Ottoman - Turkish Language

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OTTOMAN -TURKISH LANGUAGE

J.
W. REDHOUSE
v_S3w~
'
AJ
TRUBNER'S COLLECTION
or
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RELNHOLD ROST,
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IX.
OTTOMAN TUKKISH.
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TRUBNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE

PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
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LONDON:
TRUBNER &
CO.,
LUDGATE HILL.
SIMPLIFIED
GRAMMAR
OP THE
OTTOMAN-TUEKISH LANGUAGE.
BY
J.
W. REDHOUSE,
M.K.A.S.,
LITEBATUBE
HON. MBMBEB OB THB
BOYAL BOCIBTT OP
LONDON
TRUBNEK &
CO.,
LUDGATE
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1884.
[All rights reserved.]
SEEN BY
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JAN
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DATE
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BT.
GILBEET AND EIVINOTON, LIMITED, JOHN'S SQUARE, CLEEKENWELL EOAD.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Preface
.
. .
.
ix
xii
Note on Identity of Alphabets
CHAPTER
SECTION
I.
LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY.

I.
Number, Order, Forms, and Names of

Letters
......
Greek, and
Signs,
.
Synopsis of Arabic,
Letters
II.
Latin
Phonetic Values of Letters, Vowel-Points,
Orthographic
Transliteration,
. . .
Ottoman Euphony
15
CHAPTER
SECTION
II.
OTTOMAN ACCIDENCE.
I.
Nouns Substantive
Nouns Adjective
Numerals
51
.
II.
III.
......
.
. .
68
74
82
IV. Pronouns
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
SECTION V. Demonstratives
VI. Interrogatives
,,
.
.
VII. Relative Pronouns
VIII. Derivation of Verbs
...
(Table)
.
.90
92
94
;
IX. Conjugation of Verbs

Participles
;
Moods
;
Tenses
Verbal Nouns
.
Gerunds
. .
99
115
X.
Numbers and Persons
XI. Complex Categories of Verbs
.119
120
.
XII. First Complex Category

XIII. Second
125
129
XIV. Third
XV. Combined
(Turkish) Conjugation
133
XVI. Negative and

XVII. Dubitative,
Impotential Conjugations
135
141
Potential,
and Facile Verbs
XVIII. Verb Substantive
144
Absence, Existence
XIX. Verbs of Presence and

and Non-Existence
....
.
147
XX. Compound
,,
Verbs
;
148
Interrogation
.
.
XXI.
Interrogative Verbs
151
XXII. Adverbial Expressions

XXIII. Prepositions
XXIV.
Conjunctions
Interjections
XXV.
.... ....
.
154
.150
.
156
.157
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
VU
CHAPTER
THE OTTOMAN
SECTION
I.
III.
SYNTAX.
PAGE
Conversational
brevity.
Precision
in
ERRATA.
PAGE
PREFACE.
THE Ottoman
the most
Language,
A*.jjLJl2-c
osmanlija,
is
highly polished branch of the great Turkish tongue, which

is
spoken, with dialectic variations, across the whole breadth,
nearly,
of
the
middle
region
of
the continent
of
Asia,
impinging into
also,
Europe,
even, in the
Ottoman provinces, and

frontiers
in
Southern Russia,
up
to
the
of the
old
kingdom of Poland.
The Ottoman language

fundamentally Turkish.
tinues
is,
in its
grammar and vocabulary,

and con-
It has, however, adopted,
more and more
to adopt, as required, a vast
number
of Arabic, Persian, and foreign words
(Greek, Armenian,
together
Slavonic, Hungarian, Italian, French, English, &c.),
with the use of a few of the grammatical rules of the Arabic
and Persian, which are given as Turkish rules
in the following
pages, their origin being in each case specified.

x
J
The
great Turkish language, AS J turkje,

classed,
Ottoman and non-
Ottoman, has been

"
agglutinative
"
by European writers as one of the

;
languages
not inflecting
its
words,
but
X
"
PREFACE.
glueing on,"
as
it
were, particles,
"
which were once
inall
dependent words," to the root- words, and thus forming

the grammatical and derivative desinences in use.
To my
mind, this term "agglutinative" and
its
definition,
are inapplicable to the Turkish language in general, and to
the Ottoman Turkish in
particular.
;
These
are, essentially
and most
truly, inflexional tongues
none of their inflexions
ever having been " independent words," but modifying particles only.
The
distinctive character of all

is
the Turkish languages, or
dialects,
that the root of a whole family,

is
however numerous,
of inflexions and derivations,
always recognizable at sight,
seldom suffering any modification whatever, and always standing at the head of the inflexions or derivations, however
complex in character these may

of a root-word does take place,
it
be.
is
When
a modification
always of the simplest
kind, always the softening of a hard or sharp consonant into
the corresponding more liquid letter, and always of the final
consonant only of the root.
Thus, a c^
c,
or
L>
sometimes
becomes a
i,
jj
becomes a
or the
a sharp Arabic
e)
becomes a
this
latter,
soft Persian
t*J,
Ottoman modification of
which
is
then pronounced like our most useful consonant
y,
or, in case of a
dominant
o or
u vowel
in
the root,
is
pro-
nounced
like
our consonant w.
PREFACE.
XI
The Ottoman Turkish has more vowel-sounds
(eleven in
known number) than any other tongue

these
to me.
As
each of
may have
a short and a long modification, they

all.
make
is
in twenty-two possible vowels
Every one of these
distinguished by a special
mark
is
in the transliterations of the
present treatise, though

differentiation in the
it
such impossible to attempt any
Arabic characters to which the Ottoman
language
is
wedded.
The
word
rules of
in
of every euphony regulate the pronunciation the Ottoman language perfectly, in all of Turkish
;
origin;
foreign.
and as
far as
is
practicable,
in
what
is
radically
Although a compound word

the Turkish dialects, and the
is
a thing totally
unknown
to
of very rare occurrence in Arabic,
Ottoman language abounds with such, adopted from the
Aryan, compounding Persian.

Persian grammarians and writers
into a harmonious
first
learnt
how
to
mould
whole the incongruous Aryan Persian and
Semitic Arabic elements.

step
further,
Ottoman ingenuity has gone a

in
and blended
one noble speech the three

Semitic and
conflicting
elements of the Aryan,
Turanian
classes of vocables.
Fault
is
found by some with this intermixture of idioms
xii
PREFACE.
all
but an Englishman, of
the world, will

;
know how
real
to appre-
ciate a clever mosaic of diction
and a
student of the
language will learn to admire many a true beauty, resulting from a masterly handling of the materials at his command,
by any
first-rate
Ottoman
literary celebrity,
whether prose-
writer or poet
NOTE.
The manuscript
of a
of the present sketch

of
Grammar was
I
completed
before Christmas, 1882,

in the
and copies
my table of identic
alphabets have been
hands
few friends
for the last four or five years.
had the pleasure and privilege of reading the admirable and exhaustive treatise on " The Alphabet," by the Rev. Isaac Taylor, and am rejoiced to find that he has come to the same conclusion as to the of the
identity
have just
probably at an earlier date than the time, perhaps twenty years ago, when the idea began to force itself on my mind. I still feel inclined' to hold by the inference that the however, Phenicians gave the alphabet to Italy, quite independently of the Greek action which later on doubtlessly
;
three
influenced the Italian culture.
LONDON,
September, 1883.
J.W.R.
OTTOMAN TURKISH GEAMMAE.

CHAPTER
I.
THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY.

SECTION
I.
The Number, Order, Foi*ms, and Names of

Letters.
the
THERE
are thirty-one distinct letters used
in
the
Ottoman
;
language.
four of
Some of
these have more than one value
and
them are sometimes consonants, sometimes vowels.

also a combination of
There
^ or
V,
is
two
letters into
one character,
to count as a
la,
which Arabian piety has agreed
letter,
and which Persian and Turkish conformity has had no

Thirty-two
letters have, therefore, to
:
option but to adopt.
be named and enumerated, as follows

I
ellf,
be,
v pe, o
ri,
te,
&
se,
^ jlm, ^ chlm, c ha,

sin,
^khi,
dad,
^ dal, i zel,
tl,
zi,
'ayn,
5
j ze, j zhe, c gayn, _i
^
fe,
î shin,
^
J
s&d,
^
.,
qaf,
kaf,
lam,
mlm,
nAn, j w6v,
he, V lam-ellf, <j ye.
The
the
foregoing
is
the ordinary arrangement of the letters of

as learnt
Ottoman alphabet,
and repeated by children
OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR.

first
excepting that they are not at
taught to mention, or to
know, either of the three Persian
letters, uj pe,
chlm, and
zhe,
which are not contained
in the
to,
Arabic alphabet, their
sounds and values being unknown

by, an Arab.
It
is
and unpronounceable
,
called the ellf-be,
<u c_aS1
i.e.,
the alphabet;
and
it
might be conveniently styled the alphabet by forms;
letters of the
same form being brought together
in
it,
more
or less.
There
is
another very different order necessary to be learnt

letters.
of the twenty-nine Arabic
It
is
called ebjed, jg\,

:
and
is
arranged in eight conventional words, as follows

jâ hevwaz, jit huttl,
sakhaz,
jjgl ebjed,
Jj&
keleman,
^^
first
sa'fas,
<o-^S qarashat, j
}liki dazagila.
this
The
letters
of the Arabic alphabet, as arranged in
ebjed series, have each a numerical value.
The
nine in
order represent the nine units,
to
9
;
the second nine stand
for the tens, also in order, 10 to
90
the third nine count as

the twenty-eighth in the
last,
the hundreds, serially, 100 to 900

series,
stands for 1000;
and the
its
V, though always
enumerated, has no value of

of the values of
its
own, but counts as the sum

30,
in
1
two components, J
to
1;
i.
e.,
as 31.
This system appears

times indeed.
have been
use in very early

it
is
The
order of the letters in

;
that of the
Hebrew
alphabet, as far as this goes
that
is,
as far as the
end of the sixth word qarashat, 0^9, with which the Hebrew

alphabet
(omitting
terminates.
The
letters
of the two last words

the
factitious
now
all
consideration
of
V)
are
Semitic inventions of a comparatively

modifications,
modern
date,
and are
by means of
dots, of letters, undotted or dotted,
represented in the
Hebrew
,
alphabet.
j,
Thus,
ii>
is
modified
from
o,
.
is
from
from
^
the
from ^0, U from k, and
c from c
This may be called
numeral alphabet.
A circumstance
the
fact
that invests this ebjed arrangement with a

is
European antiquarian interest of the very highest order,

that
it
proves, beyond the remotest
shadow of a
doubt, the unity of origin of the Semitic (usually taken to
be Phenician, but I imagine
it
to
be
much more
ancient than
Moses, or even Abraham), the Greek, and the Latin alphabets.
Not only can

in the series
the
now
divergent forms of each separate letter
be traced through successive modifications back
to
one ancient Phenician character, but the order of the

series
whole
from
to
is
absolutely
identical
in
the
Arabic (Hebrew, Phenician), Greek, and Latin alphabets,

as
the following synopsis shows.
An
additional
proof
is
furnished by the identity of the numeral values of the letters

in the
Arabic and Greek alphabets,

to the Latins,
a method
totally un-
known
who must have had
a method of their
own, probably Etruscan, before they received their alphabet

direct from the Phenicians, quite independently of the Greeks,
and quite as
early.

irabic
The
r,
G, must originally have been a hard

as in
g.
In
modern Egyptian,
Hebrew, and
in Greek,
it
is
it
so prointo the
nounced, though the rest of Arabia has softened
sound of our English j or
soft
g,
and though the Latins
hardened
it,
apparently, into a
serious
value.
The
first
remark
is
called for on our
coming
to
the change
made by both
the Greeks and the Latins of the

s
Semitic soft aspirate consonant
into their
vowel E.
It
would almost seem as though the old Phenicians used that

letter as a final vowel, exactly as
is
done by the Persians

in-
and Turks
explicable
is
at present.
to
more remarkable divergency,
me, but parallel to the foregoing conversion,
the
change made by the Greeks of the Semitic hard

_,
aspirate consonant
into their long vowel H,
t],
whereas the
Latins preserved the letter as a consonant and as their sole

aspirate,
under the same written form as that used by the

h,
Greeks, H,
of the
and which was
in reality the
Phenician form
letter.
is
The next remark
as to the Latin F,
which the Greeks
long ago discarded from their alphabet, after having in the

first
instance adopted
it
in
its
Phenician form T, and used

After discarding
it
it
to represent the
numeral
to
6.
it
as a letter,
they
continued
use
as
to
numeral, though with

still,
O
corrupted, cursive form,
<s-,
which they
'
to this day,
give the Phenician

modification of
its
name of
Bau, j\j
waw,
vav.
The
is
Latin
of no
sound, from a
or v to an /,
6
importance.
The Arabs
of to-day,
having no v
letter or
sound
in their language, write the
name of Her Majesty the
Queen-Empress, Fiktoriya.
As
the
Greek phonetic value of Z exactly corresponds

power of
\
,
to
the Semitic
their
numeral value being
identical,
and the form of the Latin

one
is
G
t
being merely a modification,
tempted to imagine that originally the Latin power
of this letter
it is
was
some
g
is
soft g,
our
j perhaps even our

is
z.
Certain
that in
soft
dialects
of Italian a z
used in words
where a
found in other dialects.

\>
The Greeks made the Semitic
into their
letter.
the Latins,
having no such sound, discarded the
The
Semitic
i,
^
it
being both a consonant, like our
y,
and also
a long vowel,
followed, as a matter of course, that both

it
Greeks and Latins should make

Latins preserved
its
into the
vowel
i.
But the
;
consonantal use also as an

it
initial
though
they forgot, or never realized, that

position.
is
a consonant in that
;
We now
use a y to express that value
but the
Germans have adopted the Latin

it.
modification j to represent
Three western
(j.
letters,
:,
j, y,
are
now used
for the
one
Semitic
The next
four letters require no

is
comment
but the Semitic
y* of the eastern Arabs
not a good parallel for the Greek
S.
The Hebrew
is
letter
D,
that
holds
its
place
in
the
alphabet,
the equivalent of the Arabic
and the western

<_,<?,
Arabs of Morocco transpose the
and
in
their
jsfil

alphabet,
making the
fifth
word
(Jâ^>,
i
the letter
^
in
being
the exact equivalent of the
Hebrew
in place
and
power.
The
the
is
a better representative of
still
than the
(j>,
but
two sounds are
very remote
from one another.
I should be inclined to suggest that
when the Greek alphabet
was formed, the Semitic

by the
held the place afterwards taken
and the j >.

t
(
The Greek
is
&
is
an attempt to
represent our value sh, as
seen in the
name Xerxes, of
Latins dropped
which the old Persian was Khsharsha.

this letter,
The
whichever
it
really was.
The
conversion of Semitic consonantal c into Greek and

is
Latin vowel o
not unnatural.
This
letter
is
absolutely
unpronounceable by any other than a Semitic.

of convulsion in the throat
;
It is a kind
and as the two aspirates were

This was so
\
converted into vowels, so was this guttural.
much
the more to be expected, as the Semitic letter

a,
is
which
became Greek and Latin

serving likewise as
soft guttural, of
also a guttural consonant,

It
;
a long vowel on occasions.

is
is
the
o
which the c
the hard parallel

a.
is
and an
may
well be looked upon as a hard
What
the Arabians use as f,
read in Hebrew, as in
Greek and Latin, p.
Even
the Arabians,
when they have
to express a foreign letter, p,
which they cannot pronounce,

or as f.
write and pronounce

or
to
ijo, is
it
as a
b,
The next
letter,
dropped in both Greek and Latin.

in
It appears never
;
have been used
Greek, even as a numeral
differing in
OTTOMAN TCBKISH GRAMMAR.
that respect from the Tletter,

it
When
this latter
was dropped
as a
was retained, modified,
as
a numeral.
o-a/iTn,
But the
omitted letter
became the numeral
representing
900 instead of 90.
From
this omission of the

slip
from
its
proper place in the
Greek numerals, a
of the whole subsequent series became

jj
,
necessary, so that each letter, from
<P,
Q, onwards, had a
its
<p
higher numeral value by one degree in the Semitic than

representative had
in
Greek
;
jj
standing for 100, while
has the value of 90 only

for
j represents 200, while

very remarkable
;
stands
filled
100 only
&c.
This
slip is
it
was
up further on by ^ 900.
Although the
six
" additional " letters of the Semitic and

relation to each other as
Greek alphabets have no
repre-
sentatives of sound, their numerical value

in the
goes on exactly
same order observed

slip
in those
of the original series,

1000, while
and with the same

is
up
to c, representing
only 900.
v,
On
the other hand, however, the three
Greek
additionals,
0, %, are evidently the originals in form of the
Latin
u, v, x,
and the Semitic k
is
possibly the original of the
Latin Z.
This
letter is usually attributed,
by ancient and
certainly agrees
modern authors,
to the
Greek
which
it
with in shape, though not in sound.
The forms of the Arabic and
Persian Ottoman letters given
above are those of the isolated characters.
They
are liable

to
various modifications,
according to their being
initials,
medials, or finals, in a combination of written letters.
In the
first
place, they
:
may,
in this respect, be conveniently
divided into two classes

letters in writing
those which join on to the following

1
a combination, uL>j u_sjj*- hurufu vwasllyye,

join, ^Q'.O
and those which do not so
uJj^
1,
hurufu munfaîld.
The
V
;
latter,
the less numerous class, are:
a,
^>jJ'J>J
^J, j\j,
jj,
an d
^V.
eight in
number
thus,
I
_>!, L->J,
i, i_^,
All the others join, as
10
/'
x
,
*"
Ox
,
o
,
yJS, ^*j
o^*.
Jâ.
tyj^
Those which do not join
are, as
medials, thus written:
_jb,
yl,
Jjj, lî,
^,
v 5^vp
uî,jV.
:
Longer combinations vary, ad
infinitum, as
follows
-i
Aill^b
&c.
Besides the simple names of the letters hitherto mentioned,
most of the characters have other, more complicated appellations.

xOx
The
is
usually called hemze,

;
},
when
^,u*
a consonant, in an
u_aJI,
Arabic word
and
ellfl
memdude,
initial
prolonged
1,
when
it
is
a long vowel,
or medial.
It can never
be
a long final vowel in an Arabic word, being then always

followed by another consonant hemz&
&c.
final.
;
as, ell sha'a,

uJiJI,
iVâ.
jeza'u,
It
is
called ellfl maqsure,

is
^<a
shortened
1,
wheii
It
;
then more commonly written

so.
in
classical
Arabic
or
but by no means always

words,
the
1
In Persian and Turkish,

is
foreign
is
always a vowel, but

It
is
called
indifferently ellf
and hemze.
or
final.
always long in Persian

initial in
words,
it
when medial
When
a Persian word,
it
may
be short or long.
When When
a long
initial,
is
distinit,
guished, as in Arabic, by the sign medd, .u (") over

A. v^sT afet, P. L_>T ab.
as
a short
initial, it is,
in Arabic,
generally a consonant, and
may
take the sound
'a
or
'e,
of
'1,

or of
'u.
11
When
a short
initial in
Persian,
e,
it
is
a vowel, and
may have any one

of the powers of
1
of the three values a or

in
1,
A.
The
details
Turkish words are given further on.
The
isolated
uj
is
distinguished from the other letters of the same

\j
form by being called sj^j*

L_>
;
(ba'l
o
muvahhade),
*
the
single-dotted
as the
xo J
is
named oUl
is
(ta'l
6 lj
musnat),
(sa'l
the double-dotted
o, and
the i,
designated AilL
mu-
sellese), the triply-dotted c*.
The
is
further distinguished
called
;
from the
qarashat),
L, also
named
ta, LL,
by being
iî^ *U
L>
(tii'l
the n>
of (the word) c>^J

lo
while
is
named
^î
6 \i
(ta'i
hAtti), iAe
of (the word) jz*.

initial,
Again, the
(j,
is distinguished, as
a medial or
from the
a
<-'
then idenfev-
,03
tical in
form with
superiorly
A
it,
by
being called
;
*jy olli* (musnatl
qiyye),
double-dotted
whereas the
''
is
then
'0*
termed A-iU^ cjUi* (mAsniltl tahtanlyye),

'
inferiorly
double*
'
dotted.
The
ij
is
also called jsl eU (sa'l sakhaz), the ii o/ ji?.

j^gl sC (ba'l ebjed),
The
^ might be called
ê
LJ>
o/ j^J
but
I do not recollect
the expression.
L_>
It
is,
however,
distin&>
guished from the Persian

'arabiyye), the
faiislyye),
by being designated <u-^c

the
L_>
(ba'l
(ba'l
Arabian
c_j,
being called A-Û

Persian
_>.
*G
and
44^
( bs '^ '4)^
m iyy^)j ^ 6
The
simple
name of
all
the
+*s
jim, sufficiently distinguishes

It has, therefore,
the letter from
other Arabic characters.

in purely
no other designation
Arabic works.
It
is,
however,
12
distinguished from the Persian

tively A-jJc
. by
their being styled respec*-
and A-^ls pp* (jiml'areblyye),
(jiml farlslyye),
or
i^+sF-
â (jiml 'ajamlyye).
The - and
terms dU^*
6
are distinguished from one another by the
(ha'l
muhmele)
neglected (undotted)
,
_, and
A*^*
t\. (kha'i
mijeme)
distinguished (dotted)
;
respectively.
In Persian they are often called A*s

,
(ha'l bi-niiqta) dotless

_^.
and^bjoij
sli.
(kha'i nuqtd-dar) dot-possessing (dotted)
These two
pairs
of Arabic and
Persian adjectives go
all
through the alphabet,

distinction
in the cases
letters of the
(zall
where a dot
same form
i.
;
is
the sole
''
OJ
between two
;
as,
^t
^ Jb
(dall mfthmele) j
Aî" Jli
miijeme)
So also the
as,
distinctions
by
the words of the
" " numeral alphabet

;
ISj
Jb
(dall ebjed),
;
Jli (zall sdkhaz), i

(zii'i
^J
(ra'i
qarashat)^
mele),
jja
1^
hevvez) j
&c.;
sJU^
\j^> (sinl
mfih-
S?*
(shlnl mu'jeme),
<_
&c.
letters are
When we come
to uJ, the written
names of the
is
so distinct of themselves, that no addition
necessary for
kef),
CiJ ;
U
Cx
(ft),
u_i
JilS
(qaf),
^\T
;
(kyaf, vulgarly
fV (lam), J
With
from
is
(mim), ^ a distinction again comes

;
o )
(nun),
ox
(vwaw),
j.
in, to differentiate the letter

6 \1
We,
therefore, say j^t>
(ha'l hevvez),
as the
then termed
Jo*
gU. (hil'i
hiitti);
and
(j
is
termed, as

mentioned above,
A-iliatf
13
ouL
*U
(ya'i
musnatl tahtanlyye);
being also called jU.
(ya'l hiittl).
is
The Persian
above
;
t_*
and _ are distinguished as

3
described
(za'l
and
in like
manner the j
(za'l
is
called A~-,U
farl-
s\j
slyye),
and **..V
^
d
'ajamlyye).
There remains now

different sorts of
to distinguish,
among
consonants, the
used in Ottoman Turkish, and to point

:
out their several names, as follows
The
original
Arabian
is
named A^C
v_jo
is
(kyafl 'areblyye, vulg. kefl 'drebi), the

that of our
Arabian
its
value
L
;
This
it
letter
was next
and
is
used by the Persians for their hard g

still,
was
then,
distinguished by the
name of
A~-,U
uj
(kyafl farlslyye,
vulg.
kyafl
farlsi,
kefl farlsi), and A!S? wj^" (kyafl 'ajamlyye,
vulg. kefl 'ajaml).
This variety
is
sometimes distinguished, in
different methods.
writing, in one or the other of
two
The
Persians
themselves mark the difference by doubling the

letter in all its written variations
final
;
upper dash of the

initial,
isolated,
medial, and
thus
^^,j*
final,
(&-
whereas the
original Arabian d, when isolated or

as, dy.l,
has no dash at all;
dil
and a single dash, when

O*
*
initial or
medial
thus:
O"
'OJ
sOi
also jS$, A^J,
shaped ^j^r=a, a7^=u.
When
for the
these two values of the one letter
passed into use
Ottoman language, a new mode of distinguishing the

It con-
Persian from the Arabian variety was introduced.
14

Arabian form of the d,
<?
sisted of placing three dots over the
together with a single dash in non-final positions
thus
d,
J5i,
^
J>^>
,
du
thus marking the Persian hard
g value
of the
letter.
But
in
this letter, so differentiated in Persian writing, received
Ottoman Turkish a third
value, that of our consonantal y,
as a softened variety of its Persian value of
hard
g.
This
Ottoman value never occurs elsewhere than

Ox
f.
at the end, or
xO"-
in the
o
middle of a word
o
as
d? (b&y),
d*ô (beyanmek),
^^0
it
^ (ylylrml),
-oxo
duJ/ol (lyranmek).
a syllable
:
In the middle of a word be-yan-mek, ly-ran-mek.

is
may
begin or end
When
an
e
this letter follows a
u vowel, and
itself
followed by
vowel,
it
glides
into
the value of our
as
A_$J-*
(suwe), &c.
In Turkish, the d,
another value
sake,
still,
retaining
;
the
same form, received

O-
the fourth
O J O
being then for distinction's

(saghir nun);
as in dl (^n),
called surd
^, ^j ^cL
(eanln),
di^j^/^g-T (anmaq),
is
jj^y
it
(q6nur).
This value
never
initial.
When
it
medial,
may
begin, and
may
also
end a
syllable, as
ends
many
words.
The
three dots over
the d, mentioned
in the preceding paragraph, are used

this
is
by
some to designate
times a single dot
dots to
Turkish value of surd
and at other
used for that purpose, leaving the three

letter.
mark the Persian value of the
These varying

values of the
<*)
15
learning to
constitute a serious difficulty in
read Ottoman Turkish.
Surd ^
is
here transliterated n.
A
letter
similar variation in the phonetic value of the Arabic
is
to
be observed
in an
in
Ottoman
Turkish
words.
as
:
Originally
it is,
Ottoman mouth, a simple hard g ;

^jJLJL (maglub).
cJU
words
ftill
(gallb),
it
i&\
(agleb),
In Turkish
has a softened value, very
much
like that of our gh, but
more softened, even
to the point of practically disappear;
ing from the pronunciation
as
cl_b (dagh, almost daw),
eUlL (daghln, almost

da'i),
da'in),
8
*&
(dagha, da'a),
ÎL
(daghl,
0J&L
(da'dan),
ÎL
in
(da'da), &c.
When
if
preceded by
an
o or
u vowel, the c
Turkish words,
followed by a
vowel, glides into the value of our w, even as our
own gh
O
,.
does in the
word throughout (pronounced thruwout)

(
as
Îc^jL
dis-
(dowan),
J&j* (s6wan),
^ ff^
t
(qowiish)
;
or
it
nearly
O J JO J
appears in pronunciation, as before

or oldu'um),
ojJjl
thus
*iijJjl
(olduwum,
(61diiwu, or oldu'u).
SECTION II
The Phonetic Values of

of
the other
the Letters
and Vowel-
Points, the Uses
Orthographic Signs, our System
of Transliteration,
and
the Doctrine of
Ottoman Euphony.
letters (omitting V)
first
We
must divide the thirty-one Ottoman

and consonants.
is
into vowels
But
it
must
be premised
that every letter
sometimes a consonant, while only four of
16

are sometimes vowels.
them
These are
All the
It will
others, twenty-seven in form, are always consonants.
be more convenient to treat of the four vowel
letters first,
together with the vowel-poiuts, which are not letters, but
simply marks.
Usually, the vowel-points, three only in number, are not
written
they are supposed to be known.
But, in children's
;
books, in Qur'ans, in books of devotion, &c., they are written
and sometimes
in other
books and papers
also.
The
vowel-points are
is
named
1,
ustun, ^j^-jl (over), the
mark of which
towards the
2, esere, i^ll
a short diagonal from the right downwards

;
left,
placed over any consonant
as:
_>
o,
-.,
&c.;
(no meaning), a similar

;
diagonal, marked under
any consonant
as: -,
-.,
.>,
j>,
&c.;
3,
>
>- *
uturu, j^yj* (no mean-
ing), a small j-shaped mark, placed over
any consonant;
as:
jyj>j>
J-,
&c.
originally, the three
These vowel- points mark,

vowels, to
Arabic short
a, a,
which the additional Ottoman vowel-sounds,
have been added.
The
ustun has the value of & or
e,
accord-
ing to the consonant, &c.,
accompanying
it
the eser& has the
value of
to its
or
1 ;
and the uturu that of
6, u, u, u, also
according
accompaniment.
short vowel-sound indicated
The
by each of these three

sound of the conthe following
marks always
sonant to
follows, in pronunciation, the

it is
which
appended
so that
we have
THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHT.

Ottoman
\^t
17
syllabary, No.
;
L> ba, ba, ba, ba, b&
bl, b!
bo, bu, bu, bii
and so on through the alphabet.
When
it
is
required to
make
the vowel long, one of the

o
three Arabic letters of prolongation,

.Xo
t^
(harfi medd, pi.

still
j^
hurufi medd), has to be added to the consonant,

its
marked with
short vowel-point.
1,
The
;
letters of
1
prolonga-
tion, true long vowels, are
j,
of which
;
always accom-
panies ustun,
^
ba,
always accompanies eser
and j always
syllabary No. 2,
;
accompanies uturu.
as follows
:
We
;
now have Ottoman

j
l>
ba
^j
bl, bi
bo, bu, bu, bii
&c.
We
made
thus see that there are eleven Ottoman short vowels,
and eight long.

apparent.
Our system of
It
i is
transliterating
them
is
also
e to
the simple
method of using a or
and
o or
represent ustun,
uturu.
to represent esere,
u to represent
As
these vowel-points shade off in phonetic value,
we
use
u,
a, a, a, a,
or 6 for ustun
or
for esere
and
6,
or u, u,
for uturu.
After long consideration,
we have
for
some
years past adopted this system, as the simplest, and, on the
whole, the most rational.
The
in the
values of these
Ottoman vowels are those of the vowels
following eleven words.
They
tu,
are all familiar English
words,
excepting the French

in ordinary English,
the
it
vowel of which
is
unknown
though
exists in the dialects
of some of our counties.
These words
are: far, war, a-(bove),
18
pan, pen

;
pin, girl
so
put,
tu, cur.
We
mark the vowels
of these eleven guide- words to the Ottoman pronunciation, in

the order in which they stand
girl, s6,
:
far,
war, above, pan, pen, pin,
put, tu,
cur
and
for the eight
Ottoman long vowels
we
use: far, war, pin, girl, so, put, tu, cur.

in all, long
That
is,
nineteen
student
Ottoman vowel-sounds
and
short.
The
has but to remember the series of ten English words and one
French, to become possessed of the key to the Ottoman vowel

pronunciation.
But he must
learn never to swerve from the
values of those guide-vowels.
To an Englishman,
is
with our
difficult
slouchy method, this unswervingness

point
;
the
most
but, with a
little
patience at
first, it is
to be achieved.
He must
practice himself in
pronouncing pasha, U.G

(not den), san,
(not
pasha w), baba, Cb (not bayba), dan, ^p

(not sen), ben,
^
>
(which he will at once pronounce right),

fir-(lamaq),
O
J
>
Is-(temek), cÛlj,
O J
j-lj,
y uz
r
q61,
j^J (not
qal),
O
q ul Jj5
(not
( not
q ul ) y uz
not jj>. (
y uz )> an(i gy uz O->^
gyuz or gyuz, though these are
also
words or
syllables).
The English
student of Turkish has to exert his utmost
care, in respect of the
Ottoman vowels,
to break himself of
the
home method of pronouncing a

in
short vowel, and the same
vowel when long,
two very
different ways.
The Ottoman
vowels remain always pure; they never change in phonetic

value with a change in phonetic quantity
;
thus, a
is
always A
LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY.
made long
A
is
always
long, 6
is
always 6 long, u
its
is
always
long, &c., in the
same word and
derivatives.
The
student will have noticed above the Arabic sign of

It is
quiescence of a consonant.
named
jezrn,
+j and
is
never
placed over a vowel, long or short.
The
sonant,
fourth
is
Ottoman vowel
h, is
letter,
which,
when a con-
the soft aspirate
also derived
from the Arabic,

letter is
but has a special history of
its
own.
This
never
used as a vowel in Arabic in any other position than that of

a
final
to a noun,
substantive or adjective, usually of the
feminine
gender,
sometimes
singular,
plural.
and
sometimes
an
irregular (broken, technically)

*Lli. khalife,
Such are the words

>
*!1 sunne,
alii hasana,
tayylbe, &c.
in
In Arabic, these pronunciations (as modified

Turkish, as to the vowels,
of the words
reading.
Ottoman
and as
to the consonants) are those
when they
close a sentence or clause in classical
They
are also the pronunciations of the words in
modern conversational Arabic.

