reeffect upon, of conbuilding, 371 destroyed quest >of the East, 400 by the Great Fire, 456 last triumph
; ; ; ;
Quinqueremes (kwin'kweremz), 385 n. i; first fleet of, built by the Romans, 385
ransom of, by Alaric, 490 at, 489 sacked by Alaric, 491 sacked by the Vandals, 496 Rom'u lus, king of Rome, 353, 357 Romulus Augustus, last emperor of the West, 497 Rosetta Stone, the, 36 Ros'tra, 354 origin of name, 354 n. i Royal Road, Persian, 98 Rubicon, river, crossed by Cassar,
; ; ;
of,
i
22
Ru
433_
ma'ni'a, 462 n.
i
n.
Rameses
of,
mummy
40
See
Rameses
Re
(ra).
Ra
us,
Sabbath, adopted as day of rest by Constantine, 482 Sabines (sa'binz), 357 Sacred games among the Romans, 352
Roman
general,
Rhegium
Rhodes,
rians,
Sacred War, First, 150; Second, 252 Sa gun'tum taken by Hannibal, 391 St. Anthony, 536 St. Augustine, mission to Britain, 534
Augustine, Aurelius, 516 Benedict, his Rule, 536 St. Boniface (bon'e fass), 534, 535 St. Columba, 534 St. Jerome, 516 St. Patrick, 534 his St. Peter, martyr at Rome, 456 primacy, 539
St. St.
;
by Do-
center of Hellenistic culture, 273 school of sculpture at, 273 Rimini (re'me ne), 559 Roderic, Visigothic king, 555 Roman colonies. See Colonies Roman Empire, definitely established by Augustus, 442-445 greatest extent under Trajan, 463 public sale of, 470 its final division, 488 the Eastern, 489 fall of the, in the West, 497 causes of failure, 498 import of its downfall, 500 the Empire in the East, 548-550 restored in the West by Charles the Great, 560 Roman law, 516-518; revival of, 546 Roman Peace {Pax Jiomana), 379; established in Gaul, 431 Roman roads, construction begun, 377 their extension, 506 n. i Romance languages, 544
137
;
Sa'is, 137 n. 2
Salamin'ia,
213
n.
Athenian
state
ship,
II,
65
Sappho
(saf'o), 305 Saracenk. See Mohammedanism Sar'a cus, last king of Nineveh, 68 Sardinia, with Corsica, made a Roman province, 389
INDEX
Siir'dis,
S89
;
capital
of
Lydia, 93
;
capsacked by the
;
Sargon
Sat tirndli
65 352 Saul, king of the Hebrews, 80 Scarabas'us, Egyptian, 45 Schliemann (shle'miin). Dr., 128 Scilly (sil'i) Islands, 89 n. i Scipio, Publius Cornelius (Africanus Major), defeats Hannibal at Zama,
a,
II, reign,
keepers raised to ten, 371 prophecy in, 389 burned, 422 Expedition, the, 234-238 debate at Athens respecting, 234 departure of, from the Piraeus, 236; the end, 236-237 Sicily, Greek colonies in, 169 golden
;
Sicilian
Greek
cities, 249,
396
Scipio,
Publius Cornelius ^milianus (Africanus Minor)., at siege of Carthage, 404, 405; at siege of
Numantia, 406
Sco'pas, 296 Sculpture, Greek, 290-298
to
;
relation
Mycenaean
art,
290
of the,
Se Se
276-
278
Se leu'cus Ni
Senate,
276
;
Roman, under the kings, 346 power restored by Sulla, 423 num;
ber reduced to six hundred by Augustus, 444 Tiberius confers upon, right to elect magistrates, 452 admission to, of Gauls, 455 Sen^e ca, moralist, Nero's tutor, 455 his teachings, 515 Sen naeh'e rib, reign, 66 Sep'tu a gint, the, 279 Ser a pe'um, the, 38 n. 3 Serfdom, mediaeval, beginnings of, 478 n. I Servile War, First, 408 Second, 409 11. 2 Servius Tullius, builds walls of Rome, 353 his reforms, 354-35^
; ;
Sethos
Se'ti I.