But, originally, and to this day, in classical Arabic, those
and
all
such words end not in a vowel at

t
;
all.
They
.ill
end
in a consonant, in a letter
which, for certain grammatical
reasons,
is
never figured o, but always appears in the shape

5
of a letter
surmounted by the two dots of the o, thus

Ox
x
*.
Our specimen words

t-ZlJ
are therefore, originally, iLli. khalifet,

C-*
yj
ii,
sunnet,
A ;...%.
hasdnet,
A..
T.V>
tayylbet.
There are other
20
vowels and consonants to be added to the termination of these

in classical Arabic, to
mark
the case-endings or declinations.

iaJi.
Thus
iLli.,
when
x
**x
definite,
may be marked
khallfetu for
the nominative, the accusative.
iLli. khallfetl for
the genitive,
iLli. khalifetd for
When
~'
indefinite, it
becomes
all
iLli.
khalifetun,
iLlL khalifetln, lllL khalifetan. "#
In
these cases,
when
final
in a sentence or clause, the case-endings are
dropped from
the pronunciation, though
still
written in vowel-pointed books,
and the word becomes simply khalife throughout.

indefinite case-ending
These
marks are
called in
Turkish jjjj\
^J
(tki uturu), double uturu,
^J
^\
In
(Ikl esere), double esere,
and
Îjl ^->\
may
(Ikl ustun) double ustun.
A consideration now arose.

sonants
classical
Arabic,
J O +
final con-
be either
silent,
or vocal with any one of the
three short vowels.
Thus
&
O x x "Vx*
,
'x*-
>
ketebet,
e...
ketebtu,
final
ill^ketebta,
^L^k^btl
final
When
such words are

is
in
a sentence or clause, the

that
all
consonant
made
;
silent
so
we have
ketebet, as before, for the first
but ketebt for
three of the remaining words.

O
s
So
^
\âj
âj
Os
becomes nasr, as does âi and âi, though

tinguished by a servile
fully
is
1
^
f
final,
(always dis-
being added
nasran)
remains
pronounced, or only loses the sound of the
final n,
and
read nasra.
When
the final
of
ia-li.
khalife,
and similar words, was

letter
dropped from the pronunciation, the
might have been

dropped
as well. as
in writing also;
21
for
iU would
it
read khallfe just

<
It could, however,
in
and would, be read

into Caliph.
-!
khalif,
Europe has done

then,
making
It
was neces-
sary,
to devise a
method which should prevent the
suppression of the vowel belonging to the last consonant of
such words, and yet not be liable to be pronounced as a
with the case-endings.
This convenient method was
dis-
covered by the arrangement adopted of suppressing the dots

of the i
A_p_J_^,
and leaving the nude

&c.
appended
final
to the
word, as
khallfe,
By
this
method
A
it
in
is
such words
became virtually a vowel

tioned as such in Arabic
in Arabic,
though
never men-
grammars or
lexicons.
Persian has a very large number of nouns, substantive and

adjective, that end in an
ustun vowel.
When
the Arabic
alphabet became the sole

teachers
mode
of writing Persian, the

their quasi-vowel
final
Arab
*
would naturally use
to
represent that final Persian sound.
Thus,
s^ bere, t^k^ su-
gurne,
.sU amilde, jj--^
reside, &c.,
were written.
The
It
was thus made a vowel
in Persian also,
when
final.
was
in
even made to follow one of the other two short vowels

very rare cases,
when no
other device was available.

(si),
Thus
we have
the numeral A
A- se),
three (in
Ottoman Turkish
(chl), what, that.
usually pronounced
& (kl), that,
A*.
When, by another historical step, Turkish began to be

written in
the
Arabic characters modified by the special
22
Persian letters (Turkish scribes learning the method from
Persian teachers in the land of Persia conquered by Turkish

invaders,
who
there embraced Islam), the use of
as a final
vowel was found so convenient as
to be naturally adopted.
So
ebe, iit ada, &c.,
were written.
Now,
a whole class of
Turkish
gerunds,
optatives,
;
and imperatives of the third

we, therefore, have
jj!
person, end with this vowel

jup
Ide,
glde, j^jTgyure,
*J\S
qala, \j$ qira, &c.
further
step
was, therefore, possible to be taken
in
Ottoman Turkish, from which Persian writers had and have

shrunk.
The vowel
its
was used
as a medial also,
whenever
it
was found that

words written
introduction
served to distinguish two
alike,
but pronounced differently.
Thus uO;
bllmek, could also be read
djb
bllemek.
suffice
If the vowel-points
for this case
;
were always marked, they would

they are generally omitted.
"
but
The gerund and

c **O
optative *L or
x
aLj was already in use.

bllemek, the distinction
By
writing
eUb bllmek and

Hence,
5
dtÂJLj
was made
clear.
as a medial
Ottoman vowel, always indicating a preceding ustun short

vowel-point, became fully established.
This medial or
final
Turkish vowel
as,
never joins on to the next letter in writing;

jjjLjl
eiU^l uremek,
6daya.
From
we
this sketch of the history of final
and medial vowel

is
see plainly
how
fundamentally erroneous
the
common
23
European (or rather English) method of transliterating such

words with a
correctness of
final
or medial
h.
The
nearest approach to
is
is
which our orthography
capable, since
we
possess not the French e or
German
e,
to write all such
words with a
Brusa, &c.
final
a,
as
khalifa, Fatima,
;
Mekka, Medina,
is
These are usual

while sâLs
but
j. Jidda,
usually spelt
Jeddah
Qdhira (usually Cairo), t^&
Tanja
(usually Tangiers), &c., have been made into monstrosities.
The phonetic
to the
value of an
initial
is
at first
difficulty
European student, inasmuch as there appears

it
to be
is
nothing like
in
Western languages.
real,
This, however,
more apparent than
when
in
fully explained.
p
We
it
must remember that
Arabic the
initial
or
is
consonant, not a vowel.
Like any other

is
initial
consonant,
takes the three short vowel-points, and

>e,
I
then pronounced:
letter,
it
'1,
>u.
When
it
became a Persian
it is
was
generally
named hemze,
as
usually called in Arabic
when
a consonant (but never
when
a vowel of prolongation, or final

it
and short)
although, in Persian words,

medial, or
final.
is
always a vowel,
whether
this
initial,
I
With
the short vowel-points,
initial
is
always a short vowel in Persian words, and

is
the Arabian hemze sign
never placed over

;
it
thus
Jl er,
;
L_~J esb, e*-l est, &c. jl ez,

1
sLJ
Ispah, ÛliLl Isfahan, &c.
ulfig,
&c.
24
This
initial

short vowel Persian system was extended (in
practice, not in theory) to all

f.
Arabic words used
in Persian
f.
with
for their initial letter.

(in practice) to
*
But the Arabic consonantal

be a Persian vowel
o
was then taken

o
,<-.*
1.
Thus,
J 1
;
uj^jl
was read ebvab,
\jz>\
Ibtida, Jôl usul
&c.
"When,
in Arabic, the
vowel of the
any
initial
consonantal
became
*
long, then, as with
other initial consonant, a

letter,
vowel
to
letter of prolongation,
*
a long vowel
I
was appended
>u,
the 1;
thus:
>I.
\\
pronounced
>a,
jl,
pronounced
^', pro-
nounced
This system passed also into use in Persian words, the

Arabic hemz& sign being omitted, even in Arabic words
adopted into Persian
;
and thus the combinations

;
11,
jl, ^1,
became the
respectively
initial
Persian long vowels

of.
c
.
being pronounced
o,
a,
u,
I.
Thus
L-J!!
ab,
^1
ubar, ty\ Tzed

ulii,
and
with words originally Arabic
111
aba, Vjl
11
Cl Ima
5
"
,
&c.
The Arabians found

They
the use of
",
somewhat cumbersome.
uJ
therefore invented a sign,
called medda,
\,
sj-
and j^
medd, to be placed over an
initial
with or without the
hemz&
b1l|
sign, to designate
bl >aba,
t->l
the long vowel.
Thus, instead of
they wrote
&c.
The
Persians adopted this system

*_>!!.
also,
writing
ab instead of
be found
The
double
system,
;
however,
is still to
in use in native Persian lexicons

1
where the
the two
II ,
first
section of chapter
I
.
is
generally figured with
not with

It
25
may be
useful to mention here, that the Arabian writers
employ
this sign of
I
medd
to
mark
is
a medial or a quasi-final
long vowel
heinze,
>aluna,
i.
whenever
this
I
followed in the word by a

jjjJslLa
e.,
a consonantal
Thus they write
yetesain
i\j+>.
hamnVu, &c.
These medd signs are omitted

*
;
Persian, as well as the final
so that
\j+*.
hamra
is
written,
as well as pronounced, for *1^.
&c.
folI
If a medial consonantal hemz& in an Arabic word be
lowed by a long vowel

into one
1
I,
the two are united, as in the initial

it
;
letter
with the medd sign over

is
as
JU
ma'al (for
JIU).
This also
occurs
in
adopted in Persian with such Arabic words

not being found
in
as
it
any original Persian
words.
The medd
sign
is
also used, in Arabic, sometimes taking

*,
another form, that of a small, perpendicular
to
mark the
traditional omission, in writing (not in pronunciation), of a
long vowel
j),
in a
few well-known words, such as
Jl 'llah (for
^\ >Hahi (for jfcVj), c
or
^^^
rahman
(for
is
cjC^),
&c.
This perpendicular small ellf-shaped medd

in Arabic,
also placed,
that,
sometimes over a
,
letter
1
to
mark
o -*
though
radically a j
it
is
ol
-
a long vowel
in
pronunciation, in the
two words
only, l^>.
hay tit (usually written
L^,
in
Persian
and Turkish oC>.) and SjU

Persian and Turkish
salat (usually written
sX*
in
oÛ.
26
The medd
sign
is
sometimes placed, in Arabic, over a long

in the
is
vowel j or ^, when they are followed by a hemz&

.
same
word
as in 2j-
suni,
t^
jpa.
This peculiarity
not used
in Persian or It
is
Turkish.
also sometimes placed over a long
vowel medial
\,
when
this letter is followed
by a reduplicated consonant in
it is
the same word; as:
jU miidde;
not used in Persian or
Turkish.
Such of the foregoing Arabic usages

in Persian for
as have been adopted

origin, are also
;
words of Persian or of Arabic

for the
employed
in
Ottoman Turkish
same words
though
they are sometimes omitted in ordinary writing.
We now
utterly
come
to a purely
Ottoman use of the medd
sign,
unknown
vowel
\
in
Arabic and Persian.
Thus
Whenever
an
initial
of an Ottoman word of Turkish or foreign

a,
(European or Indian) origin has the short sound of a or

the
medd
sign
is
placed over
a, e
;
it,
as a distinction from the
initial
sounds
a,
as: Jl^*T amiral (French), jrjT
M,
*Ltada (Turkish); but
JjU
asalet,
jjl'avval (Arabic),^! er
(Turkish; also Persian; but
two
different words).
initial
1
Another Ottoman peculiarity connected with the
when
followed in writing by a vowel or j
,j,
is
that these
two
vowels are not necessarily long vowels in words of Turkish

or foreign origin.
Thus o^l
ot,
^\
ur, yj\ utti, csUJj!
ntmek,
called
Î
oflchal,
jJ^J
Irlanda.
They may then be
THE LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY".

directing
vowels.
27
books and
In
many
old
or
provincial
writings, these directing vowels are often or systematically
omitted, the writers, from habit, or system, adhering to the

original
Arabic method of spelling by short vowel-points, for

This makes such
the most part omitted in current writing.
books and papers immensely
difficult to
read and understand.
The
three Arabic long vowels,
1,
j, (j,
having thus acquired
a footing as Ottoman short directing-vowels,
when
following
an
initial
letter
it
was found convenient
to extend
the
system, and to use them as short directing-vowels, following

initial or
medial consonants, thereby departing entirely from
the Arabic and Persian systems.

for distinguishing a long
There
letter
is
no method
in use
vowel
from a short one in an

origin.
Ottoman word of Turkish or foreign

venture to say that
all
We may
;
almost
such medial vowel-letters in Turkish

whereas, in
and foreign Ottoman words are short vowels

o * o o J
cx
x
Arabic and Persian words they are always long.

o
>
Thus
jjiU bash,
OxO-J J
j&
qir,
\J>f qAsh, <j*}UI

O*
1
aghlamaq, (j^)^
-OJ ^x"
sizlldl,
O sOJ *
".*
jjjj? boziilmaq,
dJ)^
bfizfllmek,
^jJjjf
gyflrfildfl,
di^î
gyurflnmek.
Hitherto
is,
we have
considered only the open syllables, that
those
which end with a vowel.
We
have now
to
treat
of the closed syllables,
those which end with a consonant.
In the original Arabic system, when a word or syllable
ended with a quiescent consonant,
a consonant not followed
28

letter in the
by a vowel sound or vowel
same
syllable,
such
consonant was marked, in pointed writings, by the sign

placed over
pa?
.
it,
which, as was before remarked,

t^G bab,
is
called jezra,
Thus
u-o beb,
^y
bub,
i_*.o
bib, &c.
It is a rule in classical Arabic, that
two quiescent con-
sonants
cannot follow one another in the

initials or as finals.
same
syllable,
whether as
Such a word or
syllable as
crust, tart, blurt, flirt, &c., is

initial
unknown.
As
in
far as
two such
vernacular
consonants go, this rule prevails

also,
the
Arabic
and has passed into the Persian and Turkish.

initial
Foreign words with such combinations of

to
consonants
words or
in a
syllables are treated in one of
two ways.
When
initial
word, they
may
1
be separated into two syllables,

generally with an esere vowel,
either by a servile vowel
being prefixed
calated
;
or by a vowel, generally esere, being interis
and when the combination
initial to
is
a non-initial
used, or the
syllable of a word, the latter method alone
syllables are so divided as to separate the
two consonants.
qiral,
Thus
K\tjma
has become
^&\ iqlim,
Tcral
has become Jî
prince has become 2:^ plrlnj, and Svizzera has become j$.y\
isvicher.
In classical Arabic, a
terminate
O c*
final
word
in a
phrase or clause could

as
:
in
two quiescent consonants

This liberty
is
)L, rabt,
J&
ilm,
^j* huzn, &c.
much used
in Persian,
Turkish,

and foreign, as well as
e>-ô durust, ^1 ard,
in
29
;
Arabic Ottoman words
thus
^^
piiins,
g^ plrlnj
it
{prince)
&c.
When
a letter in an Arabic word ends one syllable, and

in
is
begins the next
the same word,
is
not written twice,

two, in pointed
it.
but one sole letter

writings,
made
to serve for the

",
by having a
special mark,
placed over
j*i
This
mark
is
an abbreviation of the Arabic word
shed d, which
means a
strengthening, corroboration, reduplication.

w~*lc 'illet,
Thus we
have, oj-l shiddet,

oj vldd,
JU> baqqal, J&if. 'attar, j* medd,
J umm,
&c.
It
is
a sine qua non in
Ottoman reading,
and in correct speaking, to redouble such

nunciation.
letters in the pro-
We
can derive a correct idea of this reduplication

ill-luck,
by studying our expressions, mid-day,

But,
if
run next, &c.
such reduplicated Arabic word has passed into ver-
nacular
Ottoman
use,
;
then
as
the redoubling
in
is
excused
in
a
ordinary conversation
aqtar
;
the
words JUb baqal, ^Lkc
&c.
is
This reduplication
sequently,
really
unknown
words
thus ki*
in
Persian
conin
reduplicated Arabic
;
are
is
much used
Persian without reduplication

o -
generally used in
Persian as
into
\ai.
khat, and has thence, as similar words, passed
Ottoman Turkish.
On
the other hand, pedantic imitation
has commonly given to a few Persian words the Arabic peculiarity
of reduplication, so passing into Ottoman also
thus,
30

per (a wing),
is
sometimes pronounced
;
perr
and
jj^
perende, sjj^ perrend&
&c.
is
This reduplicating system
not used in correctly writing

it
Turkish Ottoman words, but

incorrect writings.
full in
o*X**l
is
sometimes met with in

should be written
in
The two
;
letters
such Turkish words
thus, jJujfr chulluq, jJJjf b611uq,
ernmek, &c.
The Arabic word

letter
1
hemze,
}*a,
besides being a
also the
name
for the
as before explained,
is
name of an
ortho-
graphic sign, mark, or point, very variously used in Arabic
and Persian.
Most of the
rules concerning
it,
which derive
from the two languages, have passed into Ottoman Turkish,

with an addition or two used in the Turkish transliteration
of foreign words.
Turkish words never require the

",
sign.
The hemze
sign,
would appear
to be a
diminutive head of
the letter c, thus indicating to the eye the guttural nature of the vocal enunciation
choke, in an
it
represents;
which
is,
in fact,
a softened
Arab mouth.
is
But
in Persian
and Turkish pro-
nunciation
it
a slight hiatus, at the beginning of a non-
initial syllable, or at
the end of any
syllable, initial,
it
medial
or
final.
It is placed over a letter

is
when
it,
bears the ustun
or lituru vowel, or
esere vowel.
quiescent
under
generally, with the
The hemze,
in a
word of Arabic
I
origin,
always represents
servile.
a consonantal letter
sometimes radical, sometimes

In Persian words, the theory of the sign
Arabic, but the sign itself
or nearly so.
is
is
31
the
same as
in
always
servile,
and either
final
When
word,
a hemze, radical or servile,
is
initial
in
an Arabic
it is
never written or pronounced
in
Persian or Turkish.
is
The
letter is then
taken to be a vowel, and

;
treated accord-
ingly.
Jjl
ibll
Tbus, JJ'emel, becomes jll emel

l
;
Jo! >lbll,
all
become*
radicals,
c
;
2>
J >umm, becomes J Amm.

o x,
These are
o
***
and
short.
So again, J&\
0x0
>ef kyar,
O
J I
;
becomes J&\ efkyar

O
JlJl
;
JJ
nqbal, becomes
JU1
Iqbal
These
initials
are all
ttmur &c. ^jj >umur, becomes^*! The modes and servile, and short.
doctrine of making them into long vowels have already been

described.
1
In Persian, Turkish, and foreign words, an

is
initial
if
is
always a vowel, and
made long
in the
same way as
the
word were of Arabic
origin, as has
been said before.

is
When
medial or
play.
a hemze, radical or servile, in an Arabic word,

final,
a rather numerous body of rules come into

letter
1 ,
Sometimes the
then always called hemze,

it,
1
is
written, together with the hemze sign over
(as in
^^ re's),
and sometimes the hemze sign above

now, without the
yetesfi>elun.
1
is
figured, as a letter
;
in the
body of the word
as in ^^Llii
is
o
In the former of these two cases, the hemze

quiescent consonant
in its syllable
;
usually a
re>-fet,
final,
as,
oil,
is
^C rae>-men, &c.
consonant of
its
In the latter case, the hemze

final syllable,
the
initial
medial or
movent with
32
tkttin
;

as in
;
\^
is,
juz-^n, \%J*
jezfi'dn, &c.
But
it
may
also
be both
that
a quiescent
hemz& may terminate one
syllable,
while another, a movent hemze,
may
begin the next syllable.

I
In
this case, as
is
with any other consonant so occurring, one

it
;
alone
written, with a hemz6 sign over

is
and above
this,
it
the teshdid sign

irf
superadded, with an
tistftn
sign over
in
again
as in Jli"
;
tefe>->el.
This step never occurs

is
Turkish
clear
phrases
but the explanation
needed, so as to
make
what
follows.
usttin,
is
This reduplicated medial hemze, movent with

sometimes followed by a long vowel
'
In
this case, instead

1
*,
of writing, for instance,
<jjl, ra>->as,
the two letters
are com-
bined into one, with the signs

the istun vowel
;
medd and hemze, and without

This combinain derivative
thus, (jJ. ra>->as, as before.
tion is of very rare occurrence,
happening only
words, of which the root

radical.
is triliteral,
with hemz
for
second
But a movent
initial
hemz& of a
1,
syllable, medial in a
word,
may
It
is
be followed by a long vowel
without being reduplicated.

1
then figured by a single written

signs
;
with the hemz& and
medd
as,
JU
m&>al, &c.
in
These combinations, when used

and teshdid
signs,
Turkish, drop the hemz&
but preserve the

is
medd
sign.
The ustuu
& into d,
vowel that precedes such medd sign
hardened from

on account of the following
sonant.
a,
33
soft con-
even with a preceding
But,
esere,
when such medial

is
or final
hemze
is
itself raovent
\
with
it
no longer written in the form of
it
then takes
it
;
the form of ^5, without dots, and with a hemz& sign over
as, {Jjfj rens.
If
its
vowel
it
;
is
uturu,
as,
it is
written as a
letter,
with hemze sign over
ru'us.
In these two
examples the vowels are long
but there are words in Arabic

in
some perchance used
in Turkish,
which they are

*
short.
Of
course,
the
long vowel letters do not then follow the

o o jo*
modified, disguised hemze.
Thus,
^^
or
ra'ls,
^Jjl eb'us.
Moreover, when such medial
final
hemze, whether
movent or quiescent,
esere, the hemz&
is
is
preceded by a consonant movent with
figured as a letter
is
and when movent

;
with dturu, the hernz&
written as a letter j
* o
;
in either case
*
oJ
surmounted by a hemze sign
thus, (JU ^> bl>sa,
^g
buâ.
Such disguised medial hemz&

vowel
letter; as, ^ly ffbad, JjJ~-
may
be followed by a long
mesnil,
U J;
re'Is.
If the
hemze be changed
vowel
1
into a
^ ^
figure,
in
and be followed by a long
it
becomes changed
;
Turkish, and sometimes in

i^*
l^,
Arabic, into a consonant

rl'aset).
as in
rlyaset (for o*~U;
There
is
a striking peculiarity in certain Turkish Ottoman
derivatives,
which causes great embarrassment
to students,
and has
filled
continental Turkish dictionaries and
grammar*
34
with totally misguiding examples and rules of pronunciation, with regard to the interchangeable vowel-letters j and
^5.
The
was
peculiarity arose, I imagine,

provincial,
when
all
Ottoman Turkish
and was governed by the pronunciation of

in use,
its
Asia Minor, variously modified
various
provinces.
Thus the
earliest
writers
made
in all
such derivative
all).
words, of the vowel-letter j (when they used any at
They, therefore, wrote
t~>j^ gelub,
;
<^>j^ gldub,
t_jj.U
qachub,
;
Vj^
qinib,
C-JJL^ qiirub
and j&U bdshlu, jJUl

in course of time, in
ellu
&c.
These derivatives became,
Europe, and
in Constantinople, modified in pronunciation into gellb, gldlb,
q&chib, qirib, qurub, bashH,
elll, <fcc.
The orthography, how-
ever, has remained sacred, excepting in the case of provincials,
who sometimes
C-AJ^J
,
write, as they pronounce,
i_*jf ,
V-AJ.J^,
*-*-^
>
vjjy
(^lj
$\
&c.
This subject will be further
developed in the paragraphs
on Euphony.
Proceed we now
to the phonetic values of the consonants.
The
letter
t_j
equally used in Ottoman words of Arabic,
Persian, Turkish, and foreign origin, has the value of our b

generally, whether
it
be
initial,
medial, or final in a word.
Thus
l>\jj
Jj
bed,
blr,
j*
bar, j-j biz,

;
jy
buz, buz, buz, boz
rlbat,
L-J/*.
L,
rabt,
c^j subut
;
LjGi kltab, t_jji. jenub,
^J\
final,
erib,
barb, t-Ja qalb
&c.
it
But when medial or
ending a syllable or word,
sometimes, anomalously, takes
TITE
LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHT.
35
the value of our p.

<L>j
Thus
it is
common
to hear,
is
uAjL)
kltap,
top, Ijol iptldii, in
gk$
L_JJ
;
kltfipji.
Especially
gldlp,
this the
cae
with the gerunds
as,
^j-$>
cjjlf
g&Hp, vjj>^
yazip, ilyji/l oqiiyup,
c^S
L_J
qirip.
Tlie Persian letter
is
our p
in all positions: ^jj

L-A-.)
peder,
^CT ipar,
u_*jj Ip.
The Persian word
esp,
and the Turkish
word
L-}jL>
top, are usually written with
i_>.
The Arabic
Uis fetva,
it is
is
our
t in all
positions
taj, taj, JJl etel,
ol
et,
oT at,
c^l
It,
o^l
6t.
In Turkish grammar
in derivatives,
sometimes changed into movent
.>
when
it
oJ
is
originally final
and quiescent
as,
o, J
durt,
^^
git,
JoJej
durdunjil,
d^j
it,
durdun, 5^^ durde,
^^ durdu, ^^ durdum,
^X;!
;
&c.
c^jl
^Sj] Ider, cl^JuJ Idlp,
Idljl
^J
^jj
glder,
*Lji-? gldlp,
^^
tli is
gldljl
&c.
in
The Arabic
found in Arabic words only, and
a very
few borrowed from the Greek.

our th
in think;
Its original value is that of
so that cjlybl fiya-thulug, for 07^0? #60^.0705,
was not
as bad as our bishop for einovcoTro?.

this value is
z)
;
But
is
in
Turkish
and Persian
as our
s
unknown
the letter
is
pronounced
O
O
(sharp, never
O
-
aya-sulug
therefore the Turkish

C^*
-"
name of Ephesus,
&c.
a
t
;
i^j\3 is
pronounced
siiblt,^! eser, ti>lja.l Ihdfis,
In some Arabic-speaking countries

as,
this letter has
become
d>&
tdlata, &c.
The Arabic -
in
Turkish
is
our
soft g,
which we represent
36

in all
by a j
Thus,
positions of all words,
whatever their
origin.
(j-^. jine,
^>\ (J
it
ejuas,
-Ul
aghaj.
like our
it
In some Arabic-
speaking countries
raesgld,
is
pronounced
hard g
as, jsr**
6sf
segda, &c.
Sometimes
takes the sharp sound
of
q.v.
The Persian _ has

in crutch.
literations,
r,
the value of our ch in church, of our tch

latter
We
O
never use the
orthography
(
in
our trans-
always the former

J J
x
as,
J
^^\ achmaq, J. cham,

O
>\
r
Ci^ja.
isisT^"
churek,
chlchek.
vjjf* chnruk,
l^ja. chorba,
ich,
eU
chek,
In Turkish derivation, this
letter,
in
Turkish
or foreign
(not Persian, and there are no Arabic) words,

-.,
sometimes becomes Arabic
but not as a rule.
The Arabic
horse, hurl, her
;
has the harshly aspirated sound of our h in

not
its soft
sound, as heard in head, him, half,

;
&c.
It
is
chiefly
used in Arabic words

fettah,
as,
,-Â- hisin,
it
v^wa. huseyn,
_&
^
it
j^rh.
5,
We
q.v.
represent
by
some adopt
h, to distinguish
from
Aspirate
it
always.
It
is
The Arabic ^
has no equivalent in our language.
the
It
counterpart of the Scotch and

is
German
ch in loch, ich, &c.
generally transliterated kh, as in the present treatise.

its
Until
the student has learnt

sider
it
true pronunciation, he should conA,
as
a variety of
and never pronounce
it
as a k,
especially
when
it
O
is
"-*
initial.
00 "
-
Thus
khidlv (pronounce jiîhudfi...),
hidiv, not kldiv),
^Lijaj'î.
khdd..vendghyar (pron.

Ikhlfimur. ^.U shfikh, jj+y-\
In Turkish words, this

j;
,
letter is
often used, provincially, for
and
is
itself
sometimes prolill
nounced j.
Thus,
plifi
bakh&lim (for ^JUb baqdlim),
aqsham
(for
&khsham).
s is
The Arabic
our d in
all classes
it
of Ottoman words, and

that,
requires no comment, unless

derivation
place of
as,
be to repeat
it
in the
of Turkish words only,

is
sometimes takes the

;
o, and
used instead of U in original words also

;
dJL^gltmek, Jl^glder
ilL,
lb
d&gh.
is
The Arabic
j, in
an Ottoman mouth,
Different
this,
z.
It
is
found in
Arabic words alone.

it
o Q
Arab communities pronounce

z.
as our soft th in
s
QC>-
as a d, or as a
o j
The Turk
o x
reads,
ji.1
akhz,
ji
zlkr
.
(v?</^. zlklr),
is
jj.u me^khuz,
^,jj
bezr.
The Arabic
words
:
our r in every position, in

re 3 fet,
all
classes of
thus,
e^
^b bar,
^,1
ard.
it
is
There are two

necessary for the
to
important remarks, however, which
English student to bear in mind with respect to this,

peculiar
letter.
him,
Firstly,
it
must always be pronounced (never

pa't)
;
dropped or slurred over, as we pronounce part,

secondly, the value of the vowel before
it
and
in the
same
syllable
\
must never be corrupted

for, far
;
(as
when we pronounce
pot, pat
cur,
cur
;
&c.), but always kept
pure, as with any

sur,
other consonant
thus,
qir
;
^
&c.
q6r,
qiir,
jfgyur,
&c.
pir,
j*
qlr,
JJ
38
OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAM3IAR.
ox
i\j
The Arabic j
o
is
o
our z in every word and every position

j
oo x
O"
<i*
z~id,
i\z
j_>_j
zir,
jjj
z6r,
ziir,
y^>
nezc1 >
^z >
^z>
~ lz >
jjl
&c.
is
The Persian J
it is
only found in Persian and French words

s
of the value of our

;
in treasure, pleasure,
and
is
transeta-
literated zh
as,
j\j
zhazh,
8-î pezhmurde, ^jjLLJl
mazh6r, &c.
It
<j
is
of very rare occurrence. a soft

s,
The Arabic
in all
O Ox
is
always followed by a
z
;
soft
vowel
asii,
words.
O
It
must never be pronounced as
thus, ill
jS
qavs,
jj-
suz, sdz.
is
The Arabic yi
i
our
sh,
always
as,
ill shad,
^\
ish,
neshr.
^ja,
The Arabic
in Turkish,
is
a hard
5,
used
in
Turkish,
thus,
J2>\
it z.
and foreign words

i\ss,
also, to designate a hard
vowel
,j*^l
asmaq, j^-sj^ susmaq, j.n.^ qismaq. Never read
The Arabic
only.
is
very peculiar, being used in Arabic words
It is generally
pronounced as a hard z
;
in
Turkish, but
;
sometimes as a hard d
x
C"O^
thus,
J>\j razi,
Us
O
qaza, ^llil enqilz

O
O-O^
^^
Û qadf, jClj! Û
&c.
Its
qazl-'l-'asker
is
(vulg.^CLc
^
^
qaz'-'a^ker),
Arabic sound
inimitable to a
European without
long practice.
The Arabic
t>,
besides being an element of Arabic words,

t,
always as a hard
is
used in Turkish and foreign words,

d,
sometimes with that value, sometimes as a very hard
when

Thus,
diigh, jjo tuz,
39
il&
c>
Oxx
tiilQ',
qiitr,
i.khatt;
jik
tatll,
OxOxOx
j;+iKjli>
ÎAJ? tiqdmdq,
is
davranmaq.
o
The Arabic k
z.
used in Arabic words only, as a very hard

J
Thus, Jt
zallm,
Jk
ziilm,
JLU
zifr,
jLb
zdfer,
LI
hazz,
kjks? mahzuz.
The Arabic c
only.
It
is
is.
as
a general rule, used in Arabic words
a strong guttural convulsion in an
Arab
throat,
softened in Turkish to a hiatus, and often disappearing entirely.
"We represent
it
by a Greek
spiritus asper.
1
Thus, âc
.
'asr,
^L
ta'n,
^jJL melun,
ik5 qat',
is,
cjW
maqtu
The Turkish
derivatives,
word
'anlbd (for AJ^C
^1)
however, with
its
always written with
this letter, of course corruptly.
The Arabic c
hard
g,
is,
originally,
a peculiar Arabian kind of
with a sound vergeiug on that of the French r grasseye,

imitate.
which English dandies sometimes

pronunciation
it
But
in Turkish
initial
;
is
either a simple hard g,
when
as,
uji
gallb,
dilfi gaflet, sill
gay da, &c.; and either that when
medial or
final in
Arabic words only, or like our softened gh

;
in Turkish words
often
disappearing,
or nearly
so,
and
changing, like
it,
into a
sound after or before an

^yi* magfur
;
iltilrn
hard vowel.
aghlamaq, clt
O J
Thus,
dilgh,
O
JlLil Igfal, c.^, sadg,
^^\
^^
is
oldAwî, Îc^* sowau, J^-Jo diwan,

s J
s6wuq
jjcUo tawAq,
ô^
IfiwAti
&c.
all
The Arabic ^J
our
in all
words and
positions.
40

is
There
no reason whatever
to write
the senseless, false
Latin-French ph instead of
khalife, alll.
as in caliph, a corruption of
Thus,
j;
is
JT
g-
farz, klf lafz,
J^
all
it
t
sof.
The Arabic
is
our
in all
words and
positions.
is
It
erroneous and regrettable to represent
by k as
generally
done.
rectly
The words
rendered,
^J^J qur>fm,
jjl
aq,
o5j wqt,
represent
are thus corlegitimate
leaving
the k to
its
ancestor, d.
The Arabic
d, in
all
words and
all
positions, is our k.
1
When
initial in
a word or syllable before a long

it
or j vowel,
and also before a short utAru vowel,

mouth, the sound of a y after
borrows, in an Ottoman
itself before the
vowel
but not
I
so before the short ustur, the short esere, or the long
vowel.
kcdl,
Thus, iLitf'kyazib,
^^\
6kyul,
Its
ab^9
kyilpek
^^=
J^s
kli-Jim,
J^^sj
vekil.
name, in Arabic, requires no

it
addition;
but in Persian and Turkish
has to be distin-
guished from the Persian letter of the same form, but widely
different phonetic value.
It
is
then termed
A-J-J^C
^_J$
it
kyafl
'areblyye.
In Arabic and Persian Ottoman words

inflexion
;
remains
unchangeable by grammatical
words,
but
in
Turkish
on
when
final,
it
undergoes
is
phonetic degradation
becoming movent, and

even as a y
;
pronounced as a Persian d, and
or sometimes as a
Ipeylfi,
after
an uturu vowel.
Thus, dLjl lp&, c&SLjJ
&L>\ Ipeye,
jCj
Ipeyl
e)^l

sftluk,
41
dL^jJj-j suluyuii,
i.=^ suluye, ^>^ suluyu;

(
Itmek,
^ ^"*--*\ Itmeyln.
v, called A _-^Ls
The Persian
_jo
It is
kyiifl
filrlslyye,
and
^sF
^Û
is
_90
kyzifl farlsi, or
is
,j^
_j^kyafl
^.
'ajarai (vulg.
^J
final
'ajam kafl),
the Persian ârd

in
unknown
is
*
in Arabic,
in
unchangeable
Persian words,
syllables.
;
and
O
never
Turkish words or
A^=^-* sege, ^^1, segl
it is
Thus,
u*L
seg,
(*i^-
Ox
segln,
J^ gal.
its
In ordinary writing and print

Arabic original
O */
V
:
undistinguished from
it
but the Persians

s
mark
with a double dash

it is
JS gjulj
^' &-*
^g-
In
some
Turkish books
marked with three
dots: J5,
*' ^ du.
The Ottoman
d, ignored
by
all
previous writers, eastern
and western, consequently nameless, but which we venture

to
term
jJlJ-ff
t_^S
kyafl 'osmanlyye, the Ottoman

final,
ts),
is
found in Turkish words only, as a medial or a

as an initial to a word,
never
though
it is
used as an
is
initial
letter in
a non-initial syllable.
all cases,
Its phonetic value
that of our y in
it.
though
it
has no
mark
to distinguish
;
It is
it
both
radical, as in
dJ bey, J^S
dlyll,
^^. ylylrml
as in
or
is
gram-
matical, declensional, servile, representing a softened Arabic

radical or servile d,
become movent,
*b^^
kydpeyl
kyupek,
;
e&Cp
.
kyupeyln,
iJl^kyupeye,
;
^^
ctLJ^l
surmek, ^cCJ^j--* surmeyln

savdlyln,
d^
savdlk, jCj^j_-. savdlyim,
o^j-
sivdlyl.
Most European
writers
42

;
represent this value by gh
but the practice
is
insufficiently
considered, and altogether misleading.
The Ottoman
nasal d, distinguished by the

is
name of surd
n,
^jiyiU saghir nun,

of the letter
<<*),
a second special Turkish phonetic value
or nasal letter, which
we
transliterate with the
Spanish nasal
n.
It has the phonetic value of our English
ng
it
nasal, as in sing, thing, &c.
In ordinary writing and

it
;
print,
has no
mark by which a student may recognize

it,
but some-
times three dots distinguish
and one recent writer has

with him the three
dots,
t<*)
marked
it
with one
dot,
<<*)
(as
serve to point out the Persian letter or sound).

is
This value
never
initial to a
word.
;
As
as,
a medial,
(
it
sometimes ends,
(vulg.
sometimes begins a syllable
j+\ s,\ aiilamaq

J>j<L* gyuiiul,
annadenlz,
maq),
JLf==T
it
^^
ailiz,
lanil (vulg. till)
jÎ
s^jfp s6iir& (vulg. sAra).

;
When
final to
a word,
c*L-
is
usually sounded as a simple n
as, i*L bei! (ben),
sanlii (sanln),
ti^galln (gdlln),
final it is
oJlL daii
(dan),
s6n (sin).
When
is
medially
usually softened in like manner, or
elided in pronunciation.
In
jpM<^l and
is
its
derivates (itself
derived from e)Taii), the following J
exceptionally incor-
porated
with
it
in
pronunciation, as though by a kind of
inversion of the Arabic rule of conversion for the
J of the
which
definite article J! before certain letters called solar (for
see next paragraph on letter J).
The Arabic J
is
our letter
in all
words and
all
positions

as, rj
43
luzum,
aUn,
is,
Jb
dal.
The Turkish word

modern Ottoman
for the con-
mentioned above,
with
;
its
derivatives, a
exception of the capital
and the Arabic rule

,
version of the J of the definite article Jl
in pronunciation,
when
letter,
followed by a noun or pronoun beginning with a solar
ur*^
J/* harfl shemsi, into that solar letter redupliis
cated by
a teshdid,
a classical exception, peculiar to Arabic
compounds.
The
solar letters are fourteen in

;
number (exactly
u**
the half of the alphabet)
viz.,
o,
cl>,
^,
^>j>j>
u*
>
\j>
\j,
>
Tnus we have B^Jl
et-tln,
es-s^mn, tjTf ed-dA 'ii, Ji=jJi ez-zlkr,
^^Jf JUTi
t
es-semen,
es-semek,
esh-shems (whence the name of

ed-dnh^, ez-zuhd,
O
'&''
j^>)
l^Jl es-safa,
jJlkJl
et-tall',
(
jljl
yj
'
ez-zilm,
its
^1
*
el-
lazlm, ^^Jl en-nur.
In the pronoun ^JJI
and
derivatives,
the written
J
,
of the article disappears also.

is
The
sign
placed
over the J
junction
;
so omitted in pronunciation,
is
named
vwasl, J-y
and
the letter
^
^
of that word, specially modified.
The Arabic
all
letters +
and
are our
772
and n respectively,
in
words and positions: JU mal,

hAzn.
letter
JJ
ernel,
~j beulm,ykU nazlr,
^j*.
The Arabic
vowel.
is
sometimes a consonant, sometimes a

it
When
a consonant,
has the phonetic value of our
v,
of our w, or of these two combined, the v beginning, and the
ending the sound of the
letter.
Thus,
J(j var,
^\j>- jewab,
44
j-j vwasf,
differences.

3lj
vwaqf.
The
ear
alone can
is
decide
these
But when the consonant j

it
reduplicated in an
as, Jjl avval, Jlja
it,
Arabic word,
qavval.
has always the v value;
Ottoman corruption even then may sound
in
hard
uJlji
lettered words, as a reduplicated
qawwul.
The word
qawwaf
\
(or u_sî
qawaf)
is
an Ottoman corruption of Arabic
iUi. khaflfaf.
When
it
the letter j
is
a vowel in an Arabic or Persian word,
always has the value of u; excepting a few Persian words,

in
become Ottoman vernaculars,

Thus,
^j^5
which
;
it
takes the sound of

;
6.
lurum, ^j^**
memnun
.j
shiir
c^-^-i
do.-t (dust),
it
,j^
of
6,
khosh (khush).
In Turkish and foreign words
is
generally, if not always, short, and

or of u, u, u,
may have
either the value
which there
is
no means of distinguishing,
save that of accompanying hard or soft consonants.
With
hard consonant, in a Turkish or foreign word, the vowel-letter
j (often omitted) must have the sound of either o or u, unless it be considered thus, jî long, when it becomes 6 or u
;
qomaq,
either
J^,ji>
qurmaq.
u,
With
u
;
a soft consonant,
it
must be read
suzlu.
u or
or
as,
d^ji yuzmek,
If
all
j-)j^-*
the accompanying consonant or consonants
be neutral,
suz.
guidance
is
lost
as,
is,
\y
b6z,
buz, buz, jj-. suz,
In
derivatives there
however, frequently a servile vowel or

o
^
J
t
J J
consonant, hard or
soft,
that helps.
Thus,
;
^jy
but
bozan,
J^^J
buzlulAq, &*jj> buzmek, Cil^j-* suzmek
y^*
suz has no

such helping derivative.
individual ear
classes
45
As
to the long
and short value, each
must decide
for itself in
words of these two

is
Turkish and foreign.

1
Vowel j
an
never
initial
it
must be preceded by
O'OJ
O
* r
to represent
initial
uturu sound
as, jjjjl olrnaq, aLjjl
ulmek, &c.
5
The Arabic
letter
has already been fully discussed.
The Arabic
vowel.
letter ,j, like the j, is either a
consonant or a
When
whether
a consonant,
it
it
has the value of our consonant
y,
be
initial,
medial, or fiual, simple or reduplicated.
Especially must
this
be understood when the
letter is con-
sonantally fiual in an Arabic word.

as a consonant,
As
by
a consonant, and only
we
transliterate
it
a y.
Therefore,
it
when
must
we
use a y as the
final
of a transliterated Arabic word,

i
be read and sounded as such, never as an
vowel
an obser-
vation that continental scholars do not generally understand,

unless they
c
-
may be Germans.
o
yedek,
jt,
yaz, j^_ yuz,

ox
^
oox
OX
Thus we have: j>_ OjJ o>.
yer,
djj
beyn,
^^
boyun
og,
shey, ^\j re<y,
mey,
hayy,
^
is
Ccix
qayyum,
00-
pey,
vely,
c^
^
t
0,x
remy,
at
first,
JjJ
veshy, ^1* meshy.
This
it
a difficulty to a student
as
we have
the
nothing like
a vowel,
in
it
in English.
When
or
i
is
is
never
initial.
If a vowel
sound be
initial
any Ottoman word (Arabic, Persian,

if written, is
Turkish, or foreign), the ^,
always preceded by
46
an
1

;
as,
^jjl
Idl,
j-oV/J irlainaq.
When
;
medial,
it is
always.
long
in
Arabic and Persian words
as, j+*\
emTr,
^cj bin.
In Turkish and foreign words, medial vowel

not always short;
in
as, iÛ^j vlrinek,
it is
(j is generally, if
j^J
&c.
qirmaq.
"When
qiizi,
final
an Arabic word,
also always short; as,
Û
^^
hosts
razi,
cb
dfi'i,
<^,U
jaii,
^l-
sari,
But there are
of Arabic words ending in reduplicated consonantal ^, which,

iu
Persian and Turkish, are used as Arabic words, generally

1
adjectives, terminating in a long vowel

<jj^* senevi,
or
as,
^^_ yevmi,
jJas qat'i,
^î
shehri,
.^c
'arebi,
^jt
faiisi,
Li\ Afiiqi, (JiAa. hlfzi,
&c.
When
their
these become feminine, the
reduplicated nature of
final
&~*h.9
consonantal
<_$
becomes
apparent;
as,
&*>
yevmlyye,
qat'iyye, &c.
There are many Persian derivative words, adjectives or

substantives
really end
(besides
in
others
not used
in
Turkish), which
long vowel ^.
The
adjectives are precisely
similar to the Arabic adjectives just described, as modified in
Persian and Turkish

x
but they have no feminine.
Thus,
" O J
jbU.
shahi, 'royal;'
(jjj***.
khiisrevl, 'imperial;' \^'}j^ shirfizT,
'of Shiraz;' &c.

'
The
substantives indicate abstract qualities;

'
a?,
(^^
;'
shilhi,
royalty
;'
\j>\) veziii,
vezirial office or func-
tions
&c.
final
Turkish and foreign

short vowel
sin!,
;
^, radical or
ari,
fec.
;
servile, is
always a
as,
^jo kedl,
^1
baba^j\ evl, ^**CC
>/\
6dayl,
^}
terejl, &c.
TUB LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY.
47
The vowels
arid
>
are
sometimes interchangeable in
Turkish words and derivations, and are sometimes omitted,

without any inflexible rule being assignable.
Thus, dul^jl
eL,u^J
is
:
e*C*2.1
Itmemek, are
all
admissible.
The
true rule
" Never introduce a vowel letter into a Turkish or foreign

possible doubt as to pronunciation
if
;
word without removing a
never leave out a vowel in such word,
by the omission a
of
doubt
is
created as to pronunciation."
is
The orthography
Arabic and Persian words

variation.
fixed,
and admits of no such
Persian words admit, however, of abbreviation by

;
the omission of a vowel

(vulg.
as, sU.
shah,
;
^ sheh
sUob padshah
jJLiaU,
padlsh!ih),
iuiolj
padsheh
&Jtl
shahlnshah,
;
shahlnsheh, sllî shehinshah,
<LJ^ shehlusheh
<_$
&c.
In many
Turkish words the vowels j and
are used for
one another by different writers, at different times, in different

places
;
even at one place and time
even by one writer at

;
different times, or in the selfsame
document
but this
last as
is
a license or an inadvertency.
advisable.
Consistency in this matter
Thus we have:
jj\ aru,
jU>b, b&shln,
Jib
bashli,
gelAr,
JO^gellr
^l
dri
&c.;
words
differently written, but
the selfsame in reality.
The Ottoman alphabet

sonants, hard, soft,
is
divided into three classes of con-
and neutral.
, ,
The hard
c, c, j.
(
letters are nine in
number
^ ^
,
L, k
(j,
The
soft letters
letters,
are only six
The remaining
48

:
sixteen in the whole, are neutral
LJ
i> , i> ,-.,, A, i,j
As
word
the orthography of every Arabic and Persian

is
Ottoman
fixed and unchangeable,
it is only in
Turkish and
foreign
Ottoman words, and
in
the declensions and conjugarules relating to hard

is
tions of all
Ottoman words, that the

This
and
soft letters are carried out.
the
first
and chief
part of the beautiful system of Ottoman euphony.
If any one of the hard or soft consonants
is
used
in
Turkish Ottoman word,

letters of the word, of
its
all
the
other
radical
and
servile
derivations, and of
class, or
its
declension
or conjugation,
must be of the same

<!*Lp
of the neuters.
^jo*J6 qazdigM,
Thus we have: j^lS qazmaq,
gezmek
;
J^J gizdlyl
jj^fii
qarliq,
^Jj/gydzluk
&c.
The Ottoman vowels

hard vowels are
:
are also of these three classes.

!, T,
The
soft
a, a,
:
6, 5,
li,
eight in
all.
The
vowels also eight

are
a, a, a.
a, e,
1,
i,
u, u, u, u.
The
neutral vowels
their
These vowels always accompany

or
own
class
of consonants,
the
neutrals.
The
neutral
vowels can
:
accompany any class of consonant.

Cl ana, lib pasha,
Thus we have
bb bukl,
&an,
ben, j^,J qirmaq, duJ-T glrmek,
jôjii
qomdq, J^js qArmaq, iÛJ^gyuzetmek, isl^jTgy \irmek.

in a
When
letter, its
Turkish Ottoman word a vowel
is
the dominant
consonant or consonants being neutrals, the decleu-

sion, conjugation,
49
and derivation from that word follow the

;
class to
O O ^s
Jjjjfrl
which the dominant vowel belongs

Ox xo
O^ O J
thus,
O--
^J\ atmaq,
;
xG J
aghirliq,
j*V^l irlamaq, <j^jl umrnaq, jJ/jl 6ghramaq

(sJuJjl
dll Jl elemek,
inmek,
csLjji
yuzmek, (Jl^l urmek.

is
When
from,
in
an Arabic or Persian word
declined or derived
letter or
Ottoman Turkish,
its
last
dominant
vowel
decides whether the declension or derivation shall be
made
oo x^
with hard or soft letters and vowels

rJO
Jcx
;
Ox
jj*l
thus, Ljj^* merbut,

o
"*"
>
j^l?^* merbutluq
asanliq
;
emir,
dJ^J
emirllk
^Ll
asan, j^liU
&c.
When
the sole dominant vowel of a Turkish Ottoman word,
or the last dominant letter or vowel of a Turkish, Arabic,
Persian, or foreign
or soft,
all
Ottoman word,
is
of the o or u
class,
hard
possible consonants, and
all
vowels in the declension,
conjugation, or derivation therefrom, not only conform to the

class of
such dominant, but furthermore,
all
consecutive servile
esere,
vowels in the derivatives that would otherwise be
become
liturti,
of the class of the dominant

is
that
is,
become
A when the dominant

dominant
61dA
;
6 or
li,
and become u when the
is ft
or
ti ;
thus, {^>j\ olgnn, <jILi)j! olgAnhiq, ^jJjl
u<*j> tutgnn,
jL2jL
titgiinliiq,
^jl^> tutdii
;
dl
surukdurulmek
mek,
(sC,*, surush;
ek, dijjj.,*, surAshdurAlmek eilj^*, surAshdurmek, dij^j^j.,*, surAs

J
gydrushmek,
ttlJJy^
gyurushdurmek,
E
50

But
if,
gyurushdurulmek.
in
such words, an ustun vowel
come
in
by the ordinary course of derivation or conjugation,

syllable
and be followed by a
or
syllables with
is
an esere
destroyed
vowel, the influence of the radical dominant uturu
by such intervention
o
- o 1 t
as, <jî)jj
;
maqliq, jyuUi)^ b6zushmaghin
bozAshmaq, j>lJUi^> bozAshO'ojj^ ooxoJJ 1*1^^ gyurushmek,
gyurdshmekllk,
^^Cl
CHAPTER
II.
THE OTTOMAN ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY.

SECTION t
The Noun Substantive.
THERE
special
isJcjl
is
no gender.
If the female of an animal has not a
name,
as, jjjlk (tawiiq),

jpsite
a hen, jjl^J (qisraq), a mare,

is
(mek), a cow,
us,
;
(qanjiq), a bitch, the female

O
named,
xO Cx
as
with
she...,
Jb
.>
(dlshi)
as, ^^Lj,!
.Jjo
(dlshl arslan),
is
lioness
&c.
If the female be a girl or

is
woman, she
never
(qarf),
named
dlshl,
but
mentioned as j
as,
or (qiz), maiden,
(qiz khizmetjl),
;
^J
matron, accordingly;
^s?*Ji^J
or^J ^^* j*.
(khizmetjl qiz), a servant maid, a maidservant

ashji), or
js^\ ^Ja (qaii
^15
is,
.c?^' (ashji qari), a
woman
cook,
a cook woman.
There
really,
no declension of nouns in Turkish; but
the prepositions, perhaps eight in number,
by some termed
postpositions, are subjoined to the noun, singular or plural,
the plural being always formed by adding the syllable^!

ler) to the singular
O J
;
(lar,
thus
O x
O J
Nom.
Gen.
jjjl
-9
6q
(arrow?),
j-^-*j\
-"O
6qlar (arrows).
oqlarin.
(^5jl
6qun
{of
),
e^lsjl
52
Dat.
ACCIDENCE OR ETYMOLOGY.
A-frb
chardagha,
it
i*b,
chardaghi.
Those
in
Arabic
soften
into
Turkish
(Ip6y6),
(y value); eSÎ (ip6k), si7&, dCCljl

1
(Ipeyln),
jLll
Jv- (*PW-
Those
sfontf,
in Persian
(0
value), do not change it; as, diL- seng,
dx_i* (sengln),
L; (senge),
jCL
(sengl).
These
tives
;
rules do not apply to Arabic and Persian substan-
these retain their final
or
unchanged
unless the
as
borrowed word has passed

everyday expression
Singulars ending
;
into the
mouth of the vulgar
an
as, ,jp~9 fistiq,
dil-J flstighin, &c.
in a vowel, take
in the genitive,
and
consonant
in the
dative and accusative, to support the
vowel taken by a
(babauin),
final
consonant
as,
UL (baba), father,
dliUlj
M>
(babayd),
A^J
^lAT
(babayi);
jJ (qapA),
door, gate,
dJjJ (qapAnAn),
dominates)
;
(qapuya),
t
^jJ
(qapAyu, where uturu
^J\ (ari), bee dc^jT (ariniia), * *

s
<u^T *
(arlya, written
(ariyi)
;
separately on account of
two
letters ^),
^^
(^^.3
(kedl), cat, db.jT(k6dinlfi),
^^(kedlye), ^.^jS^kedlyl),
5
&c.
Singulars ending in vowel

sign of the plural, in writing
;
do not join
this letter to the
as, sj-j (pide),
JJ^J
its
(pideler).
The word y>

dij-
(sii),
water irregularly forms

,
genitive as
(suyun, almost the only exception or irregularity in the

<jj*>
language).
(s6y),sor, ends in a consonant, and
is
regular;
>J* (s6yun), 4ji (soya),
J^,
(s6yii).
54

Arabic and Persian substantives never change their
final
consonants for declension

elllj
(Imsak), refraining,
j^> (tabaq), plate, &iL> tabaqin

;
iS\L*\ (Imsake)
final
oi
(slat),
worship, (jXe (salati).
Their
vowels follow the same

Icj (du'a), prayer,
rules with those in Turkish
words;
du'anln); s^Cj (piyiide), foot-man, *J6.Lj (plyadeye);
charsu), market, ^j-^s* (eharsuyu)

root,
J&
(sulasi),
triliteral
^ti
(sulasiyl).
They form
if
their plurals as
Turkish words
but Persian
names of men and

judged proper.
o
,
their kinds use the Persian plural also,
This
* Ox
is
formed by adding an ustun vowel,

;
followed by ^\
OOx
to the final consonant of the singular

O
as,
s
^* (merd), man, ^1^* (merdan).

vowel,
it
If the singular ends in

c*J
is
changed into consonant

;
(Persian), with ustun
vowel, before the ^1 of the plural

^Ka.lji. (kh'ajegyan).
as,
A*!^
in
(kh'iije), master,
sonant
o **
o
^
j
instead of
e)
vowel j take conSingulars ending J o J as, j^vj^ (khub-ru), a beauty in face,
,jl>^t.jji.
(khub-ruyan).
Those ending
in
vowel
<j
change
it
into consonant
in like
manner
as,
^C-
(slpahi), man-at-
arms,
ÛbL"
(slpahlyan).
final
[Persian writers explain this by

is
saying:
rolled
The
long vowel
of these
is
in
reality
two
letters <j
into one.
One
now used
as a consonant."]
Other Persian substantives form the plural by adding the

syllable
hii
as, lîU
(nfin-ha), loaves, breads, \$~*\ (esb-hii),
hones.
Arabic plurals, of the regular forms
for
55
men and women,

and other things,
and of the various irregular forms and

also the
for these
in
Arabic duals, are used
Turkish.
The
dual
is
formed by adding ustun followed by
(an) in the nominative,
which becomes
(eyn) in the oblique case.

;
The
latter is
frequently used in Turkish as a nominative

O ô J
as, vliaS (qutb),
pole,
^LWS (qiitban),
0T> 1 u^rJi9 (qiitbeyn), the

o
two poles.
is
The
regular plural masculine nominative for men
formed
This
by adding nturu followed by

becomes eser& followed by
o
^ ^
(un) to the singular.

(In)
;
in the oblique case, also

is
used as a nominative in Turkish

ftstun followed
O
the plural feminine

o
with
o J
by ol
(at)
in all cases
J O J
OOJ
>
thus, .LM> (musllm),

O
-
O J
a Muslim, <jjjl~o (musllmun), cj..L

llmat), Muslims.
(musllmin),
oUL*
in
(mt\s-
The
irregular Arabic plurals
commonly used
Turkish
plural
are of rather numerous forms, and there are
many more
forms used occasionally.
These irregular plural Arabic forms
are not obtained by adding a letter or letters, vowel or consonant, to the end of the singular, but
by varying the vowel

letters,
or vowels of the word, and
by adding
consonant or
or after,
vowel, as
letters
the case
the
may
be, before, between,
the
of
singular.
To
enable
the
student to
obtain
a fair insight into this very intricate but beautiful system,

I
have to
say, first of all, that a
paradigm has been adopted

all
by Arabian grammarians, according to which
such modi-
56
fications
may be
effected.
They have taken
the
triliteral
ji
(fa'ala) as the representative
of any and every
triliteral root-
word, and they have modified this root into every shape that
can, under
any circumstances, be taken by any derivative of

the language.
any
triliteral root in
All those modifications,

triliteral,
when
not
made on the vowels
alone of the
are
effected
by adding
servile letters, or
servile letter,
here and
there, before, after,
and
in the midst of, the three radical
consonants, with appropriate mutations, in each case, of the
vowels, long or short, in the
new word.
Thus,
to
speak only
of Arabic nouns, substantive or adjective, used in Turkish,

have, in the first place, to learn the
(for they all
we
forms of their singulars
have
definite forms),
and then the forms of the
plurals special to each of these singulars.
To
facilitate
and systematize
this
knowledge, the Arabian

into sections
grammarians have divided the whole language

of
biliteral,
triliteral,
X J
quadriliteral, quinqueliteral, &c., roots,

' )
which they term,
respectively,
^LJ
(suna>l),
^jÛ (sulasl),
^cbj
(ruba'i),
^Ct
to
(khumasl), ^-lil (sudad), &c.
These
are the Turkish pronunciations of the terms.
I do not re^^l>.i
member ever
have seen or heard the expression
(uhadi), which would be the analogous name
for uniliteral
root
but
it
may perhaps be
found.
Of
these, the triliterals

class,
form by very far the most important and numerous

the
quadriliterals
coming
next.
These
are
represented,
respectively,
(fa'ala)
57
by the supposititious paradigmatic words
and
JU
(fa'lele).
Every
triliteral root is theoretically
capable of giving rise
Ox
* Of
to fifteen chapters of derivation, called cjLj (bab, pi.
<->\j->\
ebvab).
These chapters are respectively termed

the chapter
1,
^-AS J*9
(tef 'il
(fa'ald babi),
of
the triliteral
2,
^
;
jjj
babi), the chapter
of (the verbal noun)
J^si-J
3,
^C
JblL
);
(mufa 'ale babi);

6,
4,
^C Jl2l (If al babi)

); 7,
5,^1?' jltf
(tefa"ul
ÛjiUJ
)
;
(tefa'ul
9,
(f ftial
^
(If
^'j^J (Inffal ); 8, ^jlT juJl J^ (IfHal ) 10, ^b JUil^ (Istlf al

;
11,
^C jlJl
);
Hal);
12,
^ JUJl
last
;
(tfl al
);
13,
^C Jljjl
).
(Iflvval
14,
^C j5lUl
(Ifinlal
); 15,
jLJl (Iflnla
is
The use
of words
from the
four chapters
next to
unknown
9 and
in Turkish, if not quite so
and the use of chapters

to the
11,
JÛsl
J^Lsi
is
confined
expression of
All the
colours, the second expressing an intensity
of degree.
other nine chapters of derivation are constantly met with in
Turkish, as nouns, substantive and adjective.
Occasionally,
even a verb
All but the
is
used
but as a kind of invocatory interjection.

is
first
of these names (which

its
the form of three
out of the six varieties of
verb)
is
the form of one of the
verbal nouns, or of the sole verbal noun, connected with the
verb of the chapter;
and each chapter has two adjectives
'
58
deriving from

it,
the active and passive participles of the verb
of the chapter.
The
first,
or
triliteral,
chapter possesses,
furthermore, several
other special
its
forms of nouns deriving
from
its
verb other than
verbal nouns (which are a kind
of infinitive, or noun of action or being, corresponding with
our English substantive form in -ing,
as,
walking, singing, cutting,
suffering, lasting, &c., as acts or states).
Of these,
;
I give here
it
merely those frequently met with
in
Turkish
and
must be
understood, that in this simple triliteral chapter, the various
forms of verbal nouns are never

verb
;
all
found deriving from one

tri-
but certain forms belong to one or more kinds of

others to other kinds.
literal verbs,
These kinds of verbs,
again, are of
two
sorts
there are verbs transitive or active,

;
and there are verbs intransitive or neuter
and certain verbal
nouns are more used than others with each of these two kinds.
Again, there are the six conjugations of
chapter
;
this simple triliteral
and each conjugation has
its
preferential
form or
forms of verbal noun.
The Turkish Qamus
dictionary dilates
on
this subject
more than other works, and much information

it,
can be obtained from

in the "
vol.
i.,
in addition to
what should be studied
of the Arabic Language," by Dr. Wm. Wright, " nomina verbi " p. 109, par. 196, where 36 forms of
Grammar
are given for this triliteral chapter alone, and several others
may
be found in
i.,
De
"
Sacy's
Grammaire Arabe," 2nd

Those
edition,
1831, vol.
p. 283,
par. 628.
that are principally
ACCIDENCE OK ETYMOLOGY.
used
in
59
Turkish are the following:

;
1,
(fa'l);
:
2,
J
(fa'le)
;
3, jij (fl'l) 6,
4,
;
jlj
7,
(fii'l)
their feminines
;
5,
a-CJ
&
(fa'ale)
A&
(fl'le)
8,
&
(fii'le)
the same forms,

:
with an insititious or servile long vowel

10,
9,
JliJ (fd'fil)
:
JUs (flal); 11,

;
JU
<j
(fu'al);
;
and their feminines

(fiiale)
;
12,
Jl2
(fa'ale)
13,
JU,
(fl ale)
;
14,
JUi
some of the same,

:
with long vowel j or

16,
and their feminines

(flll);
18,
J^j (fuul);
17,
J^J
^
23,
15, J^xs (f&'ul)
(mule);
19,
jjS
:
(fu'ule); 20,
21,
^
1
*LJ
(fd'ile);
(fa 'Ian)
22,
^
^
,
the same, with final servile ^1 added