I,
38
See Sethos
250; "relation to Roman history, 338 at the beginning of the First Punic War, 384 conquest of, by the Romans, 3S5 becomes a Roman province, 388 First Servile War in, 408; Second Servile War in, 409 n. 2 Sidon, 88 SI mon'i dig of Ceos, lyric poet, 205 n. 2, 305 Siwa (se'wa), oasis of, 259 Slavery,, among the Greeks, 334-336 in early Rome, 345 condition of slaves in Sicily, 408 general statements respecting, 523-525 Smer'dis, the false, 97, 98 Social War, 415; comments upon results, 417 Socrates, in the Athens of Pericles, 221 his trial and condemnation, 242 his teachings, 321 Sog di a'na, conquest of, by Alexander, 260 Soissons (swa son'), battle of, 529 Solomon, king, 80 So'lon, his economic reforms, 180 his constitutional reforms, 180; special laws enacted by, 181 Sophists, the, 222, 319, 320 Soph'o cles, tragic poet, 309 Spain becomes Romanized, 406 conquered by the Saracens, 555 Sparta, location of, 154; the name, 154; classes in, 154; early history public tables, 1 58 educaof, 1 56 tion of Spartan youth, 1 59 conquers Messenia, 160; becomes supreme in central and northern Pelopon; ; ; ;
Seven Hills, the, 343, 353 Seven Sages, the, 3x7 Se ve'rus, Septimius, Roman emperor,
reign, 471 Seville (sev'il), 555 Sheba (she'ba), queen of, 8r
She'ol, the
nesus, 161 Spar'ta cus, leader of gladiators, 423 Spartan -.constitution, the, 156
B.C.),
Hebrew underworld, 86
of
ment
;
of, 154; detachshut up in Sphacteria, import their surrender, 231 231 of this 'event, 231
number
of,
590
Spar ti a'ta;, the. See Spartans Sphac te'ri a, island, 231
Sphinx, the, 27, 28 Spor'a des, the, 118
Sta'di
Stil'i
INDEX
Tar'ta rus, in
um
(pi. stadia),
Stephen
cho.
II,
Tas ma'hi ans, 4 n. i Tayg'etus Mountains, 118 Te-lem'a chus, monk, 490 Tell el-Amarna (el-ii mar'na), cuneiform letters discovered at, 30 n. 2
Telloh (or Tello), 56 Tem'pe, Vale of, 114 Ten Thousand, expedition 240-242 Ter'ence, dramatist, 51
Vandal general, 489, 490 Stoics, the, 272, 324 Stonehenge (ston'henj), 15
Stra'bo, the geographer, 327
of
the,
514 Suf fe'te|, 382 Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, in Jugurthine War, 414; given command against Mithradates, 420, 421 marches upon Rome, 421 war between him his and the Marian party, 422 proscriptions, 422 made dictator, 423 his abdication and death, 423 Sulpician Laws, 421 n. i
;
Wood (toi'to borg), scene of defeat of Varus, 446 Teutons. See Barbarians
Teutoburg
ThaTes, 318 Thap'suS, battle of, 433 Theaters Grecian, description of, 288; entertainments of, 331; Ro:
Sulpicius 421 n.
Sii'raer,
tribune,
50
Sumerians, the, 50 Su'ni um, cape, 219 Susa, capital of Elam, 52 capital of Persian Empire, 98 taken by Alexander, 259 Sut tee', T09 n. i Sy a'gri us, Roman governor, 529 Syb'a ris, founded, 168
; ;
of, 505 entertainments of, 519 Thebes, in Egypt, ruins at, 30 Thebes, in Greece, seized by the Spartans, 244; liberated by Pelopidas, 244 hegemony of, 245destroyed by Alexander the 247 Great, 257
; ; ;
man, construction
The
mis'to cle, his character, 196; his naval policy, 196; his agency
Syl'labary, defined, 14 the, features of, 332 Syracuse, founded, 169; operations of the Athenians at, in the Pelo-
in convening the council at Corinth, 199; interprets the oracle of the "wooden walls," 203; his policy in regard to the Piraeus and the Athenian navy, 207 his ostracism and death, 207 n. i
;
Symposium,
The The
314
the Ostrogoths,
od'o
ric,
king
.of
527
ponnesian War, 236, 237 under the Dionysian tyrants, 248, 249 its golden era, 249, 250 forms alliance with Carthage, 394 fall of, 395
;
;
Syria,
made
Roman
province, 427
destroyer of paganism, 487 massacre at Thessalonica, "bows to Bishop Ambrose, 488 488 divides the Empire, 488 Ther'ma;, Roman, 507