(fl'lan)
;
^
;
(fA'lan)
the
special feminine form: 24,
oJUs
(fd'alljet)
and the special

:
forms in
initial
servile
with their feminines

(mef'dle); 28,
initial
(mef'al); 26,
J^l
(mef'll); 27,
25, jial
(mefile);
with the two special forms in
servile
o, with long
(tlfal).
vowel
intercalated: 29,
jQ (tef al);
30,
JUJ
Many
original substantives
and adjectives are of one or other of the

in frequent cases
it is
forms here given
and
disputed whether
such words are substantives or verbal nouns.

ticiple,
The
active par;
nomen
agentis, of this
(fa'lle)
;
chapter
is:
31, Jcli (fa'il)

participle,
32,
feminine, a-l cl_a

patientis, is:
and the passive
nomen
33, JyJu
(mef ul); 34, feminine, Jjail (mefule);
derivative adjectives are

as: 35,
met with, branches of

;
this chapter,
;
J^
(fa'l);
36,
[>
(fd'il)
37,
Jî
(fd'ul
oftsn feminine)
39, *L
(fa'lle)
38,
J-J
(fdll)
and the feminine of
this last
60
the diminutive, substantive or adjective: 40, jxs (f&'ayl); the
noun of unity:
42,
41,
alas (fa'le)
the noun of kind or manner

:
A&
(fl'le)
the noun of place and time

;
43,
jiL mef 'al
sometimes mef'll and iLdu mef 'ale)
the noun of the place of
abundance
receptacle
44, ilxL (mef 'ale)
the noun of instrument and
45, JaL> (mlfal
sometimes JUa* mlfal, and
jJL
still
mlf al&
rarely J*o*
muf lil
and &du
mufAle)
and others
which need not be

special forms
classified here,
though a knowledge of their

assists greatly to
and meanings, when acquired,
an accurate appreciation of Arabic with in Turkish.
diction, as occasionally
met
The
irregular plurals of these forms mostly

:
met with, when

1, JUsl
5,
the words are substantives and masculine, are

2,
6,
(fu ul)
3,
J\i
7,
(fl'al)
4,
jS
;
(ef 'ul)
&
(ef al)
(efile)
Jllj
(fu"al)
and
A-LU (falU
;
both for the form JcU)
8, *&> (full a)
and
;
9, 3JUif (efila
both for the form
J^
fall)
10,
Vli
(fa*ala
for the form
&
;
fa'la);
when they
JJU
are feminine
or 12,
in form, either; 11, J^s (fTal
for the form
fl'le),
J^
(full
for the form

;
&
fu'le),
or 13,
jQ
(ef al
as for mas-
culines)
A
1
_.
14,
JSU
(fa'a^ll
for the forms
JUi
fa ale,
J^
;
fa'ule
, 1
E'ile); 15,
;
Jcly (fevall
for the
form
Jl_clJ)
besides
16,
JcUl (mefall
;
for the forms mefal, mefll,
mlfal, and
their variants)
17, J-fitiu
(mefail
for the forms JldU,
and others more
rarely used.
Adjectives masculine derived from this
triliteral
61
chapter,
much used
Jî
for
(ef'al)
;
in Turkish, are of the
two forms
J-xs (fall)
and
feminines, respectively, *LJ (fa'ile) and

;
^
J.^,
(fa'la,
Arabic
i^
<J*9
of jisl
when
not comparative) or iis
(fu'la,
for
Arabic
of the same Jxsl

:
when
comparative).
The
as in
plurals of these are
}U
(fn'ala) or
d\
(eflle), for
the substantive
and Jxs
(fi'l), for Jxsl
and
its
feminines.
We
The
now come
to the derived chapters.

o
o*
verbal nouns of the second chapter are

;
J-jtaJ (tefil),
JUAJ (tefal
sometimes
tifal),
and
WJ
O
(teflle)
*s
the plurals
;
of the whole of
which are of the form J^lw

also a quasi-regular plural,
fern.
(tefa'il)
though
the
first
makes
ol^"
(tef'i'at).
;
Its active participle is jidl (mufa"il,

its
aLL
mufa'lle)
and
passive participle
is
Jxa* (mufa"al,
is
fern, dliio
mufa"ale), of
which the masculine

place.
also used as a noun of time and
The verbal nouns of the

and
third chapter are
aLcll. (mufa'ale)
;
JU
(fl'al
is
this latter only occasionally used)

(mufa'il, fern.
the active
participle
Jc>
JcU* mufa'lle)
the passive
participle, jilll (mufaal, fern.

first
&L
mufa'ale, exactly like the
verbal noun).
verbal noun of the fourth chapter
fern. ,*ul); p. p.
is
The
JUsI (If 'al)
a.
p.
(muf '11,
jiH (mufal,
fern.
62
OTTOMAN TUEKISH GRAMMAR.
The
O,
fifth
C.J
a.
chapter has
j9.
v. n.,
J*aJ (tefa"iil);
p.
J.L. (mute-
'll, fern.
*);
:
p.
J^
(mAtefral,
;
fern. AU:.l).
The
sixth
v. n.
jllij
(tefa'iil)
Jcllju (mAteffill,
Uu
(mAtefaal,
:
dk).
JU1
(Infi al), J*j>H (mAnfall,
The seventh
(mAnfa'al,
ûH).
:
The
eighth
jQ
(Iftial),
J&L
(mAfta'il,
The
no
ninth:
j5Ul
(Ifllal), a.
(m4f4H
mfifalle);
^?. ^?.
The
tenth:
JuJsJ
(Istlfal),
jxIiH
(mfistefil, itoll),
(mdstef'al, *UilI).
The
no
eleventh:
J^M
lni aO> J 1
(mufftll,
i?. ^7.
As
to the significations of these chapters,
it
may be
is
shortly
said that
when
;
the
first is transitive,
the second
causative
or intensitive
and when the

in the
first is intransitive,
the second
is
causative
sitive.
still
same
sense, but not intensitive
tran-
Sometimes the second has the sense, not of making

but of making
(it)
(a thing) do or be (so or so), (so
out to be
(it
and
so), of
;
deeming, judging, pronouncing, or calling

it
so and so)
rarely,
unmakes
also.
The
third chapter denotes reciprocity of the action between
two,
or
63
or
among
several
or
many
agents,
is
an
expected
A.J&*
reciprocity
when one agent only

letters (to
;
shown.
Thus,
mutually writing
tion
one another), a writing

striving to
kill
in expecta-
of a reply
JLS a mutually
the triliteral
is
one another,
O O J
fighting.
When
expressive of a state, as ^â.

- j
(husn), a being beautiful or good, the third form expresses an

..-
action corresponding with that state in the agent
thus, A^(S?
to
(muhasene), a doing good,

other).
and
acting well,
kindly
(the
The
fourth
;
form
thus,
is
causative,
(Irsal),
generally, but
sometimes
intransitive
O
*>O
Jll^l
a sending (some person or
thing)
JLsl
(Iqbal),
an advancing.
state,
The
by
j.
fifth
form has the sense of acquiring a

act,
sometimes
;
one's
own
sometimes through the act of another
as,
^rv
;
(tekessAr), a becoming broken.

as,
;
This may be transitive at

in (a science,
times
art,
^.uJ
i.
(ta'allum),
a becoming knowing
&c.)
e.,
a learning
(it).
The
sixth form has the idea of reciprocity, something like

;
the third, but more decided, more certain in fact

(taqatftl),
thus,
it
JJUJ
a mutually killing one another.

;
Sometimes
has the
to be
sense of feigning a state

ignorant.
as,
it
jl(J
(tejahul),
a feigning
;
Sometimes, again,
expresses a repeated act
thu.,
UlLJf (taqaza),
a dunning, repeatedly demanding
the fulfilment
and discharge (of some incumbent act or debt).
64
The
seventh and eighth forms, like the
fifth,
imply the
acquisition of a state, either
by
one's
own
act, or as the result
of the act of another
thus, JUnil (InfTal), a being acted upon,

;
a/ected, hurt, wounded, vexed (by another's act)
Jk&\
(Intlzar)
a (becoming) looking forward
(for the occurrence of an event).

is
Sometimes the eighth form

acquiring
ing
;
transitive
in
the
sense
of
thus, ^lîsl (iftlras),
an acquiring (game) ly huntO x O
or,
a seeking to acquire;
as,
ÛJI
(lltlmiis),
a seeking
to
obtain (a favour) by (morally) feeling one's
way (by
touching,
groping, requesting)
a requesting.
The
colour,
ninth and eleventh express two degrees of state as to
and sometimes as to defects; the eleventh denoting

;
intensity of that state

ness
;
thus, ;\>&\ (Ihmlrar), a being red
red-
}s**\ (Ihmirar), a
being very red ; x^jp-\
(1'vljaj,
a being
crooked; crookedness; -.Lasj-cl (fvijaj), a being very crooked ;

anfractuosity
.
The
tenth usually expresses a trying
to get
(the act or state
signified
by the
first
form)
as,
^LJLj
(Istlfsar),
it
an asking for
has,
like
an explanation of
(a matter).
Sometimes
the
second, the sense of deeming or judging (a thing) to be (what
the
first
form
signifies)
as,
JliLj
(Istlsqal),
a deeming
(a perit
son or thing) heavy, disagreeable, tedious.
And
first
sometimes
means an acquiring a
(Istlshfa),
state,
expressed by the
form
thus,
it
a becoming restored
to health.
And
again,
occasionally
(tstl'dad),
65
as,
;
has the sense of the
first
form
a being or becoming ready
prepared
readiness
(external or mental); mental capacity

dexterity or knowledge.
and
quickness in acquiring
Quadriliteral roots have but four forms
of which only
two
are perceptibly used in Turkish, the

first
first
and second.
The
has two verbal nouns, figured paradigmatically by Ju/
(fa'lele),
and j5u
(fi'lal);
the
second, but one, figured
by
JW
(tefa'lul);
iLlUl
(saltanat)
first
may
serve as an instance of
a verbal noun of the
form, and
^WuJ
(tesaltun) as
an
example of the second.

It
would occupy too much space
to detail here the modifica-
tions of these results arising in the case of roots
where the
second and third radicals are identical, or of those in which

one, two, or all three of the radicals belong to the trio
I,
(j,
out of which the long vowels, the

spring.
letters
of prolongation,
These
details should be studied
in Wright's, or in
De
Sacy's Arabic
Grammar.
But
it
is
necessary to remark
that these Arabic verbal nouns belong equally to the active
and passive voice of same word,

:*
their verbs; so that, as in English, the

for instance, will
fet-h
sometimes mean a con-
quering, at others a being conquered, just as our
word
conquest
does.
This
last rule
holds good with Persian verbal nouns,

It
is
not
much used
in
Turkish.
not
so,
however, with
Turkish verbal nouns, excepting, to a slight extent, with the

F
66
present, as in A* ma,
me
and
this for the simple reason that

its
every passive Turkish verb has
own
special verbal
nouns
complete, present, past, and future.
Every Turkish, Persian, and Arabic substantive has

diminutive, the two latter seldom used in Ottoman phrases.
its
The Turkish diminutive

o
substantive
o
is
formed usually by
to
suffixing the
syllable do- (jlk) or
j>>. (jiq)
the word, of
whatever
Thus,
origin,
whether
a
it
end in a consonant or vowel.

plum, dJii
little
(*Ly
(eiikjlk)
little
(Itjlk)
little
dog,
d^liT
jlk) a
(kltabjlk or
J^llf kltabjlq) a
book,
^^(kyatlb-
little clerk,'
a gsLtjd (devejlk)
dlssjT(kedljlk)
little
camel, sUj^l (utujuk),
a
a
little
flat-iron,
little cat,
JAjf
(elmajlq)
little
apple, jÂilj (pashajiq)

O JJ +
little
pasha, (jsf'Uolj (padllittle
shahjlq) a
little
monarch,
(Jfrj?
(qipAjiq) a
door or gate,
jfeJjfr (khojajiq) a
ivoman.
little
professor,
&$J*
(qarijlq)
little
In words ending with
cs)
or j, after a
movent consonant,
letters
it
would form a cacophony to repeat

diminutive.
these
for
the
to
The
less
important
is
therefore
sacrificed
euphony, and omitted in the diminutive, a vowel letter usually

taking
its
place:
;
e^jT (kyurek), etLs^r^yurejlk),
little
shovel or oar
j^y*. (chojuq),
<Jjjis
(chojujuq), a
little child.
This form of the diminutive

of JKJL (j&ytz), j*l
(
sometimes modified into that
jaghlz)
thus,
j^]f
(^vjeylz) a /zf^
AOMM,
67
^JL^-J
(qizjaghiz),
-.
little girl.
As
is
seen, the former esere
vowel of the
in the
diminutive has
to the
now become an
<*)
ustun,
as the esere has
been passed on
c.
or
modified into
requires
it.
Turkish
(y value) or
(soft
gh
value).
Euphony
These diminutives are used as terms of endearment

exactly as in
also,
German, and as our nursery vocabulary

;
says,
daddy, mammy, granny, aunty, doggy, horsey, &c.
only, in
Turkish, the method

not
is
of universal application, by
all classes,
by children
only.
in
*>.
The Persian diminutive always ends

U
(pa),
(che)
as,
;
AAJ (pache), or in
preceded by an ustun vowel
as,
j^(kenlz), c^Jr(kenizek). The Arabic diminutive also makes
its first
vowel uturA, and

<_$,
the next vowel ustun, followed by a quiescent consonantal
whatever may be the vowels or quiescences of the original
word
as,
^L^* (hasan),
^cl* (huseyn)
^â* (hlsn), ^.â.
(hiisayn); &c.
The Persian and Arabic diminutive

substantives and adjectives.
fications in details.
tives
applies
rule has
equally
to
The Arabic
many
modi-
But
as these Persian
and Arabic diminu-
are taken into
Ottoman use
as original words,
enough
has been said on their subject for the present purpose.
G8
SECTION
II.
The Noun Adjective.

is
As
a general rule, the adjective, in Turkish,
invariable,
;
having no gender, number, case, or degrees of comparison
and
this,
whether the word be of Turkish, Arabic, or Persian

It
;
origin.
OX**
O
+*\
as, always precedes the substantive qualified OxO^ÔJ dj~j (bljuk adam), a great man, JLo! dj-j (blyuk adamlar),
J
great
men; Jijjl dj-j (blyuk
Inekler), big cows.

is
But the Persian form of phrase

in writing),
also
much used
(especially
by which an adjective of Persian or Arabic origin

;
follows the substantive qualified
such adjective remaining
in
the singular after a Persian substantive plural, the substantive

qualified always taking
C O 1
an esere of subjection
-O
to join
it
to the
adjective
thus,
d^}-?
î^* (merdanl
b&zurg), great men
du
works. j^lÛc ('amelhay! nlk), good

in this Persian construction,
is
If,
both words are Arabic, and
the substantive
a feminine singular, or an irregular plural of
any kind, the adjective must be put in the feminine singular,

or in an irregular plural form
tazime), regular troops,
Sultans.
;
as,
aVtV J>
L^
('dsaklrl
c
mun-
llJLe ..^-L^L" X
X
(selatlnl izam), great
Persian adjectives have three degrees of comparison, more

or less in use in Turkish composition.
The comparative
is
formed by adding the syllable^
(ter) to
the end of the posi-
tive
;
69
(terin);
and the superlative, by adding the syllables ^J?
but these never qualify preceding substantives, being only
used as substantive members of phrases, or to qualify a

following substantive
>ill
;
thus, olai
JjLj
^.^
(blhterint vesavesfi'lli
nejat), the best
of
the
means of salvation; (blhterin
nejat), the lest
means of salvation.
Arabic adjectives
have but two degrees of comparison.

positive, the comparative
is
Whatever the form of the

form
of the
J3
(efal).
This
is
used, in Persian construction,
more
as a
as an exaggeration than as a degree of comparison,
more
substantive than an adjective.

singular,
it
If followed by a substantive
is
a superlative with the sense of very, extremely,

like
;
exceedingly,
nejat),
and the
thus,
oU t&~j ^\ (ahsanl vesile'i

(J
a very good means of salvation.
If the following subis
stantive be in the plural, the adjective
a superlative, with
the sense of the most

nejiit), the best
as,
ol?i J5Lj cr->l (ahsant vesa'lll
of the means of salvation.

it
If an adjective be used as a substantive,

plural
the
admits the
Ox j
.
and the prepositions, as substantives; thus, Jij)\

o * J
(iyuler),
good;
i^)j>l
(lyulerln), of the good, &c., &c.

its
Every Turkish adjective, besides
positive signification,
betokens, on occasions, the comparative, the superlative, and
an excess of the quality
it
expresses,
which we explain by
Thus, dj^ (blyuk),
employing the adverb
too before the
word.
70

jVg^
( s P<l)>
large, larger, largest, too large;
hot hotter, hottest,

)
too hot
too cold; Jtjj*> (soghiiq), cold, colder, coldest,
&c.
The
Persian compound adjective,

is
much used
kinds.
in Turkish, in
the positive degree only,
of
many
Some
are com-
which may be pounded of two substantives, one or both of

Arabic or Persian, never Turkish
majestic as Jemshid
;
;
as,
ejlla.
+>
(jem-jenab),
in counsel
;
^jJ
<^Ju>\
(asaf-tedbir),
Asaph
Jjâi
(sheker-leb),
sugar-lipped;
KlLlI tU'Ic
just)
;
('adalet-
destgyah), a very loom of justice

adjective followed
light
(i. e.,
others of an
by a substantive
as,
^Lâ^
(seb&k-pay),
of foot, light-footed ;
;
or a substantive followed
(i. e.,
by an
adjective
desirous}
as, alllj.* (dll-tlshne), thirsty-hearted
ardently
or a substantive preceded
o o
by
ox
**>
(hem);
as,
JuLl +&
(hem-ashyane), of the same nest; ^J^** (hem-jlns), of the same

genus;
^j^Jui (hem-shehri), of
;
the
same town or country, a
fellow-countryman
like;
as,
of a substantive followed by of
^j
(vesh),
(Jy(,-i (peri-vesh), fairy-like;
a substantive
all
followed by
colour; as,
(rang),
U (fam), or
(gyun),
signifying
ijll
(sebz-rang), green-coloured ;
^j (zumurrAd-
fam), emerald-coloured;
(i. e.,
wheat-coloured fr^sS (gendum-gyun),

;
dark-complexioned, brown)
of a substantive followed by
or J\T(kyar, gyar), jT(ger), Û (ban),
jS
(dar)
as,
;*&
fshirm-kyar), sweet-mannered; J*
>_j\
(aferid-gyar), creative
0x0. X
O
^
71
O x
e.,
creator)
j^\
(zer-ger),
(i.e.,
goldworker, goldsmith
^Lcb
(bag-ban), garden-keeper
gardener)
;j\^^
(muhr-dar), seal-
keeper; or followed
(Istan), all
by
^b
(dan),
jj
;
(zar),
or ^L. (sar),
^LJ
names of
special places
as, ^1 .xjs
(qalem-dan), a
;
pen-case
J)JL^= (gy&l-zar), a flower-garden, a flowery mead
jLjtjj (kyuh-sdr), mountainous district;
^LL^c
('arablstan),
Arabia; or a substantive repeated;
as,
eftjrC (chak-cbak),
;
imitative of the sound of repeated blows with axe or sword
the same, or two different substantives, with
placed between
them
a-pa),
x xO x
as, CiJUXU.
(chakya-chak), same signification, Cj^ (seror with

Ox xox
\J
from head
to foot;
or
o in
place of the
as,
IjlJr-
(ser-ta-pa),
same sense; ^^J^,
(ser-te-ser),
from end
to
end,
from beginning
to
end; or with ^\ in jjîLl (sheban-ruz), night

is
and day (which
unique), JJÂJ Li (shebane-ruz), meaning:

all night
a whole night and day,

or several nights
and
all day, twenty-four hours,
and days
in one succession;
as,
or with
some
other Persian preposition between the two;

pey), step by step, gradatim
;
^^ j-j pey-der-
o-^^ws*.*.^ (dest-ber-dest), hand

(sme-be-sine), breast to breast;
O
1
x'-i
on hand, hands crossed;

O
J X
&^~m~
'
jjijÛyj (dush-a-dush), shoulder to shoulder^ back to back;

(ser-be-rauhr), t^zÂ <Ae
^v^**
head (or mouth of a bag, bottle, &c.)
sealed up
or with a substantive and

c
compound
is
adjective
as,
(bakht-ber-geshte), whose luck
reversed; or even
72

jîi dta^**
(ser-be-felek-keshlde),
;
four words combined; as,

wôstf
foad
;
s Zi/tedf
up
to the
very spheres
besides
many
other
varieties
especially the two privatives in

;
(bi), without,
and
l>
(na), not
as,
c_o1
_> (bl-edeb),
;
without education or
manners, unmannerly, impolite

less, blind.
\^*j\j
(na-biina), not seeing, sight-
Some Arabic
epithets in
expressions
may be
;
regarded as compound
^Jâ-a-U (sahlb-qiran),
;
Turkish and Persian

(i.
as,
lord of the conjunction

(veli-nl'met), associate
e., the
master of the age)

(i. e.,
e^jtifJj
;
of
benefits
a benefactor)
expres(erbab),
sions formed of ji (zu),

all
oli
(zat), JA\ (ehl),

* * f
and LLJ\
of which imply possession
as, u\j i ji (zu-zuâbe), possessed
of a forelock or topknot, and AjUijj (zu-zunabe), possessed of

"
J
'
a following
(i.e.,
comet)-,
if -*is)' oli (zatu-'l-jenb, VM/^. satllj.au),

(i. e.,
fê possessor
of
the side
pleurisy)
or in Persian con-
struction; as, jj^cjjtl (ehll-'irz), possessed of honour or virtue,

honorable,
honest,
virtuous
j'...^^^!
(erbabl-mesned), those
who
possess the chief seat
(i. e.,
high dignitaries)-, or an adjective
qualified
of her
with^c
(g^yi')>
other; as, jj.xs^-.fr (gayrl-mahdud),

(i. e.,
than circumscribed
unlimited, undejined)
(la),
or
an
as,
Arabic verb in the aorist made negative with V

\M*I$ (la-yiihsa), not to be counted, innumerable
untold, innumerable
;
not;
jjoV (la-yu'add),
;
z," *
(la-yetejezza),
Oj^V
not
to
(la-yemut),
who
dies not, immortal
be subdivided, indivisible;
or an
ibic adjective
o*A*>ii
as,
,'
;
73
followed by a definite article and substantive

o ,QlViO
it
eternal in duration JjjJl^jjl (ebedlyyu-'d-devam),
^LiJl
^
*
(qavlyyu-'l-bunyan), strong in build ; &c., &c., &c.
Every Turkish adjective

that, without
qualifies
is
also an adverb
that
is
to say,
any modification of form, the Turkish adjective

o
;
verbs as well as substantives
thus,
oT JjjT(gyuzel at),
to
ô
j^
a beautiful stallion;
gracefully.
1^3
is
.^j
Jj j> (gyuzel yurumek),
walk
The same
in
the case with Persian adjectives,

in
whether used
adjectives, as
Turkish or
Persian phrases.
Arabic
Arabic substantives, require to be put in their
own
accusative case indefinite
when used
as adverbs
as,
Ûi
(fi'lan),
by act
Ll.
(hasanan), beautifully.
Arabic substan-
tives are also sometimes used as
Turkish adverbs by being put
in their
own
genitive, indefinite or definite, as

;
may
be,
and
preceded by an Arabic preposition

by inadvertence
;
as,
&
('an gafletln),
-l\j
11
^c
( 'ale-' t-te vail),

i
in continued suc-
cession, successively;
*o
5 y)'
(fl-'l-haq!qa), in reality, really,

;
truly
L-.>;ml ^
'
oU-ijJlj (bl-'d-defd'at), on several occasions, repeatedly
(11-sebebln),
for a reason
&c.
As
its
with substantives, so also every Turkish adjective has
diminutive, formed
by the addition of the
suffix
<so.
(je, ja),
;
-ish, to
the word, whether this end in a consonant or vowel

green,
âs,
J-lj (yeshll),
o
A-sfe (yeshllje),
<>
greenish, somewhat
o
green; Jj_i
(qizil) red,
Aa^-i (qiziljd) reddish;
c*J^->
(blyuk)
74
x->X
*

o
*t
large, **)-*-> (blyukje)
largish;
jLs^ (Afaq)
AS^J!
(liiji)
small,
(ufaqja)
(qara)
smallish; ^>\ (irl)
/ar<7<?,
largish;
^
O x J
>/ac, Aa.s^ (qardja) blackish;
^5
(qAri\) dr?/,
A-&-JJJ*
(qiiruja) dryish.
A modification
is
of this form, dictated by the

O
J
,
JX
principle of euphony,
by substituting a
letters at the
00
or
used for the words

^j
e)j-j
X
csJ^, (J^jl
final
c*J
for the s,
and suppressing those

for substantives
;
end of the radical word, as

largish.
thus,
csUjo (blyujek),
,
A
O
further conformity with the sense

J O J
of euphony, avoiding two ^ji-yl vowels in succession, makes

O J
J>/
;
jja-Ujl (ufajiq)
smallish,
and
va?jx (kuchujuk) smallish
this
last
being doubly euphonic.

adjectives,
These diminutive
express in
as in
every language, often

in the quality
Turkish the reverse of diminution
they represent, being in fact exaggeratives in sense, and meaning very, exceedingly, extremely, &c.
;
as,
+*\
*>-jj~>>
(jesurja
adam
dir),
he
is
a bravish man
(i. e.,
a very brave man).
SECTION
III.
The Numerals.
Turkish, Arabic, and Persian numerals, cardinal and ordinal,

are used in Ottoman.
Arabic fractions are also used as

five sorts
far as
one-tenth.
In this sketch, however, the
of Turkish
numerals alone are explained.

distributive, fractional,
These are the
cardinal, ordinal,
and
indefinite
numbers.
75
:
The
JoJ
simple Turkish cardinal numbers are

two,
-^\
yj
(blr) one,
(Ikt)
(uch)
three,
oy
(durt)/owr,
_J
(besh) Jive,
seven, J\\ (altl) six, tî (yedl)

nine, ^/l (6n) ten,
JXl
(eeklz) <%/^,
j^L
(doqAz)
^Jfj:
(ylylrml) fu;<mfy, jj-jjl (otiiz), thirty,
& (^^
01
Jj-i
forty, JJI (elll)//ty,
JU3T
(altmlsh)
aiarfy,
^'(yet-
mlsh) seventy,
(y^ z )
C
^CC,
(seksan) eÂfy,
O
^CiL
(d6qân) ninety,
a hundred, duj (bin) a thousand.

(yfik),
The two
O
substan-
JO
lives, djj
a hundred thousand, and

;
^j^lL (rallyin),
million, are also
used
but they are not true numerals.

o *
They
before
o
are names of aggregates, and require the numerals

o J o
them;
as,
one hundred thousand, &jij> (blr y&k),

;
^j^j
(blr
mllyon) one million
and so on
for higher
numbers,
U>L
&c. ^jl,
The French numerals
^jlb (bllyin), ^jl
y6n), &c., are sometimes used.
The compound Turkish

built
O J
cardinal
numerals are uniformly
up by putting the units
after the tens
up
to 99,
and by
o J
placing the
word
jj>
before the simple or
compound expression
up
to
199; then by adding the units from 2 to 9 before jy_
up
to
999
next by using dLj before these simples or comfinally,
pounds up to 1999; and

or
by again using the simples

;
compounds before
^*~
**S"
dl
>
up
to
999,999
thus, ^Jjl (6n-blr)

6tiiz
o J o J j o J
eleven,
J^l
^yo
(ylylrmllkl) twenty-two, rj\jjj\jjl (yuz

thirty-three,
ftch) one
hundred and
^ j^
C*
CO
O J
.^ +
^_X_* dLj
(blii
76
seklz
OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR

yuz q!rq besh) one thousand
o
o
eight
hundred and
forty-five,
oOJojoj
^x x
0;Joj!jî duj^_A-i ^j'l-
lljjii
î, (beshyAz altmishseklz blnyuz
6n dart) 568,1 14, dLj J^l ^Cii JjT^JLJI j^jl

(uch mllyon, yedl yuk, d6qsdn
3,792,356.
It will
Ikl
t^ ^J*
y^z,
^L ^,1
Alt!)
bin,
fich
4111
be noticed thatjao conjunction enters these

o J o
\'
,
combinations.
When
o t
the foreign expression
^.
or the
treasury word djj

O
is
O
not used, the native method of expressing

J
multiples
of
<*L_)jj3
is
to
state
the
simple or
compound
word
*s
*
number of such
*^
multiple, and then

o
to intercalate the
9 J
;
*fS (kerre)
times, before the
word dujj^j
as, c*Lj j^j
^_>
^jj
;
(yedt kerr4 yfiz bin) seven times one hundred thousand, 700,000
dL->3ji
lXj->\^\j oy
(durt yuz
elll Ikl
kerr^ ynz bin)
45,200,000.
The Turkish
how many ?
interrogative cardinal numeral
is
Û
(qach)
The
tives,
cardinal numerals are adjectives
but, like all adjec-
may
be used as substantives, and declined.

is
Even the
interrogative III
used as a substantive when enquiring

is it
" what number ? " or " what
o'clock ?
"
" or " at what price ?

:
or " what
is the
day of the month
"
Thus
j->^
?
(qach
" how dldlnlz) "

galdl)
to
many did you say?"
\$& *& ^
come
"
how many (hours) has
the clock
ui'
(qich4 verlyirsun)
" at how much art thou selling
(it,
them)
)*
18
77
^^
it?"
Cikl
(ayiii
qachl dir)
" the how-manyeth of the month
The Persian compound

first,
cardinals place the higher elements

;
as in Turkish and English
but the conjunction j

as, c^flaj
is
in-
troduced between each two members ;

(hezar
li
o~o^j c>~jj ->j jVj x
duwist u shast n heft), a thousand, two hundred, and
sixty-seven.
The Arabic compound

tween each pair also
oo^
J o,
;
cardinals take the conjunction j befirst

;
but the lower elements stand

x *
e
as,
o*
Jo
-*J
ÎjtyJUj ^-^.j
elf) the year one
'Ai- (seae-i tls
A khamsin A ml'eteyn u
thousand two hundred and fifty -nine, expressed
in Turkish,
.^LjJL
$jjL>\
dLj (bin Iklyuz
elll
dAqiiz
The Turkish
ordinal numbers are formed
by adding an
esere
to the last quiescent consonant of the cardinal, simple or

?
com-
pound, followed by the termination ^^jc

first,
as,
^-j>
(bliinjl)
.&jyj\ (otiizunju)
thirtieth,
^jy.
(yuzunjA) hundredth,
^K^
(blnlnjl) thousandth,
^^L
;
Jfi\,
^$> &>}&. ^.
is
But, in the numbers that end in vowel ^, this

before the same termination
(altinji) sixth,
suppressed
as,
>^si L5
;.
(Iklnjl) second,
^^^
O Of
^f*l
(jedlnjl)
seventh,
^^Xj
cardinal
(ylylrmlnjl)
twentieth,
its
^.^
(elllnjl) fiftieth.
The
oji changes
JOJOJ
O J
final
into ^ before the ordinal termination; as,
(6n-diirdunju) fourteenth.
78
OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAR. The Arabic and Persian

ordinals are frequently used, and
may be found
in the lexicons, &c.
The Turkish
dinals
distributive
numbers are formed from the
car-
by making
their last quiescent consonant

.
movent with
;
Astun, and then adding a quiescent

(blrer),
to the
word
as,
>j>
J*J
(besher),
is
Jj^
(6tAzer);
in
*& (ynzer),
apiece
;
(blfier).
Their sense
numerals, by
expressed
English, which has no such

the
the
words each and

:
foregoing
o
examples
each,
will thus be rendered
one each, five apiece, thirty

o
a hundred each, a thousand each.

Q*> c
The
cardinal o,->
becomes j*j* (ddrder) four
apiece.
When
is
o
**
the cardinal ends with a vowel, the syllable^ (sher)

;
-
suffixed to form the distributive

o*
o
'*
as, îLjol
(Iklsher)
two
apiece,
j~l\
(Sltisher) six each,
j~ Q->
(yedlsher) seven apiece,
JIJ^
(ylylrmlsher) twenty each, îjUl (elllsher) fifty each.

it is
In the case of more than one hundred or thousand,

cardinal
that designates their
o J o +
jX
the
clis-
number
that receives the
x"
tributive suffix
c*Lj
as, j^j
jZ*\
(Iklsher yuz) two hundred each,
jZ> (besher bin) five thousand apiece.
And
in
compound
numbers the
distributive suffixes are added to the
numbers of
thousands, of hundreds, and of final units or tens, to indicate

o G^S'
**
one distribution
blrer) five
thus,
jj ^Jî
Jji j~^~
(besher yftz ylylrml
hundred and twenty-one each,j2jf*\ J^j^^^csLj^jC..

;
(seklzer bin, yedlsher yuz, qlrq Iklsher), 8,742 apiece
^LBl -^
(yAz
elllsher),
150 each.
79
The Turkish
fractional
numbers are very simple. The number
of the denominator in the locative, and followed by the number

of the numerator
(parts), one;
i.e.
i.e.
is
the form
half;
as, j>
.x^
(iklde blr) in two

iki) in five,
o *
J, the
^\
siL (beshde
two;
f, two-fifths.
Sometimes one of the synonyms Û (pay),

(q^m),
^_a. (juz>),
^J
*^
as,
(hlssa) part, is
added after each
numeral of the fraction;

in two parts, one part.
^CJ^
sjjib
J^l (ikl payda, blr pay)
The Arabic
fractional
numbers are
also
used up to ten.
Excepting the word uJLi (nisf) a

O OJ
O
;
O-J
half, the half,
they are
O OJ
all
of the form Jxi

OO-J
thus, eJC (suls, vulg. sulus) a third, AJ^ (rub*)

//i!A,
a fourth,
a seventh,
vw?^r.
^^ (khums) a
OOJ ^j-, (suds) a
OOJ
szxi/j,
*^, (sub*)
('ushr,
(sAmn) an
eighth,
-J (tus') a ninth, dual of ilj

is
^lc
used,
'ushiir)
a fcwM, a <zYA.
;
The
all
JjlLU
(sulsan) two-thirds
is
but for
the others a Turkish numerator
used
as,
^,1
(i\ch rub') three quarters,
JJi
^^C;!
(Ikt
khums)
two-fifths,
*L"
^>
(besh tus
five-ninths, &c.
There are two
special Turkish adjectives and one Turkish
substantive to express half.
One
of the adjectives,
^,l>
(yarim),
and the
thing
;
sub.-tantive,
UJI
^li
(yaii), signify <ê
AaZ/ (of one sole

;
as,
^G
(yarim elma) half an apple, a half apple

yarfsl),
lf*Jl fcUlji (elmanin
Me Aa?/ o/ an
is
(or of the) apple.
The
other adjective,
Ji^J
(biichiiq),
used after some whole
80

;
number, never alone

apple
as,
Ql Ji^>
(blr
buchuq elma) an
and a
half.
half,
I*cL,
J^ ^>\
(Ikl
biichnq sa'at) two hours
and a
When
a complex fractional
number
consisting of an integer
to
and a fraction other than one-half has
be expressed, the
Turkish or Arabic fractions are used, the conjunction J or the

preposition aLl being introduced between the integer and the
fraction
fourth.
;
as,
a_^
j> j
ô!
or *jj j> AA
is
^-^
two and one-
When
the Turkish fraction

is
used, the numeral j>

;
in
the genitive
1^
also introduced before the fraction
as,
*Ll
,jj five,
and
:
three-eighths
of one.
;
The
indefinite
numerals are
j*
(her) every
j
-
^ js
o
*
(her blr)
;
every one, each;

o^
&"'
u+
& (hlch) no, none;

o
-*
ti~
(hlch blr), no
o
Ua3a
(ba'zi)
some
C*
j^=\
>
(ekser) the most part

O
;
~&J.
O^
O
(blr
qach)
som, a few;
a few, a
&c.
j\ (az) /ew
o
o
jj_. (choq) many; jl^-j
(blr az)
little ;
jj-^ (blr ch6q) a great many, a great quantity;

is
Of these, jit>
always an adjective; the rest are adjectives
and substantives.
There
is
a small series of Turkish numerals of a peculiar
nature, from
triple,
j~-jj
(iktz), twin, twins,
through ^-^jl (uchuz)
trine,
J^ (diirduz)
to
fourfold, to J-jJ (beshlz) five-fold,
and perhaps on
\J.I (6niiz) ten-fold.
Adjectives are formed
from these
in j)
as, jJj^jl (Iklzll),
J O 1
J
81
possessed of twins, oj twin

ivith three
(branches, &c.)
j^-jl (Achuzlu)
(lambs, branches,
&c.); &c.
The
1
written digits are
1,
2,
r 3,
i 4,
o 5,
6, v 7, A 8,
9,
0.
With
these,
compound numbers are written

as,
as
in
English, from left to right;
ro 25,
n.
160,
n.i
3409,
VA..T.H 78003046, &c.

lu dates, the thousand, and generally the hundreds, of the
year of the Hijra are omitted, as also the dots of the letters
thus,
A_
;
stands
for
__.*
1296
(sene bin Iklyuz d6qsan aid)

;
in the year (of the Hijra)
4uL,
(fi
ylylrml blr
za, sene 97) on the 2\st Zt-'l-Qada, '97 (A.H.).

O
i-
->
The
signs for the months, in dates, are
+, for
^^
jj^,
for
>
-.,
!,,
for-J^f^J
tîUa-*
Jf
for
*
for
J^f^
;
U,
for
^STîUL
for
î VI
o
-j,
i_^
o^
^^^j,
for ^L*^.
*3 \
I
j, for
.
Û^
J, for Jlj-i.
b,
for 5Xx_kJl
î
^,
for As?1
î
The day
first
always precedes the sign of the month
and the
is
day
is
termed
as,
iê.
(gurre), while the thirtieth

8/c
named 11
(selkh)
^j
<u- \jo
L>
all
dots being omitted in

so,
O
**
these shortened numeral dates.
Not
;
however, when the

o
o J
-x"
Jo
*--_i'
date
is
written out in full words
as,
^Lji-L \jS^\
(*L-j
Jji^LJii
^^ y ii.^
fttl
^l^ ^ }$>
(Ishbu bin
Iklyuz d6qsan diqiiz sene'l hljrlyyesl mah-i muharremlnln 6n
82
beshinji penjsbenblh gyfinfi) This day of Thursday, the 15th of

the
month of Muharrem, of
the Hijra year 1299.
SECTION IV.
The Pronoun.
:
The Turkish
o
-.
personal pronoun has no distinction of gender

J
^ t
^
o J
(ben) /,
(san, not sen) thou, j\ (6

o
in writing, generally,
o
jy
61) he, she,
it ;
and their plurals
j*
(biz) we, j~* (slz) you,

*
j\
(anlar, onlar) they.
In politeness, j-> and j_- are used instead of
^j
and c^_-,.
(slzler),
They then have
their
own
plurals
Jljt
(bizler),
J^
which cannot be expressed
in English.
These are even used

third person plural
is
as singulars, by the over-polite.

used, in the
is
The
same way, out of

;
politeness, for the singular, as
practised in Italian
self,
but
it
has not
its
plural.
The word
all
^5x3 (kendl)
is
a kind of
plural.
common
is
pronoun, of
the
persons, singular
sives.
and
It
specialized
by the
posses-
The
personal pronouns, singular and plural, are declined in
the same
way
as the
nouns substantive, excepting that some of

all
them have a
special genitive,
but those of the second
person, singular and plural.
These genitives are:

thy
;
talil
^ (benlm)
of him,
of me, my;
her, it;
esU-,
(sanlii)
of
thee,
(aniii, 6nu.fi)
his, her, its;
(blzlm) of us, our; c^*, (slzln) of you,

their.
your
; e)j2l (anlar'iii,
onlarin) of them,
But, to take either
o J
^
,
83
of the prepositions
^^1
A)\
all
after their singulars, they
must
;
be put in the genitive,

^j^\ ^) forme,
with them.
*Ll
^J>-
but the third person plural

diil
as,
JLil
with you, ^jg]
for him,
her,
it, tigl
These genitives are used, when
required, to emphasize
and
corroborate the possessive pronoun of the same

person.
number and
They
;
are never used alone, without their possessives

thus, Job (babam)
to corroborate
&c.),
Jj'j
my father
(not
my
mother,
~j (benlm babam)
my
father (not your father, or his
father).
The
possessive pronouns, too, have no distinction of gender,
either on the English or
French
principle.
They are
(1m,
im)
my
d
;
(In, in)
o
thy
(1, i),
or, after a vowel,
(st, s!)
*-
^
(liilz,
his, her, its

lari),
j*
(Imlz, imiz) our,
jS
Inlz)
your;
(leri,
their.
These possessives are

qualify,
suffixed
to the
substantives
they
*
and form one word with them.
That compound
o
;
word
(evlm)
is
then declined like a simple substantive

house, c*Ujjl (evlmln)
.Uijl
thus, vjl
my
of
my
house,
t+)J\
(evlme)
<_$
to
my
house,
(evimde) in
my
house-,
is
&c.
(The
added
here before the bare possessive,
thought by some to be
needed in the case of a preceding consonant that does not

join on in writing to
its
next
letter in the
same word.
,
Others
&c.; but
do not consider
it
necessary, and write: +j
is)jl,
^1,
84

the compound, in declension, &c., takes another vowel
it,
when
after
Ox
it
is
more usual
to
add
-
this
<**
preceding vowel also

O
as,
-X*"
CiUjjl
(evlmln) of
my
;
house, A*JJ! (evlme)
to
my
house
^-V^l
(evlnlz) your house
&c.
is
The vowel
that precedes the bare possessive
an eêre, soft
the
or hard, given grammatically to the final consonant of

qualified
substantive,
horse,
when
it
ends in a consonant.
isijt (atln)
Thus,
ol
(&t)
Jl (atim)
my
horse,
thy horse, J[l
(at!),
his, her, its horse,
our horse, j_5T_j1 (atinlz) J^-ft (atlmiz)

their horse.
your
horse, ^$jL^\
(atlari)
After an uturu vowel
dominant, this eser& becomes uturu also; thus, Jcjl (6ghAl)
son, jicjl (oghiilum)

+*j)
my
son; o^j (but) a thigh,
Jj
(buti\m)
or
(budiim)
z)
my
thigh;
>
(yuz)
~a
face,
+jji_
(yuzum) my
face;
J^(gy^
an eV e
\j$ (gyuzum) my
eye.
When
is
the substantive ends with a vowel, the bare possessive

to
added
form a
syllable
with that vowel, whatever
it
may
;
be; thus, JCC (babam)
my
father; djiib (yanqon) thy echo

door or gate
;
^j*
(qapusu)
O
his, her, its

J J "
>
jx^jXJj-,
(suugyumuz)
,
our bayonet;
(surulerl)
j-$jf (gyurgyuiiuz)
JlocL
your experience; \j}jjj

given,
their
The example here
with the
possessive singular of the third person,
shows
is
clearly that
when
the substantive ends with a vowel,
^
B
,
the possessive,
in lieu
of
^5 after
a consonant.
is
it is
If the final vowel of the substantive
never joined
on to the possessive in writing.
(maternal) aunt,
Tier
85
Thus, f*)-^ (teyzem) my
d^J
(teyzen), thy aunt, ^-^-J (teyzesl) his or
aunt
j+ijl (teyzemlz) our aunt,
J->J
(teyzeniz) your aunt,
their aunt. (jJ*)+> (teyzelerl)
When
the final vowel
is
^, the possessives of the

it
first
and
In
second persons singular do not join on to

the third person singular, and in
Ox
all
in writing.
the possessive plurals,

O O
**
they join on.

tailor,
Thus,
^^J
(terzl)
tailor,
-(^/-J (terzlm)
my
d(jjj
(terzlii) thy tailor,
^Jj^
(terzlsl) his or her tailor,

tailor, (j)jjj>
our tailor, j**-jj (terzlmlz) j*.jj> (terzlnlz) your

(terzlleii) their tailor.
There
so.
is
no valid reason for
this rule
custom alone has

myself,
issbli
it
Thus are formed:
^j!_T'(kendlm)
(kendln) thyself, ^JO-i
(kendlsl) his, her, itself;
J*jjjj(keadlmlz) ourselves, j_5Cx5(kendliilz) yourselves,

(kendllerl) theirselves.
î^
final
in a polysyllable, as in declension,
changes into
c before the possessives, singular or

the third person plural
;
plural, excepting that of

cs)
so also, an Arabic
changes into
Turkish
mansion,
(y value) in like cases.
Thus, jljy (q6naq), a

CiLjl
^cl_jj_3
(qinaghim)
;
my mansion ;
(^P^k) silk,
c5O
his
(tp^ytn) thy silk

;
Jjli (tawiiq) a fowl,
^lL (tawughA)
their fowl.
or her fowl
^cljj9 (qonaghimiz) our mansion, ^_x_x_j_jl
(Ipeyliilz)
your silk;
^JLJJLi
(tawiiqlari)
The
86

is
reason of the exception
evident,
the final consonant takes
no vowel before
,jj.
These possessives equally qualify plural substantives, and

follow the sign of the plural.
f
Thus, +j^ (evlerlm), my houses;

*
'
^* o
.>
horses CiJ^JLJl (itlAiln) thy
u^jjX-jj- (M\ugyulerl)
his, her, its
bayonet* ; j*jjjf
iilz)
(sAHUerlmlz) our flocks;
Jx^J
(tejzeleii-
your aunts
jjJijLjji (qonaqlail) their mansions.
By
a consideration of the examples above given with the
possessives
of
the third
persons,
singular
and
plural,
as
attached to singular and plural substantives, two peculiarities
become evident, namely:

the possessive
1,
the plural sign

is
is
not repeated for

;
when
the substantive
itself plural
2,
con-
sequently, the combination of a substantive and a possessive
of the third person,
when
it
has the plural syllable J> between
the two, leaves
it
altogether doubtful whether this plural sign
belongs to the substantive or to the possessive.

ô
-
Even
if
the
combination ^JJtLijJ (qonaqlarlerl) had been in use,

is
which
not the case,

<jja\jj3
it
would have been impossible
to decide
whether
(qonaqlari) was intended to betoken the sense
of his or her mansions, on the one hand, or their mansion, on

the other.
sions,
Add
to this difficulty the third sense of their

still
manIn
if
and the puzzle becomes
more complicated.
conversation, the doubt of the

necessary, by proper enquiries.
hearer
may
be removed,
But, in a written document,
87
intended to be understood by an absent reader, possibly after

the death of the writer, a method was seen, especially by
judges and
legists, to
be necessary for distinguishing between
the three cases.
That
distinction
is
effected,
in
writing,
somewhat
at
the
expense of plain grammar, as follows.
To
distinguish the
single possessor of the plural possessions, the singular cor-
roborative genitive of the personal pronoun

the combination containing the plural sign
(anin
qinaqlari)
his
;
is
placed before
-
'
Of
the
thus,
^Jj\jjp dul
or
Tier
mansions.
To
distinguish
plural joint possessors of a single possession, the genitive of
the
plural
personal
pronoun
is
prefixed,
and grammar
is
violated by omitting the plural sign
from the combination

(sJJLjl
of substantive and possessive

their mansion.
as,
^'^
in
(anlariii
qonaghi)
is
In the third case, the sign of the plural

the combination
;
used in the corroborative and

(jj&\jp
still
ctJ^Lil
thus,
(anlarin q6naqlari) their mansions.
A doubt
may
be
felt,
and these distinctions are not always used.
The
declension of the combination with the possessive of
the third person, singular or plural, takes a special form, a
being introduced before the prepositions, and the final vowelletter of the original
combination suppressed before this
jj,
when
the latter
is
joined in writing to the combination sin-
gular, or does not itself possess a
vowel
in
the combination
88
plural.

This
rule,
applied to possessives joined to substanin
tives
ending respectively
consonants or vowels, acts thus
When
^j-i-i
is
an adjective,
\
it
remains unchanged, and
means own;
' ' '
thus, .J-jLj ,jj_i_S (kendl

s-
bdbdm) my own father,
".^
JjJl^ (j-'S (kendt viilldelerlnlz) your own mothers, &c.
SECTION V.
The Demonstratives.
These
(61,
are,
(bA)
this,
ji
(shii)
o
that or this, or j\ (6)

o
jy
the
o j
as in the personal) that,j->j\
(6-blr) or ^Jjl
(ol-blr)
;
other.
They
are used as substantives and as adjectives
being
declined or invariable, accordingly, like other substantives and
O^^J
OxOx** O
C,O'
this book,
J
jX*'
adjectives.
O
Thus,
L_jLi_5
y
j
^>\^S j>
these
books;
O^
*dj>j\
that other man,

j
JU^l^j!
Âos
0^7-
mn
&c.
As
substantives, jj and
j j
:
ji are thus
Q J
declined, something like

s-}
xO ^
the personal or j\ J^l
j>
(bA),
dj^
(biinAn), \^> (bAiia), sjj^

;
(bunda),
J#
(l)Anii),
îljJ (biinddn)
8
jii^J (biinlar),
fl3^
(bAnldrin),
$}> (biinlM),
'^/
(biinUrdd),
^gJ^J (bAnlarl),
'
89
pro-
4j4 (bAnlardan)
written Jj_i ^_i (shA, sometimes

(shAnAfi), tf^
;
nounced
jjZ*
shAl),
diiî
(shAna),
sjjji (shAnda),
(shAnA), jjJJj^ (shAndan)
Jiijl (shAnlar), isJ^Liji (shAn-
larln), sjly,
(shAnHra)
tlJijL (shAnlarda),
Jyjal
iîj
(shAnlari),
JjV^ji (shAnldrddn).
With OJ
as, ijjg\
and
for
*Ll
their singulars are
CJJ
<sli^J
XOJJ
this,
dJbl
put in the genitive
i&jZt
with that.
But
^jjl
to be used as a substantive,
must have the possesto it

;
sive suffix of the third person

its
appended
O
i^j'
(o-blii)
other one, the other one (of the two).

J
:
It
J
is
then declined
xOJ
like all similar combinations
Or
it
may
O
take either of the two possessive suffixes of the

;
first
and second persons plural

J
as, ^)*i^ji (6-blrtmlz), the other

'^f
one
of
us, CiJ)*^jl
of the other one of us

in the other ones
)>o/j^
to
ê
other one of
you
8-î^jl
of us
the other ones

tjjf>.jj>j\
of you; &c.
SECTION
VL
The Interrogates.
who ? ^p (klm)
such, singular and
* O
is
always a substantive, and declined as
plural: du-Tôf
whom ? whose? ^jfto ivhom?

of or from ivhom
?
*+5
^>"
in
whom
^
?
,5-*^
whom
O X O ^X*
? ^.U-P
who, ivhat or which persons ? &c.
90
AJ (ne)
it

what
? is generally a substantive,
and declined
:
but
eJoAi
is
also used as an adjective,

<ui
and
is
then invariable
(nenln) of wliat ?
(for A>>, neye) to

?
what
? *** (uede) in
what? ÂJ
what
?
(neyl)
what (accus.)
neler)
u ij
(for
JpJ, nedan) from
'^ (forJJ,
what (things)? what dî (nelerln) of
(things); &c.
Ox
jjus
(qangi, vulg. hang!)
which ?
is
both substantive and
adjective,
declined or invariable accordingly.
These three words, as substantives, take the possessive

suffixes.
Thus,
*P
(klmlm) my who ? ÂJ (nem) my what
aJU-^(klmlS) thy who ?

its
dH
it
(nen) thy what ?
^--^
(q^Qg^l)
per*
which,
wliicli
(one) of
^.+^-S (klmlerlm)
my what
sons?
jyjjj
(nelerlm)
my
what things? J-iiJ (qangfmlz) which
(one) of us ? jCJLiJ (qangilerlnlz) which (ones) oj you ?

(qangileii) iÂzcA (one, or,
which ones) of them
i
JrJ
J
AJ
or
Jiij
(vuZ^r.
Dilqadar)
Ao^ mwc7^
?
>
are both substau tives
and
j*
(vulg.
ne turlu) w/iaf sort ?
adjectives.
SECTION VII.
The Relative Pronoun.

IN
THERE
is
NO RELATIVE PRONOUN
TURKISH, though
attempts are made to use the Persian relative and conjunction,

A-3 (kl), as such, in literary composition.
The Turkish
con-
junction *_)
is
a very different thing.
Its use
by Europeans
pcans
91
is
and others, as a
This
relative
pronoun,
greatly to be
avoided.
is
avoidance of all use of the relative

all
pronoun
the prime distinction of Turkish from
Aryan and Semitic
tongues.
It is the perfection of language.
The numerous
active and passive participles of the Turkish
verb obviate the necessity of a relative.

ticiples take the place of our relative
The
it is
active
par-
when
nominative
to a verb
is
and the passive participles do so when our relative

(See this
the accusative, or any indirect object of a verb.
explained in the paragraphs on the Participles, in Section VIII.,
on the Verb.)
There
is
a peculiar Turkish relative, however, to which

in English,
we
have no parallel
the suffix
(kl).
It
is
attached
to nouns and pronouns substantive in two ways.
If the sub-
stantive be in the genitive, the combination
is
a substantive,
;
and indicates that which belongs

CC
,
to
(the substantive)
thus,
<sUC\j
,^32CV
(babantnkl) the one which belongs

(babamiilkt)
the one
to
a (or
to
the) father,
JC5CCC
i \i\i
which belongs
my
father,
J^SL
(bab&siuinkl)
;
the one belonging to his (or her)
father, his father's one

locative
case,
&c.
If the substantive be in the

is
the
combination
sometimes a substantive,
sometimes an adjective.
indicates
The
substantive combination then

;
that which exists in (the simple substantive)
the
adjective combination expresses the
(substantive) which
exists
92
in
first

(the
substantive).
Thus, ^-SsjJo
(babarndekl) the
thing, the one that exists, that is in (the possession or
keeping
of)
my
father, which
my
father has or holds;
Jc
^_$8.XJ~,\jl)
(babasindekl 'Him) the science possessed by his father, that is in

his father.
The
;
substantive combinations form the plural, and

is
are declined
the adjective combination
invariable.
particle, ^j,
With
noun of place or of time the same
forms
a relative combination, substantive or adjective, having relation to the place or time
named.
In the case of the noun of

also be employed.
place, the locative preposition

plil
is
may
Thus,
the foot, or lower part,
CcU) and
sj^cU.! that which
at the foot;
-i
the evening,
ôl
that which
was or
will be (present) in the evening.
SECTION VIII.
The Derivation of
the Verb.
As
a general rule, each primary Turkish verb forms, itself
included, a system of twelve affirmative, twelve negative, and
twelve impotential verbs, by regular derivation

all
;
thirty-six in
one half being verbs
active, the other half
verbs passive;
;
the active verbs being transitive or intransitive
the passives
having
for their nominative the direct or the indirect object
of the transitive, the indirect object only of the intransitive

primitive.
In another mode of subdivision, on the other hand, these
thirty-six verbs divide into
93
one of
is
two equal
classes, in pairs,
each pair being simple, and the other causative (which

permissive, as the sense
also
may
show).
pair of verbs
so that,
is
Each simple and causative

indeterminate, or reciprocal
;
either determinate,
by a special division of
the same thirty-six, there are twelve determinate, twelve indeterminate, and twelve reciprocal verbs
;
thus (giving the
imperatives of each, for economy of space)
94

5
a
"
"
s
"a,
^^
"c
-S
j;
JMI ^
j
^
s>
i. 1
::>
r-i
^ O
^ B
5,
^"8
I II
#
a
a,
^
-^
^
2
J^^ ^ "^
8
"a
t
J
s " R
'q- -^
.;
S-
n
ii
.~
Ul
'^J
?i
-^
cc
I S
O
aATXV93NJ
95
-o
"***
^>
"S
'i
o S
-2
CL
,
^ o
'
=>>
o<
-2
to
kick
zj
unable
ually
&1 a
-a
^N
-0)
1
<W
.52
a
~ -S
CC cc
"l>\
^*s>
96
Remarks on
the foregoing Table.
The
imperative singular
is
the root, or simplest form in the
conjugation, primitive or derivative, of the
Turkish verb.
This conjugation
be seen further on
unique for
all
the thirty-six forms, as will
consists in adding certain vowels
and con-
sonants to the end of this conjugational root.
When
the conjugational root of the simple affirmative form

,
ends in J
instead of
or in a vowel,
.
it
forms
its
passive by adding
Thus
Jy
(bul) find, JJ> (biilun, the uturu
dominating) be found; %\i (qapla) cover, ^^LlS (qaplan) be

covered;
jij\
(6qii) read,
^j\
(6qun) be read.
In the fore-
going case of the vowel-ending, the passive sometimes takes

O
xo
both the
^ and
o
-
the J
the
always preceding
nJ
J j
;
-
thus, Ji^lS
J
sr '
(qaplanil, as i^blS), be covered, JijSjl (oqunul, as ^jijl) be read.
When
syllable,
the root of the simple affirmative has more than one
and ends
letter
in
or a vowel,
its
causative
is
formed
by adding a
o
O
;
in lieu of the syllable
j*
Thus, Jlli
(it)
J
(qlâl) become
shorter,
J
c-JUi (ql-alt)
O
make or
O O
let
J
O
become
shorter; shorten
(it)
^^=>jl
;
(uksur) cough, c^j... ^-*j\ (uks\\rt)
make or
let
(him) cough
let
4ijj-
(suweyle) speak, say,

let
J J o
e-Juij-*.
(it) be
(sAweylat) make or
(him) speak or say, make or

J J
;
spoken or said (by him)
^Jjl (oqu) read, recite, OjJjl (6qAt)
make or
let (it)
\.
be read or recited (by him),
make (him)
read.
97
Many
simple affirmative verbs ending in consonants also
form their causatives in

times written J>
,
preceded by a servile esere, some,
and even j
with uturu
not in
No
rule appears to exist on this subject, and the dictionary alone,
or experience, can help the student in

O O
J
it.
Thus, g\ (Ich) '

let
drink
(it),
j^\
(Ichlr) or jjg] (Ichur)
make or
(it) be
let (it)
drunk
sink,
(by him);
sink
(it)
;
oU
-.Is
(b&t)sm&
(thou), j\* (batir)
make or
(qdch)
flee, escape,
j*\i (qdchir)
make or
let
(him)
ê
is
or escape.
When
the simple verb, affirmative, negative, or impotential,
transitive, its causative
governs the same accusative
and
the nominative to the simple then becomes a dative to the

causative.
Thus,
>
000***
eJ-j^li
+*j\-i
^1
O x
^
to
(ben ani yazdim)
wrote
it
it,
(sau anl bana yazdirdin) thou madest
to
be
written by
me (thou causedst
it.
me
the writing
it),
thou madest
or
lettest
me write
When
-9
the simple verb
is
neuter,
its
nominative becomes
t J
oJ
/ slept, the accusative of its causative ; as, p-îjl (uyidum) s o Jo J Ox (san benl Ayiitdun) thou madest or lettest me djjgjl ^j
sleep.
An
indefinite series of causatives of every

suffixes,
verb
may be
formed by repeating the causative

after
after
^, and j*
QXO
*
,
o.
;
They
are sometimes useful, but are generally used

;
in irony
each augment adds an agent to the chain
as,
j^G
98
^C
thing)
to be
'
*kis
to be
ast
means
io cause (a
to
caused (by a second)
caused (by a third)
be written
(by a fourth agent).

is
The
two
indeterminate
also called the Reflexive form.

it
It has
uses.
More
generally
has the same intransitive sig-
nification
with the simple form, as to the action, but betokens

is
that this action
then performed without any determinate

is,
exterior object.
Thus duLl
to kick one's feet or heels
about
as one
lies
or stands (like a dancer, a

jjt-'J^
man
to
in a passion, a
dying
animal, &c.);
there, in
(baqlumaq)
is,
look
about, here
and
a perplexed or inquisitive manner; &c.
But, at other
times,
this
is
form
is
transitive,
and then indicates that the

indirect
object,
also,
agent
action,
O xC *
either
the
direct
is
or
of the
that the act
done
to or for the agent's self.

to
Thus,
JO
JLS (qilij j^jlijs

isUijjJ j\
qushanmaq)
gird a sword on
to one's self;
(ev edhimek) to acquire

to
a house for
one's self;
-*!
(qashlnmaq)
(glylnmek)
to
scratch one's self (with one's nails)
CiUlp
to
put on one's
clothes, CiUi-v**)*>> (chlzmd glylnmek)
put on
boots,
îlS^^î^^
;
(chlzmalerlml glylueylm)
let
me
put on my boots
&c.
;
Passive verbs of neuters are defective

in the third person singular only,
they are conjugated over which
and
in inflexions
person and number exercise no influence.

such that the neutral action takes place
They
signify, to be
in, to,
for, by, on account
of,
99
&c. (as expressed), something named, as the act of some or
any indeterminate agent.

the act
Thus, jjLJ
<si-jjj
(buyle teplnllmaz)
QS.O
of kicking about
z's
not thus performed, jJuJ

is
*i\jj>
(burada
teplnllmaz) the act of kicking about
not allowed here; &c.

;
We
be
have such passive verbs in English

;
as, to be slept in,
to
fought for
&c.
The Turkish
sense of
it
passive verb always has, inherent in

able.
it,
the
to be
Thus, ^_L.T(ke=lllr)
cuttable (always);
it is
cut
(often),
it
will be cut (then),
it is
j^j (yenmaz)
it is
is
not eaten (as a rule),

(either
it
will not be eaten (then),
not eatable
now, or by nature).
SECTION IX.
The Turkish Conjugation.
All Turkish affirmative verbs, active or passive, transitive

or intransitive, are conjugated in one
and
the same invariable
manner, modified, as to their servile vowels and consonants,
by the laws of
class
and euphony
alone.
The
negative and
impotential verbs differ from the affirmative, as to conjugation,
merely in the form of the aorist active participle, and of the

analogous aorist tense indicative.
So that only one
sole con-
jugation exists, in reality, in the Turkish language.
The
conjugation consists of one simple and three complex
categories
of
moods, tenses, numbers,

;
persons,
participles,
verbal nouns, and gerunds
ajl
four categories, simple and
100

alike,
complex, being fundamentally
but each modified
in
certain special manner, to express a modified variation of the

action.
Each category has

necessitative,
infinitive.
six
moods
the imperative, indicative,

conditional,
optative
(also
subjunctive),
and
The
The
imperative
mood has one
tense, the future.