orders,
;
;
the
Ther mop'y
Ice,
Tarentum
;
Thermopyla5, Pass of, the name, 201 The se'um, the, 218
war
Theseus
;
with Rome, 377 character of inhabitants, 377 Tar quin'i us Priscus, king of Rome,
(the'sus), slays the minotaur, 123 king of Athens, 177 Thes'pis, tragic poet, 306 Thes sa lo nl'ca, massacre at, 488 Thes'sa ly, description of, 114 The'tes, the, 180 Thirty Tyrants, the, at Athens, 240
INDEX
Thirty Years' Truce, the, 3ii Thoth'mes III, 30 Thras y bu'lus, tyrant of Miletus, 173
591
Tyne
Thucyd'ides, the
his youth,
historian,
tale
of
(tin), the, 464 Ty'phon. See Seth Tyrants, the Greek, 171-175; character and origin of rule, 171 Greek
;
221;
character of the
;
benefits conat
ferred
by,
174;
Pisistratidas,
Thothmes
emperor,
reign,
siege
of,
by
Tyr Tyr
Ti ci'nus, battle of the, 393 n. 1 Tig'lath-Pi le'ser IV, 65 Tigris, valley of the, 48 Ti mo'le on, the Liberator, frees Syracuse from the tyrant Dionysius the Younger, 249; his death, 250 Ti'mon, the misanthrope, 233
Tl'ryns,
Um'bri
Ur, city
a,
of,
337 79
Valens,
Roman
seat
of
prehistoric
race,
I,
116
emperor, at siege of Jerusalem, 458 reign, 458, 459 Tiv'o li. See Tibur Tours (toor), battle of, 555 Trajan, Roman emperor, reign, 461463 Transmigration, Hindu doctrine of,
Titus,
;
Roman
Va Va
Roman emperor, 472 an Law, 361 Valerio-'Horatian Laws, 367 Va le'ri us, Lu'ci us, consul, 367
le'rian,
le'ri
108
Vandals, in Spain, 493 in Africa, sack Rome, 496 persecute 493 African Catholics, 528 kingdom destroyed by Justinian, 529
; ; ;
Tra
pe'zus, 242
i
Tras
at,
393
n.
Tre'bi a, battle of the, 393 n. i Treb'i zond. See Trapezus Tribes, among the Greeks, 141 as divisions of the Roman community, 346; the four Servian, 354,
;
o) cups, 132 n. i Varro, Gaius Terentius, consul, 393 Varus, Quintilius, defeated by Arminius, 446 Ve'das '{orvs.'&s.s), sacred books of the Hindus, 107 Veil (ve'yT), siege and capture of, 369,
Vaphio "(va'fi
355 maximum number, 355 n. 2 Tribunes, military, with consular power, creation of office, 368 abolished, 371 Tribunes, "plebeian, first, 362 numduties, 362 ber, 362 their right sacrosanct character, of aid, 363 363 acquire the right to sit within the Senate hall, 368; powers absorbed by Augustus, 444
; ;
374 e ti, the, 495 Venetia fve ne'shi a), 387 Venice, its beginnings, 495 Ver 9erie, battle at, 415
Ven
Triumph,
last, at
Rome, 4S9
;
Vergi], 511, 512 Ver'res, propraetor, his scandalous misgovernment of Sicily, 424; his prosecution by Cicero, 424,-425 Vespasian (ves pa'zhi an), Flavius, Roman emperor, reign, 457
Triumvirate, First, 430 Second, 437 Trojan War, the legend of, 125 Troy, 125. See Hissarlik Truceless War, the, 390 Tus'cu lum, 374 n. i Twelve Tables, the, 364-366
Vesta, worship
Vi'a,
of, at
Rome, 350
n. T;
y^mil'ia^
5*^6
^^-
506
'
337'
J^^a
Cas'si a,
I
Ap'pi a^ 506 n. I
min'i
592
Visigoths,
INDEX
cross
to
;
the Danube, 486 submission by Theoinvade Italy, 4S9 dosius, 487 second invasion, 491 after saclc of Rome, 492, 493 establish kingin Spain, 528 kingdom dedom sti-oyed by the Saracens, 555 VI tel'li us, Roman emperor, 4^7 Volscians, border wars with Rome,
Xerxes ^zerks'ez)
reduced
I, 99 prepares to invade: Greece, 198; crosses the Hellespont, 200; reviews army at after the battle of Doriscus, 200 Salamis, 203
; ;
Yahweh
n.
363
Za'ma, battle
Wirifrid.
at,
Woman,
;
330 at Rome, 519 Writing, invention of, 13; Egyptian system, 35; Chinese, iii
Xan
thip'pe, 321 n. 2
loi Ze'no, the Stoic, 272, 324 Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, 473 n. ^ Zeus (zus), 144 oracles of, 146 n. i Zeus Ammon, oracle of, 259 Zeuxis (ziik'sis), Greek painter, 300 Zo ro as'ter, 102
;
Zend
A ves'ta,
396 433
Zoroastrianism, 102