;
indicative has eight tenses, in four pairs

;
the present
and imperfect
perfect
;
the aorist and past
the
perfect
and
plu-
the future and past future.
The
necessitative, optative,
and conditional, have one pair

infinitive has
each, the aorist and past.
The
but one tense,
the present.
Each category has

is
five active participles; the
present (which
the general active participle, applicable, in one sense, to

time, past, present, or future), the aorist, the past, the
any
perfect,
and the future.

passive,
;
In Turkish, the present or active,

are
is
the perfect or
not
confused
together
as
in
European languages
and
is
each
distinct in
form and in sense,

IP,
different
from the gerund
in form, as it
in
grammar
and
in sense, different
from the verbal noun.
The
active participles of the passive verbs denote the direct

;
recipients of the action of verbs transitive

ticiples of the
the passive par-
same apply
to the indirect objects thereof.
The
active participles of the passives of iutransitives denote the
indirect objects of the intransitive action
ticiples of
101
the passive par-
such passives are not in use.

five active
Between the
and two passive
participles of each
category, a Turkish conjugation thus furnishes twenty-eight

participles
for every verb, primitive or derivative.
participles,
it
By
the
all
use of
these numerous
entirely
avoids
necessity for a relative pronoun.
The
jjl
,
present active participle adds an ustun and the letters
or only the letter
to the root that ends in a consonant

.1
the aorist adds a vowel and the letters

o
or only the letter^,

o
with an ustun,
with an uturu,
and^
only (or sometimes^)

;
with an
(
esere, for
which no rule can be given
the past adds

;
J^
(mlsb, mish) to all roots, whatever their ending
as the
perfect adds e*b (dik) or
jp
(diq).
The
future adds an ustun
and the and
letters
dki
,
(ejek) or
jL
(&j&q) to consonantal roots,

roots, including the
(&!>*}
or JÂJ
with ustun, to vowel

Thus,
;
negatives and impotentials.

are present active participles
shan),
as,
^
;
(tepan), ^j^-S
(qiran)
(tepl-
(teplnan),
^J
Ife
(tepllan),
^,1J
(teplnllan),
and J,llJ
(teplshilan),
are those of the simple affirmative derivatives.

in
it
The
causatives
Ji
and
in
add the ustun and ^1

;
while those in
o change
a \*jjj\
;
into 1 before the letters ^1
thus,
^J-J
;
(tepdlran),
(6turdan),
(tepdlk)
;
^,\,JJ
(tepdlrllan), &c.
JLJj (tepmish)
(tepmeyejek),
eU^" (t^j^k), diil*?
fi
102

i
(tepemeyejek), the final

elided as useless.
of the negative particle <u being
When
the root ends with a vowel, as
is
the case with
all
is
the negatives and impotentials, the syllable
^G
or
(yan, yan)
added
in
the present participle, the final

1
of the root
is
being suppressed, and by some even the

intact.
but the j
kept
Thus, ^G^Lli or (jCLU (qaplayan), ^L^J (tepmeyan),
Ox'-'X
O-JJ
(teplnemeyan), J*jj
u L*ajJ
(yuruyan), Îj^jl (6qiiyan).
The Turkish
present active participle, in colloquial lanit
guage, as a remanet from eastern Turkish, takes after

preposition
as,
,>
the
;
de, da, to
form an adverb of past or future time
sjjxi (gldaude) when (I, thou, &c.) went, or shall go.
The
aorist active participle, of the
same form as the third
person singular of the aorist tense of the indicative, always
ends in a
letter^,
in affirmatives,
and
in the
syllable^* (maz)
in negatives
and impotentials.
Thus, ^J
(teper), j+*> (tepmdz),
UA-J (tepemez).
In the simple affirmative, the vowel added to the

sonant of the root, to which the final ^
is
last con-
then appended,
soft
cannot be defined by rule.
Of course,
it
must be hard or
;
according to the dominant in the root
but different verbs
have ustun, others
esere, others again uturu, for their

all
vowel
and with the ustun,

verbs
;
hard verbs add
as do
some
soft
while other soft verbs dispense with this
letter.
Thus
103
we have: J(^
(qirdr),
gellr),
(glder),
j^(gelur, vulg.
^
;
jÛ
(s&nur, vulg. sauir),
(slyirlr).
its
The
rally
simple reflexive forms
aorist in
uturu and jj (gene-
pronounced as eser& and^).
The
simple reciprocal does
the same.
O 1 '
We
have, therefore,
j^
(teplnur, vulg. teplnlr),
j^
(teplshur, vulg. teplshlr).
All the simple and causative
passives follow this rule

(teplntlur, tepldllr),
dlrlllr),
thus, jj-LJi (tepllur, teplllr),

(tAplshllAr, teplshlllr)
;
j^^>
(tep-
]&
J^
Jj^j-J (teplndlrlllr^^jij
(teplshdlrlllr).
It will
be observed that a vowel

these words.
is
intercalated before the
in
is
This
is
a mechanical rule.
its
The preceding j
;
a letter that does not join on to

reason for the addition of that ^,
follower
this is the sole
when
the following J has a
vowel.
The same
o
.j
,
rule
is
applied by
;
many
it
to the
j of the
vowel, as
causative
it
in like cases
that
is,
when
has
its
always has in the
aorist.
The words above given may

j$*j>^
.,
therefore be written,
j^^
jjl^J^l*)
but this has
no
effect
on the pronunciation.
The
aorist passive participle has the
same form
as the active
perfect,
and the future passive

;
is
identical in
(tepejek).
form with the
future active: e)jJ (tepdik)
dÂJ
;
There
are three verbal nouns

<u
;
the
present
or general,
formed by adding
negative imperative
(me, ma) to the root, exactly like the

the perfect, identical in form with the
104
perfect active

and
aorist passive participles
;
and the future,
identical with the
two future
participles.
Thus, A^J (tepme);
djj
(tepdlk)
d.*2
(^P^ k )- The
is
form *^J (tepme) of the
present verbal noun
also that of a verbal adjective passive,
signifying done, made, effected as the result of (the action of
the verb);
thus, A*J, as such adjective,
means caused by a
kick or kicks.
This derivative of the transitive verb active simple and

causative can also take the passive sense
;
thus,
A+J
means
it
(kesme),
also
is
which naturally means an

O
x 3
act
of
x o
(
cutting, often
an
*V X'
act of being cut;

cut.
as,
<jVjS
^ ^S
x O <x-
(kesmesl qolay)
easily
It
is
is
also
much used
O
-t
as a passive adjective
O
'
when
the
verb
transitive
;
as,
^y *>
^\i\i
*s?\ (inje kesme tutun) finely
cut tobacco
and
as,
as an active adjective
when
the verb
is
in-
transitive
JU jJU
(babadan qalma mal) property
remaining from (one's) father.
Leaving the gerunds

into the
for the present,
we may now
inquire
mode of formation of the
tenses of each mood.
But
before doing so,
we must
indicate the differences that serve
clearly to distinguish the active participles, the passive parO

O
ticiples,
and the verbal nouns, of the two forms

or
first
in
eb
or
jp
and
in (*L.
j..
place, the participles are adjectives, while the
In the
verbal nouns are substantives.
Therefore, whenever a deriva-
tive in either of those forms qualifies a substantive,
it
105
must be
a participle;
it
cannot be a verbal noun.
Secondly, the active participle qualifies the

actor only.
It
is
name of
its
therefore always a simple and invariable

;
word, like the other active participles

is there
as,
^jj
c
*
**\ tfj0
-
4^1
thou
any man who has gone

is to
there? <yy*
^^
tiiJb-*J-3
^ art
he
who
go ?
Thirdly, the passive participle always qualifies the
name of
is
the direct object, or of the indirect object, of the action, and
always accompanied by a possessive pronoun indicating the

actor of that action.
The
first
of these two facts distinguishes

;
the passive participle from the verbal noun

tinguishes
it
the second dis-
from the active participle of the same form.

+so_*y3j\
Thus, ujlLj
(oqudughum
O
*
kltiib)
J J
the book
which I read
the
*"
(now or formerly)
book which
i_jbj Juujpj\
to
(6quyajaghim kltab)
I am
going
read.
O xx
These are instances of the

O J
J J J
direct object qualified.

the time in
So,
^Lj
^Ljojsjl
(oqudughiim zemfin)
(jJis?
which
(i.
e.
when) I read ; and
^î j*j\
I am
;
^^
to
is
(klt^bi
6quyajaghim mejlls)
the meeting in which
going
read
the book,
are instances of indirect objects
as
also
*Ljjl *ia.jjj)jl
(uyuyajaghim
6da) the
room
in
which I
am
going
to sleep.
As
let
instances of the substantival nature of the verbal noun=,

O
us take,
^^**i**&j\
m
<Jj\l
(y^
yazdighimi gyurd&nuz-
106

seen
mu) have you
my
past action of writing writing?

?
i.
e.,
have
you ever seen me write
^^Lj-
-J
^^jCa.Js
(galejeylml
i.
klm
who
suweyledl) who mentioned

told (you, him, &c.) that
my future
I was
action of coming ?
to
e.,
about
come ?
Proceed we now to discuss the formation of the tenses.
The
in
third person singular
is
the root of each tense, except

for
the
imperative.
Leaving the numbers and persons
future consideration,
we may
say, in the first place, that, as
the second tense in each pair, of every
mood (excluding
first
the
imperative and the infinitive),
is
formed from the
tense
of the pair by the addition of the auxiliary

it,
^^\
(Idl)
was, after
we may
leave these second tenses also
for
future
con
sideration.
By
these means
we
arrive at the conclusion that there are
four tenses in the indicative,

optative, conditional,
to be defined.
and one each
in the necessitative,
and
infinitive,
the forms of which have
The
four
indicative
tenses
are
the
present,
the
aorist
(present habitual and future promissive), the perfect, and the
future
aorist
the single tense of the other three
moods
is
their
is
(present or future);
and that of the
infinitive
its
present.
c *
The
present indicative adds an esere and the syllable ^y_

;
(yor) to the consonantal root
thus,
^J
(teplyor).
It indi-
cates a present action (actual or habitual)
he he
is
107
kicking (now)
now
3
habitually
kicks.
Add
it
the auxiliary ^jj) to this,
\3>\jj~j (teply6r
ing (then).
Icll),
and
forms the imperfect, he was kick'

to ^
;
final
more frequently changes

,
as,
d^X ^j/(gldlyAr);
The
but always ends in
in the negatives
.
es&J
j^J
(AdlyAr); Ac.
syllable,
aorist indicative varies in
form of the servile
in the affirmatives,
and
in \*
(rnez,
maz)
and impotentials, being
identical with the
active aorist participle.
It indicates a present habit
(not a
present action), or a future assurance, a future promise, as the
context or circumstances
kicks
;
may
;
require.
Thus, ^J (teper) he
;
he shall or will kick

;
J^J
(qirar) he breaks
;
he shall or
jjSjl
will break
jjj$. (yurur)
lie
walks
he will
walk
(oqur)
he reads;
he will read; jjo\

;
(isiiir)
he bites;
;
he will bite;
j+J
(tepmaz) he does not kick
he will not kick

,
j*aJ (tepemez)
he cannot kick.
The
auxiliary ^Jjl
added
to this, forms the

;
past tense (showing a past habit, or an unfulfilled condition)
^jjJ^J (teper
idl) he
used
to kick
he would kick (if
he could);
last
he would have kicked (had he been able); in

senses, the expression is a virtual negative
:
which two
he kicks not, be-
cause he
0^ Cf
is
not able
he did not kick, because he
was not able
l^Jjl)*J (tepmaz Idl) he used not to kick; he would not kick (if
he could);
he would not
Idl) he
have kicked (had he been able);

used not
to be able to
(tepemez
kick
he would
108

and
so)
;
not be able to kick (if so

to
he would not have been able
kick (had not so and so); &c.
The
perfect indicative
is
formed by adding the syllable

It
is
î
(dl, di), in all cases, to the root.
used in a determinate,
to
and also
in
an indeterminate past sense, referring the action

all
a given past time, or to

kicked (then)
;
past time.
Thus,
^jj
(tepdl) he
he has kicked (without defining when).
Add
the auxiliary ^Jjl, and

idl),
the pluperfect results
^jjl ^jJf (tepdl he
or ^JjJJ (tepdidl), he had kicked; ^Jol

;
^J^J
had not
kicked
^ jjl ^ J-AJ
he
had not
is
been able to kick.
The
future indicative
identical in
form with the active
and passive future

noun.
participles,
and with the future verbal
It indicates that the action expressed

is
by the conjugahe
is
tional root
about to take place
thus,
dâJ
is
about to
kick, he is going to kick;
(sLÂ-j+J he
to kick.
not going to kick;
&si~>iJ he will not be able
Add
the auxiliary ^jjl
and the past future
results ^jjl isU.AJ he

to
was going
t!*L.du..<iJ
to kick,
(>\
isI.A-*J!
he was not going
kick
^jjl
he
was
unable
to
be about to kick.
,
Final
in the root
generally
changes
sonant
to ^
O
:
and a
^
,
final
O^^JJ
vowel requires the addition of a con-
dla.jjl
dla-AJ^ji.
The
^L
aorist necessitative is
formed by adding the syllables

It indicates a present
(mell, mali) to the root.

;
duty to
perform a future act
and corresponds with our must or ought.
Thus, jUJ he must
kick, he ought to kick
;
109
he must not
_jLA*J
kick, he ought not to kick
jULjJ' he ought not

,
to be able to kick.
With the auxiliary

}\
<j->\
we have
the
past necessitative,
JUJ
he ought to
have kicked, he should have kicked;

;
UJ
he ought not to have kicked
^jj) jUU-sJ he ought
not to have been able to kick.
The
vowel
5
aorist
optative
is
formed by adding an ust&n and

AJ
to a consonantal root, or a syllable
(y&, ya) to
.
vowel
is
root.
Sometimes
is
used in place of
it is
The
tense
a quasi-imperative, implying optation, or

let
a subjunctive.
Thus, AJ (tepe)
him
kick,
may
he kick;
(that) he
may
kick
with suppression of the tL+j (tepmeye,
of the negation)
let
him not kick,

(tepemeye)
may
he not kick
(that) he
may
not kick
A-*A*!>
may
he not be able to kick; (that) he
may
not be
able to kick.
Add now
the auxiliary ^jol
and we form the

;
past tense, a virtual negative, expressive of regret

A*J
thus,
(tepe
Idi,
more frequently written and pronounced

that he
if he
tepeydi) had he kicked, if he had kicked ;
had
kicked
tj^j&^S (tepmeyeydl) had he not kicked,

that he
had not
kicked;
had not kicked
^j^îJ (tepemeyeydl) had

able to kick
;
he not been able to kick, if he he
had not been
that
had not been
able to kick.
The
aorist conditional is
formed by adding the syllable AThis performs the
(se, sd) to
any
root, consonantal or vowel.
110

if,
function of our conjunction

(eyer),
if,
in
appearance; but, as
really
is
can be placed before
it, it
a subjunctive
tense-ending.
action
;
As a
present,
it
it
admits the possibility of the
as a future,
virtually denies the occurrence.

;
A.. <4
Thus,
>
A^J (tepse)
if he kick, if he were to kick

not,
(tepmese, the
;
of negation elided) if he kick

(tepemese)
is
were
to
lie
not to kick
A-~AJ
it
should
he not
that
be
able
kick.
Sometimes
(j>\ added,
desiderative,
he kick!
is
*Q*
&c.
With
we
have the past conditional, which

O ^ Ox
always a virtual negative.
Thus,
-v. ,.. ;
(tepseydl, for
<
<J.JJ!A.~*J)
had he kicked,
if he
had
*
.
O^ôx
kicked ; (53 -...
Ox"x^
T
(tepmeseydi) had he not kicked ; ^*. w

to kick.
(tepemeseydl) had he not been able
The
present of the infinitive
is
formed by adding du (mek)

to kick
;
or jj* (m&q) to any root.
Thus, c*UJ (tepmek)
,3*^
fre-
(qaplamaq)
to cover.
1
The
,
negative and impoteutial are
quently written with

to end the root
;
and sometimes without a vowel-letter

,
as,
<sXUJ
c^**^ (tepmemek), for dI<uJ'

for
duUill, BtUl*^ (tepememek),
dLA**J
JIitt (qaplamiis
maq), j**4jijl5 (qaplayamdmaq).

in English
This tense
;
often rendered
i*llL_$
by the verbal noun
in -ing
as,
Jjj cpiJU
staying.
(gltmek q^lmtlqdan evla)

takes the suffix dJ
*
,
<70m<7 zs
it
i^êr
Maw
It also
to
.3!
<*
after
to
verbal noun
in
-m#
as,
00*0 (iKi_i an acf of going.
form an equivalent
our
There are seven gerunds, one gerund-like verbal
locution of
cause, one of verbal proportion,
and six
to indicate various
times in relation with the action.
All of these gerunds and
gerund-like locutions presuppose the occurrence of two actions
expressed in the sentence, one by the gerund, the other by a
subsequent verb.
The gerunds
are a kind of verbal con-
junctions, while the gerund-like locutions are verbal adverbs.
The
first
gerund, the most

L_>J
frequently used, ends in an
uturu, followed by
(ub, ub) after a consonant, or

It indicates that
by
i_jj-j
(yub, yub)
after a vowel.
two actions are

is
IxMng mentioned, of which the one implied by the gerund

prior as to time or natural sequence.
We
more
usually, in
English, express
this
relation of
two actions by the con-
junction and, though

as the
we
occasionally use our gerund in -ing,
Turkish does.
Thus, J^S ujjJ (tepub qirar) he kicks
and
breaks, will kick

(it).
and break
(it)
or, kicking (it), he will

is
break
Conversationally, this gerund

;
pronounced with
i_>
;
eser& in lieu of uturu

qlrip,
and with
in place of
as, teptp,
&c.
The
letters
o+
+
second gerund
is
formed by adding ustun, and the
d^s (erek) or j^s (araq), to a consonantal root, d,<u (yerek)

It
is
or
to a vowel-root. JÂJ (yaraq)

first
sometimes used
in lieu
;
of the
its
gerund, to obviate its too frequent recurrence
but
distinctive use is to indicate that, of
two contemporary
sustained actions expressed, the one, subsidiary, accompanies

o
.X'
-
-'
-*
the other.
Thus, ^JJLJ
(2)ju>
kicking, he went off;
i.
e.,
he
112

(all
went o/, kicking away

laughing
(all
the time)
^jJ^
d^â
he came,
the time).
The
third gerund, in &* (inje, Inja), after a consonant, or
u&. (ylnje, yinja) after a vowel, and the fourth (used in writing
only,
and much more
rarely), in c*li (Tjek) or jjk (ijaq) after
a consonant, dl^J (yij^k) or sense that

its
Â (yijaq)
after a vowel, has the
action
is
to be a kind of signal for the occur;
rence of the other expressed in the sentence
it
may, then, be
rendered by our on
...
...
(with a gerund), also by our as soon as
(with a verb).
Thus,
;
^jj ^JT(gyArunj&
j,l
tepdl) on seeing
(him), he kicked (him)
jUl
J^l J*
it
(vasll 6Hjaq, ma'-
lum
(that
61a)
on reaching (as soon as

).
reaches), be (it)
known
The
fifth
gerund
is
identical in
form with the aorist opta-
tive, repeated.
It expresses repetition of one act as a
means
to the performance of a second.

qlrdl), kicking,
Thus,
he broke
(j^
(it).
*J
*~>
(tepe tepe
(and) kicking
is
(it),
The
sixth gerund
the infinitive with esere and ^> added
the Persian
into
softened into Turkish
d
* ox
:
(y value), and the
It expresses
the verbal reason

o o
*
precedent for the

j
o*
^"
second action.
i.
Thus, ..J^lj
ur,^
he kicking,
I fled ;
e.,
because he kicked,
I fled.
expresses the beginning of a time comuntil
The seventh gerund
mencing with the occurrence of an action and lusting
now,
113
during which another action has repeatedly or con;
tinuously occurred
it
is
equivalent to our ever since
In form
it is
the fifth gerund (not repeated) with the syllable
(14) or
(11)
added to
lie
it.
Thus,
^Q
is
JlaJ (tepelu aqsayor)
ever since he kicked,
has limped.
equivalent to the sixth
The
gerund
causal gerund-like locution

in sense.
It is the infinitive,
with
its final
consonant
added,
kick-
softened down, and with the preposition

XO, xOx
A>\
(lie, ila)
and shortened into

ing.
A)
(le, la).
Thus, A*-> (tepmeyle) by

is
XO, xOX
Ox
No
it
agent of the verb

be so exteriorly
is
;
then expressed in the verb,

by
though
ing.
as,
J_J ^
my
kicking,
kick-
There
another form into which this idea
is cast,
and
in
which a perfect verbal noun, with a

indicative of the agent,
O O
suffixed possessive pro-
noun
and the ablative preposition
^
my
:
(dan) are employed.

(past) act
O -
Thus,
>-
^^
K->^\
O X
*
(tepdlylmdan) by
is
of kicking.
This pronoun varies as
required
O^
O,
^.X-X-Xj jj (tepdlylndan) by thy act of kicking ; &c.
The
portion
gerund-like locution of verbal,

is
i.
e.,
of actional
pro-
formed of the perfect active

A&.
participle, with the

to
it.
adverbial suffix of manner,
(je, jd),
added
It defines
a duration of time for two concurrent actions, the
first
circum-
scribing that duration for the continued or repeated occurrence
0*0*
of the other;
as, o^lo
O ^
x^
O*
O X
AS) jJ
(b&n tepdlkje, san tut) while

It
kick, so long as
kick,
do thou hold (him).
sometimes
i
114

;
expresses the rate (proportion) of rapidity of the two actions

o
J -
^^"
oS*-
oo,
as,
jj2kj>\
it
AS)JJS? euSj
(waqt gechdlkje, iilleshlr) as time goes
by,
grows large (larger).

six verbal times indicated, in reference to
1,
The
an action,
time
are the following:
the time before the action;

3,
2, the
when
the action
;
is
just about to occur;
the time while the

;
action occurs
4,
the time
;
when
it
occurred
its
5,
the time just
when
first is
it
has occurred
6, the
time after
occurrence.
;
The
(tep-
the present verbal noun in the ablative
as,
&H+J
meden), to which, for precision's sake, the adverb J^l (avval)

o
or
c3-"
*j,io
O
-
(mnqaddam),
sOs
anteriorly, is subjoined.
The
expression
C&S
xÔx
Jjl cp-uJ (or Jjl e;J-J), then,

the action
means
anteriorly
to (earlier
than)
of kicking
i.e.,
before kicking.
o,n,Q,
Sometimes
this is
oZ*
vulgarly expressed as J^l

i.
^^^
before (the agent) kicks not;
e.,
while (as yet) he has (or had) not kicked.

locution of time
is
The second gerund-like

participle
the future active
with the auxiliary gerund C^=u1 (Iken), during,

it
;
added
to kick
to
;
thus,
,
jî\
<&***>
during (the time of being) about

to kick.
L e
when just about
The
tion
:
third
is
the aorist active participle with the same addi-
ij^-A
^
is
during (the time of being) kicking
i.
e.,
while
kicking.
The
fourth
the perfect verbal noun or active participle,

It
put in the locative (of time).
may be used
impersonally,
with no addition in
it
;
115
and
it
may be
used, for precision, with
the possessive pronoun of the agent between the verbal noun
and the preposition.

is
In the former case, the verbal derivative

;
possibly a participle
in the latter,
it
is
doubtlessly the
verbal noun.
' O
kicked
or
;
i.
^ *jJ ^
O-
Thus, sjJo^J
Ox
when I (became) one who has

(past)
when I (performed) my
act of
kicking
e.,
when I
kicked.
The
O
fifth is
O
;
the past active participle with the auxiliary

's'
^
as,
'
^7-Xjl
Cf-x_jJ ^L+j during (this time of the condition of)

i.e.,
having kicked ;
have kicked.
now
that kicking has occurred, since (I, &c.)
The
sixth
is
the perfect verbal

'
noun
in
the ablative (of

-
time), followed ô,, J o ,n-Q *
by the adverb ^X-*>
(s6nra, sora), after
thus,
*j~a jjjXx-J (tepdlkdan s6ra)

possessive pronouns
after the act
of kicking.
The
may be
* O
introduced into this locution before

o
-
the preposition
as,
s^JLo
c>
J*^J -'V
O^
O,
(tepdlylmdan s6ra) after
my
action of kicking.
SECTION X.
In
all
The Numbers and Persons of

first
the Verb.
the tenses the
person singular
is
expressed by
given to the
final
added to the verb, with eser the personal suffix ^

tense-root,
when
this is a
consonant
it
and suppressing the
ij of the tense-root where
occurs
adding one where wanted.
11G
It
is

wanting
in the imperative.
^jol .^..J
Thus
pjj-^
(tepiyorlm)
am
kicking;
(teplyor-ldlm)
;
I was
kicking;
^J
(tepeto
rlm)
kick
shall or will kick
jJ^^* (teper-ldlm)
o
/ used
ex
kick;
I would I did
kick;
I would
have kicked
have kicked; ^jJ (tepdlm)

;
kicked ;
kick ;
..JJJJ (tepdidlm) or ^jjl
^jj
(tepdlm-ldl)
/ had
kicked;
-*&
(tepejeylm)
to
I am going
to
kick;
.jjCrj.AJ (tepejekdlm)
/ was
going
kick
+>+? (tepmellylm)
should have kicked,
O
O
/ must
kick; .jjj
j\ f
O
(tepmelt-ldlm)
x ^
xx
ought to have kicked;
+t
(tepem)
O
x Ox
that
I may
kick;
;
*-*-j
O
O + Cx
(tepeydlm) that
I had
kicked;
^^ (tepsem) if I kick
in
*J~~J
(tepseydlm) if I had kicked.
The second person
singular, in all the tenses
^,
o
is
formed by changing the vowel

as, djjl ]'x
into the nasal
Turkish
ts) ;
(tepty6r-ldln),
e*)jjj
Jlf (teper-ldln), cSjJ (tepdln),
dJjl
diii),
^V
(t^jek-ldln), d^J
(tepseydln).
JUJ
(tepmell-ldln), eljlj (tepeyit
dj-~J
All the other tenses form

o
in
^^
(sin),
sometimes written and pronounced dL-.

it
(slii),
excepting
the present of the conditional, which forms
with dju- (ean,
o^
san)
;
0^
e*)<)
.
sometimes written dL,, but pronounced like

(teplyirsin),
t>j-^J (tepersln),
O
-"x
Thus,
;
jy^.JC&.AJ (tepejeksln)
(tepmelislu), ^jj-AJ (tepeslu).
The
first
person plural, likewise, in
all
the tenses in ^j,
is
formed by changing the vowel
O
117
^
O
into Arabic
d
O
1
(k value)
excepting that of the perfect, which, in hard words, always

,
forms this person in

Idlk),
instead of d.
Thus, djol
,j-J
(teplyir-
dJil^J
(teper-ldlk),
djj
(t^pdlk),
djojJ (tepdldlk, or
or
^jjj
dj2
tepdlk-ldl),
djol
dâJ (t^jek-ldlk,
JUJ
djjC.<J
tepejeyldlk,
or
dJC>AJ
djllj
tepejekdlk), dj^J
(tepmell-ldlk), like
djllf (tepeydlk),
(tepseydlk).
With a hard word
j^G
(baqmaq), the perfect forms jjjiG (bdqdiq).
If this per-
son in the past future indicative, in the past optative, and in

the past conditional,
is
used in the contracted form, these also,

instead of
with hard words, use
jj
as,
jjÂSb (baqajaghIn the imperative

fistun
diq), jj.J\j (baqaydiq),
JJ--^
is
(baqsaydiq).
and present optative,
it
formed by adding
and Js to vowel
;
the consonantal root, the syllable

or, in vowel-roots,
having
esere for its
by adding the two syllables JAJ (yellm,

(t^pellm),
yalim)
thus,
o *
> l
UJ
^G
o
(b^lim),
* J J
Û^
j
(sAwey-
leyellm),
^fj\
(6qAyal!m, for jJ^jl).
In hard words, the

also
;
present of the conditional forms this person with
as,
jA-JU (baqsaq, sometimes written ,j-^C),

O ^ J i
jijJjl (oqAsaq,
j>-yij!).
The
present, aorist,
it
and future
in
indicative, with the
present necessitative, form
j orjj, with
o
esere
added to
the final consonant of the tense-root of the indicatives, and
with that vowel given to the
(j
of y^ in
the necessitative
118

j^j '
(tep&rlz),
thus, jjj-J (teplyiriz),

x "x
j_L*AJ '
y value),
is
(tepejeylz,
the
Arabic
liylz).
changed into Turkish
JjjUJ' (tepmein
c.
In hard words, the future indicative

final
(softened
before the j), with esere
as, Jia>A$b (baqajaghiz).
The second person

formed
words,
dlnlz),
plural, again, in all the tenses in

;
is
in
j&_*
(dlfilz
which
is
hard in the perfect of hard

(teplyordlnlz),
diniz).
Thus,
j-Xp^-J
j_.>^J
(teper-
>^-p (tepdlfilz), JJCjjiG dlnlz), J.C J^^J (tepejeydlnlz),

(tepeydlnlz),
(baqdlniz),
JjljjjJ
(tepdi-
JjC.jjJJ^J (tepmell-ldlnlz),
JX^
JX^-^
and
in
(tepseydlnlz).
The imperative
esere,
has two forms, in
jS\ both preceded by

;
and a
consonant
<j in
vowel-roots
as,
(ij
(tepln),
j-$
(teplnlz,
written alFO
jjCL^) j dsG
(baqin),
;
3_GG
(baqin?z);
du^blJ
All
^"* J > (qaplayfn), j_x_jjjl (oquyunuz

O
the uturu dominating).

(sliilz,
the other tenses form
it
in
^_A_*.
sinlz),
except the
vowel, often
present conditional, which has ustun for
its first
it
written
J_A
(sanlz, saniz, to distinguish
better).
Thus,
JjCJjlj
slnlz
;
(teplyArsiniz), J-5
^" (teperslnlz), JSCJC.AJ (tepejekO
^S
Ox
^*
JxO>
hard in hard words, ^)_XJL.AS\j
baqajaqsiii!z), j_X*ÛlJ
in
(tepmellsinlz),
O ^Sr
y^>
(tepeslnlz
hard
hard words,
O
*Q*
t)aqasiniz),j5a-j' (tepsenlz; hard in
hard words, jjA^G
^*
^LdsG
O +
baqsaiifz).
The
third person plural
is
formed from the same person of
the singular, with the syllable
(tepsinler);
119
Thus,
(tepdller),
(ler, lar)
added.
j^J
The
(teply6rlar),
j!J
(teperler),
JljJ
ytf$
(tepejekler),
jjj
(tepmeliler),
JJ *J
(tepeler),
>~J
(tepseler).
tenses in ^jjl
may
be formed in this way,
(jA becoming
to
*
Jbjol (Idller) ; or,
the plural sign
may
be given
;
the radical
"O J +
element, and ^jjj be kept unchanged

O
as,
Ox
J *
I
\S*vjsf
optative,
O* Jti*$
j)s?
an ^ so throughout, except the past
which prefers ^Lj.
SECTION
XL Of
the
Complex Categories.
The Complex
Categories of every Turkish verb, active or
passive, transitive or intransitive, affirmative, negative, or impotential, are formed,

O ' O
>
even as to their
to
roots,
itself
with an auxiliary
conjugated, as a
verb, j^Jjl (61maq)
be or become;
simple verb, in conformity with what has already been laid
down, and joined
to the aorist, past,
and future active paris
ticiples of the verb of which the complex category
to be
formed.
The
auxiliary follows the participle.

O
*
O >
"With the aorist participle, the auxiliary verb
\J
it
forms
the First Complex Category; with the past participle,

the Second
it
forms
Complex Category; and with the future
participle,
forms the Third Complex Category.

It
would be possible
to avoid using these terms,
and
to fuse
120
the whole into one vast conjugation, by following the method
used by European grammarians, each for the European lan-
guage
in
which he
treats of the subject.
In some respects,
It
such an arrangement would possess an advantage.
would
bring together tenses of the one verb, which are but delicate
modifications of each other.
The disadvantage would
be,
on
the whole, preponderant
for the one vast conjugation of

inter-
simple and complex tenses formed with continually
mingling, varying participles, would be very puzzling to the

novice, would choke out of view the principles of the subdivision,
and
prevent a
lucid
exposition
thereof,
besides
demanding the invention of a host of new names by which

to
distinguish
the numerous
tenses
so
brought
together
whereas, by keeping the same names for the same tenses of

the four categories,
it
would seem that a truer perception
of the shade of meaning which distinguishes each of the four

tenses of each
firmly grasped.
offers a certain
name
will
be more easily attained and more
Still,
as a comparison with other systems

utility,
amount of
we have
show
given below the
three complex categories apart, to
their principles,
and
have then arranged the whole four categories as a single conjugation.
SECTION XII.
This
is
The First Complex Category.

participle, of
formed with the aorist active
every
class
121
of verb, active or passive, transitive or intransitive,
primary or derivative, affirmative or negative.

is
In form,
it
simply the conjugation of the auxiliary verb Jjj! (61maq)

be,
to
the participle, as
an adjective, remaining invariable
throughout.
We give
one person only in each tense.
Infinitive.
(teper olmaq)
To be a
willing, natural, deter-
mined, constant, or habitual

kicker ; to be kicking kick (habitually).
Imperative.
(teper 61)
;
to
Be thou
kicking
kick thou
(habitually).
Indicative.
Present,
(teper 6lly6rim)
am
continually kicking.
Imperfect,
O
n
rs
(teper 6Hy6r Idlm) I
was continually kicking.
Aorist.
y J?
(teper olurum)
am
continually kicking
shall be ever kicking.
Past.
6lur Idlm) fo\jj (teper
I used to be always kicking; I
would
be, or
would have
been, always kicking.
122

Perfect.
O J o J OXx
^jjjl^ (teper oldum)
I became a constant kicker.
Pluperfect.
jjl
jjJjl^J (teper
oldAm
Idl)
I had been or become a constant kicker.
Future.
j*ia.A)jl^J
(teper olajaghlm)
am
about to become a con-
stant kicker.
Future Past.
O
Ox
ob..
O "v
Jjl^J (teper 61ajaghdim) I was about to become a constant kicker.
Necessitative.
Aorist.
fj (teper
6lmaliyim)
must
be, or
become, a con-
stant kicker.
Past.
(teper 6lmaliyldlm) I ought to
have been a con-
stant kicker.
Optative.
Aorist.
^jjjl^ (teper olaylm)
That I may be a constant

kicker.
Past.
-jJjl^J (teper olaydlm)
That
had been a constant
kicker.
123
Conditional.
Aorist.
(teper 6lsam)
Were
I,
should I become, a
constant kicker.
Past.
jLjjI^J (teper 61saydlm)
Had
I been a constant kicker.
Active Participles.
Present.
\j+>
(teper 6lan)
Who
Aorist.
or
which
is,
was, will be,
a constant kicker.
Ji
(teper 6lAr)
(perhaps unused, as a cacophony.)

Past.
jijjl^J (teper olmush)
Who
Perfect.
has
been
constant
kicker.
>J (teper oldiiq)
Who
Future.
was a constant
kicker.
ja-AJy
(teper ilajaq)
Who is to be a constant kicker.
Passive Participles.
Aorist.
(teper 61duq)
Who
or
which
(a kicker) has
constantly kicked.
124

Future.
(teper 61ajaq)
Who, which
(I,
&c.)
am
about
constantly to kick.
Verbal Nouns.
Present.
aJjl^
(teper olma)
The
act of being (at any time) a constant kicker.
Perfect.
jjJjI^J (teper 61duq)
The
act of having been (then) a constant kicker.
Future.
&ffyjf
(teper olajaq)
The
to
act of being about (now)
become
(hereafter) a con-
stant kicker.
\
Gerunds.
O J J O"
-
1st.
s-i^jW (teper
61iip)
Being a constant kicker

(and
).
2nd.
J>jdj\jj (teper olaraq)
Continuing to be a constant kicker (so

also occurs).
and
so
3rd.
4th.
&)\ Jll
(teper olunjd)
As soon
/
as
becomes
>
,l^j^
(teper olijaq)
(became, will become) a constant kicker,
5th.
125
Jjl
Jjl^J (teper 61a 61a)
By By
continually being a con-
stant kicker,
6th.
ÔjjI^J
(teper olmaghin)
reason of being a con-
stant kicker,
7th.
J J,ljj
(teper olall)
Ever
since
became
a constant
(has
been)
kicker,
SECTION XIII.
The Second Complex Category.

Infinitive.
Present.
Jj/l JLli' (tepmlsh 61maq)
To have
kicked.
Imperative.
Future.
*J'
(tepmlsh 61)
Be thou one who has

kicked
;
have kicked.
Indicative.
Present.
*-j
(tepmlsh 6lly6rim)
I am, or
am becoming, one who has kicked; I have
kicked.
Imperfect.
,ji*->
(tepmlsh 6lly6rdim)
I was, or
was becoming,
has kicked.
one
Aorist.
who
i*J (tepmlsh 6liirum)
I shall have kicked.
126

Past
JU-J
(tepmlsh olurdum)
Perfect.
I should
have kicked.
JU*>
(tepmlsh 61dum)
became one who

kicked, I
had
had kicked.
Pluperfect.
5
(tepmlsh oldum
idl)
I had
become one who has
kicked.
Future.
(tepmlsh olajaghim)
am about becoming one who has kicked I am

;
going to have kicked.
Future Past.
- t
O*
was
about
to
have
kicked.
Necessitative.
Aorist.
Ij2j1 ,jLj (tepmlsh 61mallyim)

Past.
I must (now) have kicked

(then).
(tepmlsh 6lmaliyldlm) Imust (then) have (already) kicked (before).

Optative.
Aorist.
f J
O'
!*!/
JW (t&prolsh
r *Jjl
^layîm,
That I may have
kicked.
61am)
Past.
O
127
0, i
OX
l*J (tepmlsh 61aydlm)
That
had kicked.
Aorist.
l^Jjl ,jiJ (tepmlsh 61sam, pJjl)

Past.
v
r
Had
I kicked (then).
j.1 JL*J (tepmlsh olsaydlm)

V
**
Had
(already) kicked
(before then).
.4cfoV0 Participles.
Present.
"
(tepmlsh 6 Ian)
Aorist.
Who
has (already) kicked.
LJ
(tepmlsh 61ur)
Who
will
have (already)
kicked.
Past and Perfect, perhaps not used.

Future.
*J (tepmlsh
olajaq)
Who
will
become one who
has kicked.
Aorist.
OJO
J
iUJ (tepmlsh 61diiq)
Which
(a
kicker)
kicked.
had
(already)
128

Future.
Ox
x J
Ox
UJ
(tepmlsh 61ajaq)
Which
(a kicker) will
hare
kicked.
Verbal Nouns.
Present.
lJ
(tepmlsh. olma)
The
(present
state
of)
having (already) kicked.

Perfect,
(tepmlsh oldAq)
The
(past state of) having
(previously) kicked.
Future.
(^Pmisl1 ^^j^q)
The
(future
state
of)
having
kicked.
(previously)
Gerunds.
1st.
t-jJjl
<j^
...
(t^pnrish 61up)
Having kicked Having

the
(and....).
2nd.
jyJjl
...
oldraq)
continued
quality
t
of
having
...).
is,
kicked (and
...
3rd.
A^l
...
oliinja)
As soon
as
was,
or
.
will be) one
who
which had kicked,

4th.
jij/l
...
...
6Hjaq)
The
instant
had
kicked,
....
5th.
129
*Jjl
jy
jj^
...
(tepmlsh old 61a)
By By
continuing to have
kicked,
....
6th. cîJj'
...
olmaghin)
reason
of
having
kicked,
7th.
....
^j-Mjl
...
...
61all)
Since
became
kicked,
one
....
who had
SECTION XIV.
The Third Complex Category.

Infinitive.
Present.
(tepejek olmaq)
To
be about to kick
(ready to kick).
Imperative.
Future.
*j (tepejek 61)
Indicative.
Be thou about
to kick.
Present.
O
(tepejek 6lly6rim)
am (often) on
of kicking
;
the point
I become
....
on the point
Imperfect.
y or Idlm)
I was (often) on the

point
....
Aorist.
jl
<s^^
(tepejek 6lAnim)
am
shall
(habitually),
be
(then)
...
on
the point
130

Past.
(tepejek 61urdum)
I used (habitually) I should be (then) on

;
'
the point
Perfect.
(tepejek 61dum)
....
was (then) on the

point
....
Pluperfect.
(tepejek oldum
Idl)
had
been
(before
then) on the point....
Future and Future Past.

liLj/l tsU^" (tepejek olajaghim) }
I
Not
used, as being caco-
jek oldjaghdim))
Necessitative.
Aorist.
ci>.A*)
(tepejek 61malij!m)
must
point
be
....
on
the
Past.
o ^
xx
iitAv (tepejek 61mdliyldlm)
I ought to have been
on the point
Optative.
....
Aorist.
O +
+*
A*J
(tepejek olam)
That I may be on the

point
....
131
Past.
jek 6 lay dim)
That
had been on the

....
point
Conditional.
Aorist.
,0
o f
r+
-Jjl
(skxJuJ
(tepejek olsam)
Were
I to be or become om
....
the point
Past.
Jjl ctkj-A^
(tepejek 61saydim)
Had
I been on the point
....
Active Participles. Present.

jVjl ciU<V
(tepejek 61an)
Who
Aorist.
or which
is
or becomes
on the point
....
(tepejek 6lAr)
Who
or which
is
(naturally)
or will be (some time) on the point ....
Past and Perfect.

(tepejek 61mush) ) '
I
Who
,,
or which has been or
Future.
;
Jjl
ttL *^ (tipejek 6lajaq)
Not used, as
being cacophonous.
132

Aorist.
jy
12-UdI?
(tepejek oldAq)
Which
point
(a kicker)
....
was on the
Future.
Cacophonous
not used.
Verbal Nouns.
Present.
Jjl
sLLaJ (t^P^k olma)
The
act of being or becoming
(at
any time) on the point ....
Perfect.
(tepejek Alduq)
The
past act or state of being

....
(then) on the point
Future.
Cacophonous ; not used.
Gerunds.
1st.
tljjji
<*U*J (tepejek 6lAp)
Being
(and
about
....)
to
kick
2nd.
(jjd^
...
...
olaraq)
Continuing to be about to kick (and ....)
3rd.
A_sjl
...
...
oliinja)
As
soon as
is,
was,
will be) about to kick,
4th.
^^1
...
Cacophonous.
5th.
133
to
....
(tepejek 614
Md)
By
By
Ever
continuing
be
about to kick,
6th.
*
(
olmaghin)
reason
....
of
being
about
7th.
..
olall)
since
became
....
on the point
SECTION XV.
The Combined (true Turkish) Conjugation.

Infinitive.
Present.
J"
Imperative.
J
O
Future.
IJ
Indicative.
Present.
Imperf.
Aorist.
Past.
Perfect
Pluperf.
Future.
<ak**J
j.*)jl
...
vjfc-^jl
...
(not used)
(not used)
134

Necessitative.
Aorist.
V
J
1
PaSt.
(Jjjl
;>
Aorist.
Jjl^J
A_J^1
)-
*J
Conditional.
Aorist.
Past.
Active Participles.
Present.
Aorist.
(Û)^"
^-*>
Past.
used)
Perfect.
Future.
used)
Passive farticiples.
Aorist.
Future.
(not used)
135
Verbal Nouns.
Present.
Perfect.
jj,i...
4,1...
Future.
(woi used.)
. .
.Gerunds.
il
X
'x
1st
2nd.
3rd.
4th.
5th.
J
XO J
6th.
7th.
SECTION
XVL
TAe Negative and Impotential Conjugations.

Impotential Conjugations, twenty-four in
The Negative and

number
cisely
to each simple verb, as a general rule, are

lines
formed preits
on the
of the simple affirmative conjugation in
four categories, as above given, with the exception of the

aorist of the indicative, as to its
root-word of the third person
136
singular,
OX

and the corresponding
aorist active participle,
O
which
end
in
j* (maz), instead of the final^ of the affirmative.
Infinitive.
Present.
Imperative.
Future.
Present.
N.
O J Ox
x-
i Oxox
O J
/Ox
O J
Ox
xxO..
Imperfect.
Aorist.
oJJO-0'
ACCIDENCE OB ETYMOLOGY.
Past.
JO J J
137
Of
xxOx
Perfect.
Je J
ox-ox
Jo J
xO-
UM-M.'
jo J
of
f ,r.f
>v
Pluperfect.
Future.
j>. Jjl
uloUJ
o
*
(no
ws^c?)
**
(not used)
Future Past.
J
O
xO,
(not used)
(not used)
Necessitative.
Aorist.
J
Ox XXOX
jL.U? V v
138

Past.
<j.>j
Optative.
Aorist.
-
J Oxn.
Past.
O- J
Ox ,-Ox
Conditional.
Aorist.
XX
X*
Active Participles.
Present
O x J CxOx O
x t
Aorist.
139
Past.
used)
"Perfect.
X
OJ-)
-f
Future.
wsec?)
Aorist.
Future.
o -
-o.
(not used}
140

Verbal Nouns.
Present.
Perfect.
o if
oxo x
o Jn J
Future.
O x
<xOx
X J
ox * *
(not used) (not used)
1st.
2nd.
3rd.
dl
4th.
141
6th.
7th.
SECTION XVII.
TAe Dubitative, Potential and Facile Verbs, &c.
The Dubitative Verb

(mlsh, mish), or the
is
formed by adding the syllable

to <jl*jj (Imlsh),
JL
word
any
personal verb,
indicative or necessitative, active or passive, affirmative, negative, or
im potential
but, in the perfect indicative,
it
displaces
is
the syllable
said
;
(dl) of the root.
It casts a doubt
on what
and
is
often added, in conversation,
by another speaker,
to express that he considers
what has been affirmed by the
former speaker to be questionable, or hearsay, or mere assumption.
When
the
first
speaker uses
is
it
himself, he does so to
express that what he relates
either doubtful, hearsay, or
erroneous assumption, from some other person.

vulgarism, to
It
is
a gross
which Armenians and European novices are
addicted, to use this dubitative syllable, in conversation,
where
142
the <j* of the perfect indicative, or of any compound tense,

is
required.
In writing, there
is
no denying that
this
form
is
systematically used, by the host authorities, in place of the
tense they would employ in speaking.
The form has
a more
musical sound
and
it
is,
in
my
opinion, a fruit of imitating

initiated,
Persian verb -forms
in
Turkish;
probably,
by the
Persian scribes of the early reigns.
In dubitative conjugation,
simple tense-root and
this
syllable
,jl
follows
the
its plural,
preceding the compound and

;
personal terminations, singular or plural
unless
it
be spoken
by another person.
In this
last case, it naturally

o o J
:
comes alone,
it
after all other words.
Thus
-1^,^-J (teplyormlshlm)
&c.,
is
said, supposed, pretended, suggested,

eJjjJ
that
fyc.,
I am
kicking;
^jl^-j-J (teplyormlsh
(jt+*\j*>
Idlii)
it
is
said,
that thou waft
kicking;
(teper Imlsh)
it is
it
is
said,
fyc.,
that he kicks;
to
(tepermlsh Idlk)
<o
said, $c., that

said,
fyc.,
we used
kick
(tepmlsh slnlz)
;
it
is
that you kicked or

it is
have kicked
^+>\ JOZ-*-*** (tepejekler imlsh)
said,
,
fyc.,
that
is
they are going to kick.
(This word or syllable, Jt+A
J^
.)
really the past active participle of the obsolete verb diil
The
Potential
Verb
is
formed of the
fifth
gerund (not
its
re-
peated) followed by the verb dijb (bllmek) in
entire con-
jugation, the gerund remaining unchanged throughout.
This
to
auxiliary verb
then means
to
be able,
and answers
our
ACCIDENCE OR ETTMOI
English can.
.,
Ex.: <sU*
t~>
(tepe bllmek) to be able to kick;
.jib
*J (tepe billy orim)

Facile
is
/ am
able to kick,
I can
kick
&c.
The
Verb
is
formed by the root of a verb,
to
which
an esere
added, followed by a vowel
and the auxiliary

a vowel verb other
is
verb dî^ (vlrmek, vulg. vermek).
With
than one
in
a consonantal
with e*ere,
added between
the root-vowel and the servile
vowel
and with a verb in

and the
vowel
servile
*
(j
this
is
made
is
into a consonant with esere,

;
vowel
"
^5
then added
as, isL^j---)
(tepl-vlrmek),
OÔ-'jJ
(qaplayi- vlrmek),
ftU^jîjI
(oqAy u- vlrmek),
is
(qaziyi- vlrmek).
The
sense of these verbs
that
of great ease, readiness, off-handedness in the action, which

express in English by saying just
just
out
;
we
;
to kick,
Just
to give to
a kick
to
cover over
just
to
read or recite ; just
scratch
&c.
in use as special
o
^
There are several other Turkish verbs

auxiliaries after the
gerund of the original verb

O>O<*
o^,
as,
dlji
O-O^
(galmek),
QsC
*>
J^j^ (dormaq), jjli (qalmdq), j^Jlj (yatmaq), and ^j^Q (yazmdq). The first expresses a frequent or natural
happening
;
the next three signify persistency
and the
last
the idea of having almost happened, of being within an ace of happening.
Thus, c*UK
is
*Jjl
(614
galmek)
to
happen fre-
quently, of course, as
L_>jC (baqiip
well
known;
to
to be
a common occurrence ;
durmaq)
stand looking ;
j Jl
A$G
(baqa
144
qalmaq)
to

stand (remain) staring in surprise and amazement;
-Ljlj (_jîjj
(dushuuup yatmaq)
to
remain
(lie)
pondering, in
1
a brown study;
j^G
A>\i
(bayil&
yazmaq)
to give one s self up
&c. (write) as about to faint; &c., &c.,
SECTION XVIII.
In Turkish there
in all its
is
The Verb Substantive.
no extant verb substantive, answering

to our verb to be.
office,
it is
moods and tenses
In one sense,
the Turkish j^Jjl performs the
as an auxiliary
and as an
independent verb
but as such,
a verb adjective, and con-
tinually lapses into the parallel idea of to become.
The Turkish
(Imek)
to be.
originally
had a true verb substantive,

in
etU^l
This exists fragmentary
Ottoman Turkish;
perhaps in certain persons of the present, certainly in the perfect of the indicative, in the aorist conditional, in the past
active participle, in the perfect verbal noun, and in the gerund,
apparently modified from the present active participle (which in

eastern and old Turkish was and
is
formed
in
jifor
Û
even
Js
traces of which are numerous
in Ottoman, as adjectives).
Thus:
Indicative.
Present.
*>\
(1m, 1m),
;
(ylm, yim)
/ am
^
;
(sin,
sin)
thou art
slfilz)
^_>1
(Iz, Iz),
y_
(ylz,
ylz) we are
JjC
(slniz,
you
are.
Perfect.
(idiin)
145
ivast,
^>\
;
was, eljj (Idln) thou
^jjl (Idl)
he was
d Jjl
(Idlk)
we were
>5o
jjl
(idlnlz)
you were ;
jjl (tdiler)
they were.
Conditional Aorist.
+t~j\ (It-am) if I
o*)A-j1
am,
(/*
e)^
we
(Isan) if thou art, A~\ (Ise) if he
is
(Isek)
are,
jS*~>\ (Isanlz)
/ you
are,
j*~$
(l.eler)
z/ they are.
Past Active Participle.

(iinlsh)
who or which was.

Perfect.
Verbal
Noun
(Idlk) the fact
of having
been.
Gerund.
O ^X" O
"
JXjl (Iken,
oW ^.1
Ikdn) c/urm^ the fact of being.
These fragments are made negative by prefixing the adverb
p
o
o
dlyll) not.
Thus,
no<
;
JXp
(dlylllm)
/ am
wo^,
^J
/ am
jC,A
not
;
(dlytl idlm)
.^
7 was
liljl j5sli (dlyll Isem)
?/
djj! JXjj (dlyll Idlk) not used as a verbal noun, but replaced
O
xO J
O'O
;
by j^ljjl (61madiq) the negative verbal noun perfect of Jj^l
^!
jô The present

is
(dlyll Iken) wfo'te no<
iem^.
tense indicative of the foregoing fragmentary

its
verb
completed, as to
third persons, singular and plural,
146

only, the special, unique,
by using, when necessary

distinctive
dir)
is,
and most
..>
Turkish invariable
its
particle of affirmation,
(dlr,
and
conventional (unnecessary) plural, J^> (dlrler,

is
dirlar) are
(which
o
..> ,
just as well expressed by the singular).
This word
still
written in eastern Turkish

in provincial
o J
(dur), as
it
is
pronounced
Ottoman,
is
often found also, in

o
'
old
and eastern writings, under the uncontracted form of jjjj*
(durur).
is,
This circumstance leads
to a suspicion that the
word
originally, the aorist of the ordinary
verb J^j-i (durmaq)
to
remain.
However that may

is
be, the peculiarity of the
word
is
that
it
not special to the third person singular, or to the two third

It
is
persons, singular and plural.
often used, in writing and
in conversation, after a verb of the first or second person also,
singular or plural, of any simple tense of the indicative, with
or without the plural signal,

in fact,
c'est
when
the sense admits
it.
It
is,
an exact equivalent to the French inchoative expression
que,
and the Latin constat quod, which can be used
to
introduce any indicative proposition, as the Turkish

to conclude
is
used
and complete any such.
And,
as the
French and
Latin clauses can be omitted without the sense suffering, so

also can the
Turkish
^
is
In conversation
it
is
much more
dispensed with than used.
The
negative of j*
^ jC^
(dljll dlr) is not
pi.
(dlyiller dlr)
147
(just as well
and
J^ jC>
]).
(dlyll dlrler) are not
expressed without the
SECTION XIX.
The Verb of Presence and Absence, of Existence
and Non-Existence.
THERE ARE NO SUCH VERBS

o *
IN TURKISH.
What
there are,
and what Europeans have erroneously chosen

such, are
to designate as
o J
two
adjectives, j\j (var) present or existent, jjj
(y6q)
absent or non-existent.
Like any other substantive or adjective,
these
may
be followed by the verbal particle of affirmation
^,
which, in this case, as in

conversation.
It
any other case,
may
be omitted in
may be
convenient, occasionally, for a novice in Turkish
OxoOx
.3
oj
i->
to suppose that or jij
\j
means
there is
that j;^ or
Jiji-
means
there
is not.
But, unless rightly understood, those ren-
derings are misleading.

he, she,
The
expressions really say and

;
mean
or
it,
is
present (or existent}

as,
he, she,
or
it, is
absent (or
non-existent)
existent
Jj
^\
(atesh var) fire (is) present (here), or

fire (is) absent (here),
(somewhere) ; jjj ^"1 (atesh y6q)
or non-existent (anywhere).
Then, such a phrase as

o
,
J^l Jj
(var 61) be thou present (or
existent), J^l
be thou absent (or non-existent), j^_i (y6q 61)
becomes
exist,
clear.
The
first is
a kind of prayer, Mayest thou ever

!
and
be at hand, ready to help the afflicted
while the
148

is
second
condemnation, a sentence of
or
banishment
or
annihilation,
wish
in
the nature of a curse,
Away I
Avaunt
&c.
By
using a locative with these two expressions, they become

:
special instead of general
j\j 5>G *>*._-
(jeblmdd pdra var)
my
pocket money
o J
o->
;
is
J
*
present (I have some

* o *
money
in
my
my
pocket)
house
^jjl
jjjj
JjLjl
J-i)l
(evlmde odunum yoq
Idl) in
my firewood was
absent,
wanting, non-existent (I had no
firewood in
my
house).
By
using a possessive pronoun (with or without a genitive
as well) with these
two expressions, the idea of possession
is
superadded
exists
(i. e.,
as, j\j
^G
(param var) money belonging
to
me
have money,
I have some money}

non-existent
(babl-iniii
jjj; is)i^
(parafi
yoq) money belonging

money);
dir)
to thee (is)
(i. e.,
thou hast no
kitahlari var
(i. e.,
^ ^ ^^Lillj
many
jj*.
eL-Gu
to his
chAq
* Q
many
books belonging
books)
;
father has
^jjl
OJO ^_ .^Lî
"
father are existent

O
s
<*
his
KL ~j (benlm sana
thtlyajlm y6q Idl) any need of mine to (lean on) thee (for assist-
ance) was non-existent
(i. e.,
/ had no need of thee).
SECTION
XX.
Of
the
Compound
Verbs.
Besides the Turkish verbs already described, the Ottoman
language has been indefinitely enriched with whole classes of
149
compound
verbs, active
and
passive, transitive
and
intransitive,
formed by a Turkish auxiliary verb preceded by a substantive

or adjective of Arabic or Persian, even of foreign, origin.
An
rarely
active
compound verb
is
formed, generally, by an Arabic,
by a Persian verbal noun, or by a foreign substantive,

o
-
o
"
*}
followed by one of the auxiliaries ti t

f)
(itmek, vulg. etmek),

O
>
* Q*
O* O
> J
eUJLjl (eylemek),
to
jJLS (qllmaq)
to
to do,
or
J^j-j (biiyurmaq)
command,
to
deign
do
or
by an Arabic (very seldom, a
Persian, never a foreign) active participle, followed by the
auxiliary j>Jjt (61maq)

tive or intransitive.
in sense
;
to be.
first
These verbs are either
transi-
The
is
three auxiliaries are identical

;
the
first
the most frequently used

it,
the second
often, the third occasionally, replaces
so as to avoid repetiis
tion
and the fourth
is
used when a deferential tone
assumed
to or
s O
in speaking or writing to or of a superior,
and politely
c
0-00*0
of an equal.
(irsal
*0 JJ c
Thus, dôj JL^l

to
(Irsal
etmek)
to
send ;
to
j^-i JU,1
favour by
buyurmaq)
deign or condescend to send,

0,0 t
o J
sending, to have the goodness to send; j>Jjl

to cause
;
v^>
(mujlb 6lmaq)
dCLl
;
^y
o +
(tevattiin
+
eylemek)
to settle (in
a place, as
or
to
O^rs J
a home)
jjjl Û-ij (peshlman olmaq)
to be regretfully
penitently sorry (for

visit, to
some
act)
dUÎ *^j>.)
(vlzlte
etmek)
pay a
visit.
Transitive verbs of this class form their passives with the

auxiliary
<jJy (Alunmaq), which, by
itself,
does not admit of
150
translation.

Thus,
it) the
l
JU,1
(Irsal
olunmaq)
to be sent, to
have done (to
action of being sent
(for the Arabic
and
Persian verbal nouns, the reverse of the more general Turkish

rule, take the passive as well as the active sense).
Deferential
compound
passives are formed with the passive auxiliary

;
Jjô
(buyurulmdq)
as,
to
jJ^J
jC,!
(Irsfil
buyurulindq)
to be con-
descendingly sent,
be kindly sent.
Reciprocal verbs active of this class are formed with the

reciprocal of
i*Xio1
,
that
is,
with the auxiliary
diio>>! (Idlshto
mek)
as,
isL^jjl
tz**j-ai.
(khusumet Idlshmek) mutually
exercise hostility, litigation, or spite, towards one another.
Causatives of the simple and reciprocal are formed by the

r +o o e-oo 0,0 0*0 causatives of c*LoJ and &U*Jti, namely, d^jql (sL^j^jj
, 1 ;
thus,
OiL,jij1 Jt-^,1
to
to cause
or
let
(a thing) be sent; (aL^j^jjl

other.
o^î.
cause or
let
(two or more) mutually attack each
Negatives and
iinpotentials, as also dubitatives, potentials,

oô
and
faciles,
are constructed with those forms of

r
isLcjl
o ' '
and the
-
, 'O
0,0
JL-.I not to
it
* O
other auxiliaries.
not
to
Thus, e*LLo\
send
(*LL*5jjl JLj,)
be able to send ; ,ji-oj JLÎ

jl
is
said that he sent;
jC,!
to be
able
to
send
9U^#Jg)
JU^
just
to send.
151
SECTION XXI.
Of
the Interrogative
Verb,
and Interrogation
in general.
All interrogations, in Turkish (when an interrogative pro-
noun
is
not present in the phrase, as such), are
made by
intro-
ducing the interrogative particle or adverb

its
(ml, mi) into
proper position in the phrase.
The proper
position of this particle in the phrase
is
the end
of the word on which the question turns.

valent for
enclitic
it
We
word
also
have no equian,
in
English
ne,
in Latin the
and the
particle
are
its
equivalents;
the
French
est-ce que ?
This
may be
best
shown by an example of
five elements,
each of which
may
be the word on which the question specially

^
is
turns, so that the adverb
successively joined to each of
them
1.
to indicate that speciality.
Thus
^^-JCa-A-^j AIU^C
4^
9-C ^5*
(sanml sabah benlmld
'ara-
Is
it
thou
who art
to ride with
me
bay blnejeksln) to-morrow in the carriage"

(s^
2.
j.^X_a.jjj <UA^C 4*?
<5?"W u-*
n sabahml bentmld
'ara-
bayd benejeksln)
Is
it
to-morrow that thou art to ride with

(s^n
me
in the carriage ?
'ara-
3.
c>rJv_a.A^
*JA>jC
^4-^
eJ-*'
sabah benlmlami
bay
Is
it
blnejeksln)
?
with me that thou art to ride in the carriage to-morrow
152

.
4..~S^*
Is
it
^c *U)
JLo
(san sabah
mi
in the carriage that
blnej^ksln)
thou art to ride with
me
to-morrow
5.
rr
x_a.A^ U.HJS. 4U?
-W
sabah benlmla 'arabaya ^r* (san

blnejekmlsln)
Art thou going
to ride
with
me to-morrow
in the carriage ?
This does
not,
however, exhaust the possible points of the

nor the proper places of
question in the case of this sentence,

the adverb
to
in
it.
The phrase
itself
may be
in question, as
whether these words were used, or some others, by the
person to
whom
the interrogation
is
addressed.
In that case,
ending of the
e
the adverb
would stand
v_ujt 4^0
after the personal
verb
^JC.4Jj
1C1
(san sdbah benlmla arasay, thou wilt ride
baya binejeksln ml), which means, Dost thou

with me to-morrow in the carriage ?
The
in
last
two instances
call specially for the
explanation that,
compound verbs the proper place of the adverb

,
may be
ask,
between the two elements of the verb.

O f
>\
0x0
Thus we may
O
'
el.5
^ JL^l Is
to
it
to send (and not himself carry, for instance)

Ox*x
x
that he is going to do ?
and
^ x_jjl
JLÎ
(Irsal Idejekml)
Is he going
send ?
In Turkish simple or derivative verbs, supposing that the
adverb
is
to follow the verb in the sentence,
and not some
other
in
153
member
thereof, then a further question is seen to arise

to the exact part of the verb itself
it.
No. 5 above given, as
that takes this

first
word
after
In this respect, the tenses have

simple tenses take the adverb at
also, before
O J
to
be considered.
The
the end of the tense-root, and their compounds

O J
their auxiliary ^jjl
thus, ^jjl^d
he doing?
^jjl
&>*
was
he doing ?
Next, a distinction has to be made between
the third persons, singular and plural, as one group, and the
first
and second persons, singular and plural
also, as
another
group.
The
first-named group of tenses have no personal
endings, the second group have special personal endings, and

the interrogative precedes these, following the tense-root
thus, jlrvjlj (teplyirmlylm)
still
;
am I
kicking ?
.^^j^
is
*
(teplyor-
misln) art thou kicking ?

O
O J
+
^jj*-? (teplyorml)
O
J
he kicking ?
(teplyirthey
S*
j-^jj-J (teplyormiylz) are we kicking ?

mlalnlz)
jS^^^jj^
are you
kicking?
^^^
(teply6rlerml) are
kicking ?
The
perfect tense indicative forms an exception to the foreit
going rule, as
endings.
takes the interrogative after the personal
Thus,
^*^ (tepdlmml) have I kicked ?

did he kick?
did
kick ?
hast thou kicked? didst thou kick? LrJoJ (tepdlnml)
^JJ
you
(tepdlml) has he kicked?
<
} (tepdlkml)
have we kicked
did we kick ?
j^J^jJ
(tepdlfilzml) have
kicked ? did you kick ?
^JluJ
(tepdllerml) have they kicked ?
did they kick ?
154
OTTOMAN TURKISH GRAMMAK.
SECTION XXII.
Of
II.,
Adverbial Expressions.
As
explained in Section
every Turkish adjective
is
also
au adverb.
Every noun of time
is
also used as
;
an adverb
a
as,
J -\~*
(sabah gdl) come to-morrow

early
;
(jjft (j= j\ (erken galdl) he came
jJ&,LLU (akhsham
gellr) he will
come in
the evening.
Adjectives of relative place, like
all adjectives,
are used as
adverbs; thus, jâ.

climb up, ascend
;
\sj&y.
(yAqarl chiq) mount up, walk up,
J Û.1
(ashighl gal) come down, descend
jo^jTj^Ll
come back.
(llerl git)
go forward, advance;
j^-jT(gerl
gal)
But
substantives of place, like
all
substantives, can be used

to prepositions
;
adverbially by the sole

O J
means of being joined
J >
thus, j^j^jl
o> J o
he JJj'jl (vuqarida 6tuiiy6r)
is sitting
higher up;
;
"
to the right ;
/ am coming jrom below (Vl* cjJÛ.1 (ashaghldan gellyorim)
o-ÂcU
(sagha git) go
&c.
possessive
;
pronoun may enter into such an adverbial

o
s* O 3
expression
the top
as,
(jji-s. a^,.l ~* > ^
(ustuma chiqdi) he mounted on
to
of me.
adjective, substantive,
;
An
and preposition may join

aj^L Jjl
(^lt
to
form
an adverbial expression
side,
as,
(alt tarafda)
on
the lower
lower down;
^J^
oJl
tardfdan)
from
the lower side
from lower down.
So an
adjective, substantive, possessive,
155
and preposition may

+
o o
be combined in an adverbial expression
as,
aÛ e>-yl
(fist
yaulma)
to
the side above

;
me;
iCiG eJI (alt yaninda) on the

(her, its}
side below thee
^J^L cL
(sagh tarafindan) from his
riylit-liand side.
With
certain special exceptions,
any Arabic substantive or

\
adjective becomes an adverb by adding an ustun and vowel

to
it
;
this being often

;
marked with a double ustun

is
sign,
and
read dn
dots,
or, if
the word
a feminine in
by putting two
it,
with or without the double ustun sign to

;
without
;
.
an
#
thus, i^Jo
(tuldn)
in
length,
longwise,
in
longitude
Of
S ,
U^_c ('arzan) in breadth, breadthwise, in latitude;

(lierr&n
\îj\^>
ue bahran) by land and by sea;

V^j*
Uji* (muqaddema)
recently;
iJo\5
formerly;
mu4khkh4ran)
latterly,
(xWa
(qdt'an ve qatibetan) decidedly
and
entirely.
The
first
ten Arabic ordinals are thus
much used
l*JG
adver(sallsa)
bially; as, JJl
(vv&\&) firstly; Li^ (sfmlya) secondly;

(rabfa) fourthly
s
* ;
;
thirdly;
UK
S
Ol (khamlsa)
'
fifthly;
LjU
S
#
S
(sadlsa) sixthly
UjL, (sabl'a) seventhly; L.U (samlne) eighthly; s
(tasl'a)
ninthly; Iplc (Mshlra) tenthly
156
SECTION XXIII.
Of
Prepositions.
They always follow the substantive
or pronoun.
Besides
those given in the chapter on the substantive, there are but

four or five others
o
o
:
s^jjl (uzere)
upon,
A*, (je,
ja) according
to,
^-, (slz)
the
and ^j-,
of.
(slzln) without,
(leyin) at the time of, after
manner
SECTION
XXIV. Of
(da)
Conjunctions.
also, follow the
*n*
o * o '
The
conjunctions
and
^îo (dakhi)
o
word they
unite to a preceding one
as,
^.^
I
t^>
<&i~>
(gldersan, ben-d& glderim) if thou wilt go,
also will go
(bu dakhi)
this, too.
All other conjunctions head the clauses which they connect.
The
u, li)
principal of these are

ill
(ve, in Persian couplets read
and;
(amma),
^Q
(lakln),
^XjJ
I^G
'
(ve-lakln) but;
jjjl
s
(anjaq) only;
'
J^,l
(eyer, eger) z/ ;
+
(yakhid) or;
...\i ...b
(ya...ya...) either... or.. .;...*}
...ai (ne...ne...)nez'<Aer...
?ior...;
(hatta) insomuch
tliat;js^ (meyer, meger)

;
unless;
^t\
(Imdl) therefore, wherefore

since,
\^
(zira) for, because

;
**-Jj*
(chunku)
by reason that
&
(kl) that
(ta) so that, in
order that; as far as.
Of
these,
some are Turkish, some
Arabic, others Persian in origin.
I5'
t
SECTION
XXV. Of
Interjections.
These are mostly Arabic or Persian

cede, as in English.
c**
c
in origin.
:
They
O +
*>
pre;
The
principal are
on
^
^1 (ey), C
(yii)
* +
r
(ah)
;
ah;
i\jj\
(eywah) alas;
i>-ft>
(khdyf) woe; jj* (meded)
help
^1
(iiferin,
vulg. iiferlm) bravo.
There
is,
however, a peculiar Turkish interjection

it
;
(d) 0,
that joins on to the vocative following
as, CGl
(a-baba)
father
U!
(a-ana)
mother.
It also follows nouns, pronouns,
and verbs, taking the sense of Tea! Indeed! I

'
told you so!

J^-
XX
You
see
now !
as, Ujl
(adam-a) a
man ; you
see !
'ijjS (gyuzel-a)
nice; indeed! l^j (benlm-a) mine; in sooth! tfjLcs^yf (gydrema-
din-a) thou couldst not see
after all
158
CHAPTER
THE OTTOMAN
SECTION
I.
III.
SYNTAX.
Precision in writing.
as far as Syntax
Conversational brevity.
COLLOQUIAL and written Ottoman Turkish,

is
concerned, are the very antipodes of each other.
As
in the
orthography the rule

into
is
given
" Never introduce
a vowel-letter
Turkish
or
foreign
word
;
without
removing a possible doubt as

out a vowel
in
to pronunciation
if
never leave
is
such a word,
by
the omission a doubt

is,
created as to pronunciation,"
as
is
that
be always as concise
;
possible without failing into ambiguity

is
:
so also, in colintro-
loquial syntax the chief rule
Never repeat a word, or
duce
its
equivalent,
and
never use a subsidiary word^ unless for
the sake
of emphasis; whereas the golden rule for written lan-
guage
clear
is,
Never omit any word

explicit.
that
tends to
make a
sentence
and
On
in
the contrary, introduce freely as
many
new words as may,

sought to be conveyed.
the requisite degree, elucidate the sense
In other words, Spoken Ottoman Turkish

to the verge
should be as concise as possible, even
of ambiguity
SYNTAX.
written
Io9
no
Ottoman Turkish must
be as full, verbally, as to leave
doubt on the mind of the reader at any distance of space or time.
The
reasons are obvious and eminently practical, philosophical;

If,
namely:
his
by reason of a speaker's conciseness, a doubt as

arise in the
to
meaning should
mind of the person addressed,

;
a question can be put, and the doubt at once removed
if,
on
the contrary, a written document be left obscure in any part,
the doubt thence arising must remain unsolved, and the mpan-
ing guessed
distance.
at,
because the writer
is
either dead or
away
at a
Hence,
if
one be asked,
is
y (^
n ^ dlr)
what
is
this ? the
LJl
answer, in Ottoman Turkish, will be, for instance,
(elma)
"C'est
,0 f
an apple, as
une
in English.
(A Frenchman would answer:

JO
pomme")
Should the question

\yulg.
be,
^ ^^S^j^ ^^wlj^
'^
JO
(qarndashimi
qardashimi] gyurdunuz-mu) have you seen
my
brother? the answer will be, either
seen (him), or
^ji(gyurdum) / have / have not seen (him). ^j^jjf (gyurmadlm)

j**^/j
Should one say to you, lyu**^

yer-ml-sln)
(it)?
sana versam, J^> (bunii
If I
give this to thee (you), wilt thou (will you) eat
the answer will be either

eat
(it).
/ will eat ^> (yeiim)

to be
(it),
or J^j
(yemam) / will not

of "
it,"
In this
is
last question, the
omission
even by the asker,
remarked.
possible subsidiary words
As
instances of the omission of

in conversation,
all
from phrases
may
be mentioned that of the
1GO
affirmative
(dlr)
is,
it
is,
he or she
is,
on
all
occasions of
ordinary assertion or negation.
The
personal and corroborain conversation

f
tive possessive pronouns are never
employed
O
>
unless for emphasis or distinction

love (thee, you,
thee (you),
a?,
pjj.j* (s-avlyirim)
(saul savlyorim)
him, her,
it),
-jjiy-
^-
love
pjy.f
^^
(ben sanl
...) /,
personally, love thee;
^jJ? ^CG (babain galdl) my father came, or has come.
As a consequence
of the desire to leave no doubt as to the

in apposition, in pairs,
meaning of a writing, nouns and verbs

O fix,
jj
are
much used
JO)
such
J
C
are,
x
o-s^ j
JO Ox ship, ^jJjl^-k^j
A. result
(vldd u mdhabbet) friend-
j^X (^"'^ u tastir 6lAndu)

is
has been written.

is
of the avoidance of unnecessary repetition

often
that
the third person singular of a verb
employed instead
is
of
its
Ox OxO^
plural ^
when
the nominative plural
expressed
as,
^jJbT .L^T
(adamlar galdi) some men, or the men have come, or
came.
Another such
result
is
the use of a singular substantive with

r
^,
a plural cardinal
number
as,
ol
j\
(uch at) three horses,
AJ^_C du-j
(bin 'araba) a thousand vehicles (carriages, carts,
waggons,
&c.).
To make
usual,
written composition
still
more
precise,
it is
very
after introducing a
common
substantive or a proper
name
into a paragraph or article, letter, dispatch, &c., never
to use a personal pronoun to designate the thing or person
SYNTAX.
so named, but to repeat the substantive or proper
161
name
as
often as
may
be required, either preceded or followed by one

Q JQ *
O J O *
of the indicative adjectives, ^jj* (mezbur), jj=*.'* (mezkyur),

O
J
O *
'
for things or persons,
.j
r^*
(mesfur), for a contemned or
criminal person,
^\
9 - J
for a reputable ^*^-* (tnuma lley-h),
oo*
person, and A-JlÛ-o (inushfirun iley-h), for a person of rank
and
consideration..
These words
all
mean, in
reality, the afore-
said, the afore-mentioned, the said, &c.

first
In the case of a person
mentioned by name, or by a common substantive, these
words may be used as substantives,
we might
all
say,
as a kind
of personal or demonstrative pronoun, in

declension
;
the cases of the
but, in the case of a thing, they

its
must be used as
adjectives to
name, repeated each time.
SECTION
II.
Syntax of
the Substantive.
A common noun
or indefinite, and
substantive singular
may be
either definite
may
represent, according to circumstances
or the context, either an individual or the individual, several

individuals, a portion of the species, or the
O
whole species
(is)
as,
sPb (b&ghcha gyfizel shey) a garden
a pretty thing;
ioU (padishah galdl) the monarch came, or has come;

l
(Ingllterada
geml ch6q)
in
England
(there are)
162

ships
:
many
jcjj '
*"
duJÛ iL**
(chlchek baghchaniii
the gardens,
ziiietl
dlr) flowers are

*jjsl
the ornaments
of
of the garden
30
(sii
Ichdlm)
/ drank
(some) water,
I drank water
(not
wine, &c.), J&\ j*
(sii
aqar) water flows.

indefinite, the substantive is as in the
to
is
In the accusative case

nominative;
water).
definite
;
as,
p*l
^j-- (su ichmek)

1
drink water (some

used,
it
If the declensional accusative
is
00
as,
always
+&g\
j^
(siiyii
Ichdlm) I
drank, or have drunk',
the water.
There are four
different
Turkish methods of constructing

First,
two substantives
in a sentence.
by simple juxtaposition
second, by adding the possessive suffix of the third person to
the second substantive

genitive,
third,
by putting the
first
in
the
;
and
still
adding the possessive suffix to the second

first
and fourth, by putting the

case,
in
some other prepositional
and leaving the second unchanged.

first
In simple juxtaposition of two substantives, the

dicates a material, the second a form
;
in-
or, the
first
indicates a
quantity, the second a material;
as,
^jS &j^\
(altin
qutu) a
;
gold box
O J O O+ +
kll& arpa) a bushel (of) barley Jj> aJLw_T^j (blr

.^
Jji a)JlcL.5oJ (Ikl sa'atllkyol)

JK&. eJJb^-
a distance of two hours journey
jl
(ftch setrllik
choha) broadcloth enough for three
coats.
SYNTAX.
163
With the
and species
possessive suffix alone added, a relation of genus

is
indicated, the
genus standing
;
last,
and the com(kltab qali) a

;
bination remaining indefinite

^s**>
as,
j,lJ
L-jlJ-J)
^.^ o
look-cover; L5>-j^3 jl (ev kyupeyi)

(J
a house (domestic) doy
^s>^\ ^Li (yaban

If the
first is
urdeyl) a duck of the wilderness

a proper name, the second
is
(wild
cluck).
the species,
is
the
first
the
as,
name of
the individual, and the combination
definite
ig>^j Jl/
first in
(azaq denlzl) the Sea of Azof.

is
With
the
the
the genitive, real possession
indicated,
name of the possessor being

;
the
first,
and the combination

the king's
is definite
as,
^d^c dJ^
my
(qirallii 'askerl)
army
(jj\
dLcGb (babamin evl)
father's house.
When
the
first
is
put into a prepositional case, the second
remains without a
suffix,
and the combination may be

JO
J
definite
;
or indefinite, an active participle being always understood

C
as,
*
O *O
Jjj
jî (shehr& y61) a (or
the)
road
to the
town; (j^>^= u-5-^-3

'/ o
*cBJJ!
(demlrdan kyupru) a bridge of iron

kerre) once in a month
;
i>jS j->
(ayd& blr
&c.
is
v*s
When two
in either
;
substantives are in apposition, no change

'
made
+
"
as, \&\
Û (chawush agha) Mr. Sergeant; ^^\

;
(yazljl efendl)
Mr. Clerk
liC
g;^_
(mushlr pasha)
the
Pasha
and
(who
is)
a Mushir.
is
Here, the generic word stands

definite.
last,
the combination
Sometimes, the specific
word or
164
term
is

complex and obeys
its
own
rules
as,
\c\
^G
Ojl
(6n-
bashi agha) Mr. Corporal

Colonel
;
dLj
<5 Yl^-*
(mir-alny bey) Squire

the
ClLj
\j\
(mirl-llva pasha)
Major-General
Pasha.
There are two exceptions

stands
last,
to the rule that the generic
word
In
;
when
the other
word
is
a proper name. holds
all
other cases with proper names, this rule
good
as,
ÛaL* Cll (esma sfiltan) Princess Esma, Vj* o)_c (Izzet m6lla)
Judge Izzet; ^jJLJl J^ji (arlf Aftndl) Mr. 'Arif; &c.

exceptions are:
reign before his
1,
The
the word ÛaL.,

;
when
applied to the sovec
name
as,
J-*J' J-c ^liaL,
(sfiltan abdu-'l-
hamid);
2,
the
word
Vj*,
;
when
as,
applied to a student or schoolVj-*
boy, also before his
name
A_J^
(molla rashld) school-
boy Rashid.
Any number
of them
of substantives
the
may be
in apposition,
and one
;
may be
+
\
proper name of the individual

your servant,
as,
cjl
(6ghlum qiilunAz)
my
son;
(jJ, Jicjl
(6ghlAm refiq bey qulunuz) your

Jl-*j^
servant,
my
son, Refiq
Bey ; j3Cjj5 eL jJ^ ^Vl^-*
(oghliim mirColonel Refiq
5,lay refiq
bey qulufiuz) your servant,
my
son,
Bey; &c.
When
a string of substantives in construction would in
strictness require several of
them consecutively
to be put in
SYNTAX.
165
the genitive case, the monotonous cacophony of the .repetition
of the preposition
is
avoided by omitting
JJl
it
once or twice
diillb
where most appropriate; thus,
ddtjl
dLuû (*k~>*i~>\
ati)
(pashanin enishteslnln dayisinin oghlunuii
the horse
of the
be
son of the uncle of the brother-in-law of the pasha,
may
* o s
expressed in either of the following ways

^,
^.^
-
tb
âv.!')!
eUlilj
*
rjjo
j
,
^
or
oJjo J
,o
* *
,
Jil
dLJcjl
^1
x
,
dLJLcjl
(^---ib
eL*aii*l Ulj
-
or
*
^-Aijijl
*
;
Lib
.^rjJOJO
Jil
^'OJÔJO
or
jjl
'O
ddcjl
isL -jlj
ddcjl
dl ;.>...
ib
Âilil
c*Llllj
the last
genitive preposition being, perhaps, the most frequently re-
tained and necessary.
Two
or
more Arabic or Persian substantives may be put

Their order
is
in
Persian construction with each other.

reverse of
then the
in
what
it
would be
horse
is
in
Turkish construction, just as

with
the horse
English
the king.
the king's
in reverse order
of
In Persian construction each preceding substantive

its
of a series must be vocally connected with
consequent.
This vocal connexion
is
effected
by making
the final quiescent
consonant of the preceding substantive

thus,
J\S\
sLJ:,
mo vent
with eser&
^jL*>_9
(fermiinl shah)
the
command of
the king;
sli,
fermanl shah! Iran) the tenour ^C,9 ^J+Â (muzmunu.

the king
of
the
command of
of Persia.
is
But,
if the last
con-
sonant of a preceding substantive
mo vent, and
followed
by
a vowel-letter, a servile consonant must be introduced to support the eser& vowel of connexion
;
and
this consonant varies
166
with the
is
1

final
vowel of the word.

is
When
the" final
vowel -letter
or j
the servile consonant
as,
-J(
^G
Û*
i
3
(ja-yl
Ox
pa-yl esb) the place of the foot of the horse ; du*
^^
\** (mu-
yA ru-yu
seg)
A0 Aaz'r o/ <A0 face of the dog.
If the final
itself into the
is
vowel-letter be a
this letter is converted

;
servile consonant required
so that no written addition
needed
thus,
-^ sU (^
(p&ri-yl chah-1 burj) the fairy
of
the
well of the tower.

final
Ignorance often writes a hemze over such

it
so converted into a consonant; but

If,
really
letter
s
is
not
requisite.
however, the
is
final
vowel be the
then
the addition of a hemz&
a necessity.
it,
Sometimes the esere

is
vowel-sign
is
figured under
$.
Usage
divided as to the
It
proper place where the servile hemz& should be written.

is
at times
more correctly placed between the two words, on a

;
line
with the writing
as,
dJU
"
^
.
&j->
(bere-1 felek) the lamb

it is
of
the sphere (i.e., Aries)
and otherwise
o <"
CiJUs
less correctly
placed
over the vowel
as,
Of two
substantives in Persian construction, the first is often
the metaphorical
name of the thing
literally
expressed by the
;
second, the pair really representing one idea under two images
as,
the drover, destiny ^j jJJ' JfJU (scVlq! taqdlr)
(o^-c
<jl!c
('luanl 'azimet) the reins (of) departure.
Whether
in
Turkish or Persian construction, the same

is
remark holds good of a pair of substantives, one of which
SYNTAX.
o o* +
167
the word
o
J j
^J
(emr), or one of
a
u>
its
synonyms,
all
Û
(rnadde),
/-
(jâi. (khusus), o^n-S
(keyf lyyet), &c.,

like.
of which signify
in written
(rali-1
our circumstance, and the
They
are used
*\j
Turkish
silin
for precision.
Thus
^5LJI J& dJLas*
tah-
emr-1 Insllaki) the matter of the pursuit of the path of
study; ^>j^^ ^.-J^ diJ^lJj^ (donaumaniS gelmesi khilsusu)

the question
of the coming of the
fleet.
After a proper name of a person or thing, the word Jj (nam)
name,
i/id
is
commonly employed
as,
ob Jj j*a.l
t&
*ij*
(ahmed nam
zat)
personage named Ahmed;
*JLJ*
(qirim
nam
jezire)
the island (peninsula)

O
named Crimea.
"*
The two words

originally
o^-i_&. (hazret),
LjL_>. (jenilb),
which
mean
titles
presence,
and
aide, are
used before or after the
names or
of individuals held in honour, with a meaning
varying from that of His Divine Majesty down to that of plain
Mr. or Mrs., &c.
When
they precede, they remain unchanged

'
,
'
to the eye, but are in Persian construction
as,
(hazret-1 khudfi)
(
His Divine Majesty, God ;

ZTzs Sanctity, the
--
peygdmber)
Prophet
jenab-i padlshah) ^Tzs Majesty, the Sovereign
sadaret-ma ab) ZT/5 Highness, the

5
Repair of the Vezirate
(the
Grand
Vezir).
When
they follow, they are in Turkish
construction,
and generally take the possessive pronominal
168
suffix

of the third person plural, but sometimes that of the
third person singular; as, \cfija* djâlL *ilVI

'1-lslam tahlr
(sheykhu-
bey hazretlerl) His Eminence
the
Lord High
Chancellor, Tahir
Bey
^->U^ ^jlil ^11.
j^Ju
tLjj (burusa
muftlst has&n efendl jenabi)
His Honour
the State Counsel

)
of
Brusa, Hasan Efendi ;
^Jjîa. lib J-a-, (sef Ir pasha
His
Excellency the Pasha Ambassador ; (jjij^ i&
U^/
(terjuman
bey
His Worship
the
Interpreter
Bey;
&c., &c., &c.

indicates one
as,
(
Generally, the word cîa. before a single
name
;
of the prophets, saints, or patriarchs of old

(hazretl niih) the patriarch
L}
o^
the
Noah
(
^j-1
musa)
prophet Moses
ÛJu
(
suleymtin)
the prophet
(king)
Solomon;
^-^
(J^-s.
meryem) Saint Mary

'Isa)
(the Virgin
;
Mother)
(
the
Prophet Jesus
^.^
mesih) the holy Anointed One (Christ); &c., &c., &c.
SECTION
III.
Syntax of
the Adjective.
Nearly everything requisite

this subject in the
in a sketch has
(II.),
been said on
If several
former Chapter
Section II.
adjectives qualify one substantive, they follow one another
simply in Turkish construction, and are

OJ
all
connected vocally
in the Persian construction
as, .**.
SYNTAX.
edebll,
169
mahjub chojuq) a
;
pretty, well-behaved, modest child;

(jli-yl
^J
1^1 Ûi irJla
Û
blhlsht-numa-yl ferah-feza) a
paradise-like, joy-giving place.
One
as,
adjective
JLa.1 j
may qualify
u
several substantives in a sentence;

ejyall satire)
*7ie
^L
~J (umem
other peoples
and
nations.
An
Arabic or Persian adjective

;
is
never placed after a

is
Turkish or foreign substantive

before one of these,
it
and whenever either
placed
remains, like a
;
Turkish adjective, unclL
changed as to gender or number

a great mountain;
sllolj
as,
^Jic
( 'azirn
dagh)
~kc
( &zlm padlshah) a great monarch,
eJj^ Â?c (/azlm devlet) a great
state.
Some
adjectives
take a
substantive as
a complement to
this
j
restrict their application.
In Turkish construction,
;
com.
plement precedes, with or without a preposition

(sii
as, jl^L yo
doto)
>
(o/) wafer, ^Jji ijj-1 (sa

it
lid
dolA)
/Wed
with
ivater.
i
In Persian construction
;
follows
as,
jLj j.V
(laylq-
beyan) worthy of exposition
Ja (jJlj* (mnwaffq-! tib') con-
formable with nature.
The Turkish
adjective
^)
(glbl) like, follows substantives,
the personal pronoun of the 3rd pers. plur., the demonstratives

plural, the interrogatives singular
relatives,
and
plural,
and the compound
when
as,
its
complements, without any change occurring

(sn glbi) like water
;
in
them
<^ j-c
.^Îjl
(anler
170
like

them
like
;
glbl)
^S^J^
(bunlar glbl) like these

(neler glbl) like
like
^S^LS
?
(klm glbl)
(jp-J
whom ?
L?Xîi
what things
^-SCxoLb (babamliikl glbl)
the one belonging to
my
All
to
father;
^^S^l^
as,
(bendekl glbl)
like the
one
have.
other pronouns are put in the genitive,

this
when complements
me;
word;
^f ~j
it ;
;
(benlm glbl)
c3)-
like
^
you
;
dol (aniii
.
glbl) like him, her,
^>
&c.
(slzlii glbl) like
ctijj
(bunun
glbl) like this
SECTION IV.
Syntax of
the
Numerals.
The Turkish and Persian

substantive, and
cardinals always precede their
this is usually left in the singular,

cufo.
\
whatever
jj>
the
number
the
as,
(Ikl chlft) two pairs
jC^
(du
jilifin)
two worlds (present and future).

is
But
the Arabic
cardinal follows, the construction
made
^jjjj
Persian,
and the
the
substantive
five senses;
is
made
plural
as,
^lli.
(qiivayl
khamse)
AI-
ejlâ. (jlhatl sltte)
the six directions (in space),
six sides (of a solid).
The Turkish and Persian numerals precede the

the same substantive
substantive)
goats;
; ;
adjectives of
as
do also the Arabic (though after the
thus,
^^
aL*
^jl
(Ikl
slyah kechl)
two black
s,j*ju> *Jjl
eîa (heft lqlim-1 rna'mure) the seven climates
SYNTAX.
the habitable earth
*\
171
khamse-1 (j\j (qiivayi
zfi-
of
a.
hlre)
the Jive external senses.

if,
But
instead of an adjective, a descriptive phrase should
qualify the substantive, the Turkish numeral
comes between
the two; as, e>oj^>
J^j? du<ijl (odanln ' O' o',o(^Jj jjol
of the length of the room; y*UJ!

blii
biyunda blr Ip) a string ' ,~ .^ '

a^l A~-^
<_/>* (her
besh keys& aqcha eder yedl elmds) seven diamonds, each of
the value
of Jive purses of money.
A Turkish cardinal
number of
number can be placed
after a substantive
in the genitive, singular or plural.
It does not then define the
that substantive, but of a definite portion of

;
what
this represents
o
" c
as,
dU^l (adamin blrl) one of mankind, a
si*
man;
one \zp iÛjl (adamleiifi blrl)

Iklsl)
of the men;
(odalarin Iklsl) two of
(odauln
two rooms,
^^^J^
is
the rooms.
Very
often,
between the Turkish cardinal number and
its
substantive, another substantive
introduced, with the sense
" ten head of individual or individuals, as in our phrases of

cattle,"
"six sail of ships," &c.
This substantive varies in
Turkish according
numeral.
to the nature of the things defined

it is
by the
it is
For men
head
;
Ju
(nefer) individual
for beasts
^J,
^Wi
(re's)
for bulbs
it is
îb
(bash) head; for ships
it is
(qlt'a) piece
for cannons, ships,
and
villages, it is ijj (pare,
172

it is
vulg. paii) piece ; for things usually counted
^jc
('tided)
number;
for things not usually counted

it is
it
is
A-ib (dilne, vulg.

;
tana) berry ; for swords

chain.
A.i_ls (qabza) hilt
for elephants,
Thus
^j
Jive
men;
^
^-
JJT,
^1
ô onzows
ships
;
AISU
^^-j
;
twenty vessels ;
L->jL sÛ
;
cannon ^jl êw
(pieces of artillery); [$jf ifc
$\
fifty villages
a hundred eggs
swords
;
000,0
îj
Jl\
^>
Aib
(^jj
ô
pearls;
_L5
C>
'
J-3
one elephant.
as, AS
The Turkish
(blrlnjl geyje)
ordinals precede their substantives
s^j
ê /rs*
m^^
$i\
jjL JLJLjT
(dltmlsh
d6qiizAnju
filay)
the sixty-ninth regiment.
The Arabic
ordinals follow; as,
^Û.
t-jb
(biibl khfimls)
chapter the fifth.
The
follow.
Persian ordinals
generally
precede,
but
sometimes
The Turkish
distributive numerals are used to express the

Ox-
rates of collection as well as of distribution
as,
Ji^
;
*"
Ox +
jZj>
(besher pard verdller) they contributed five paras each

^jJ^-ij
5^,0
s^Lil
(anlari besher padl veiildl)
to
them five paras each
were distributed.
For emphasis
sake,
the
simpler
distributives
are
often
SYNTAX.
repeated
173
as,
but they are then generally used as substantives

.
(blrer blrer t6pladim)
I collected (them)
one by one;
Xl
each time.
(Iklsher Iklsher aliniz) take ye (them) two
apiece each (of you), or, take you (or thou, them)
two together
SECTION V.
Syntax of Pronouns.
The
all
demonstrative pronoun,
its
when an
;
adjective,
O
-
precedes
-f
J>Sf O
other qualifications of
substantive
as, Jjj-i &jt-> fj\ j>
Js5
dJc^T
(bii
uch blyuk gyuzel

girls.
gellnlik qiz)
these three tall,
handsome, nubile
The
suffixed possessive pronoun

its
is
not, in literary style,
necessarily attached to
substantive, but to the last
word
it
of the combination of substantive, adjective, &c., to which

O
+*
O JO"
belongs.
Thus, ^jj *y*j* (merhum pederlm) my
late father,
may
be rendered in the Persian form, merp*py*jjj (peder-t

;
humum)
so also, j+\j>.Jb\L
in
A&.J
(vejh-1 khatir-kh'fihlmiz) the
manner desiderated
mind by us
sharqiyye
(i. e.,
by me)-,
jdc^
;
AJ^^llaSl
the
^
^
^^^jLk
Ûal
o.t.4)
(aqtar-i
ser-'asker-l
zafer-rehberl)
Ox
O
victorious commander-in-chief
of
the eastern districts
jjb vs\j
ill
(S^rjt (bu
bdghln her blr ja-yi jan-feza-yi
bihlsht-intlmiisl) each soul-enrapturing, paradise-prognosticating
spot of this garden.
The
corroborative
of the suffixed possessive pronoun of
174
Turkish construction precedes the whole combination to which

the possessive
is
suffixed
it
and
this corroborative is
always in
;
the genitive, whether

j_i
be a substantive or a pronoun
late
as,
;
(benlm merhum pederim) my
father
(odanin blyuk qapiisu) the great door, of the

room.
One
possessive suffix
may
Jl
qualify several substantives

(al
as,
^Cll j
ojtc j uAj^l j
as-hfib
li
'itret
A ahbabi)
his
family, companions, posterity, and friends.
SECTION
Verbs of the
natives in
first
VI
Syntax of
the Verb.
and second person agree with their nomi;
number and person

it,
as,
*Sj*p
^
j
(ben gyurduin)
(slz
saw, have seen (him, her,
&c.)
^JCj^î
gyurdunuz)
you saw, have seen (me, us, them, &c.).
A verb
if
of the third person must also agree with

as,
its
subject,
understood;
^jf(gyurdu)
is
he, she, it
(it,
saw, has seen (it,&c.);

&c.).
have seen Jbi.^j^gyurduler) they saw,
When
the subject
expressed of a verb of the third person,

it
the verb does not always agree with

subject sometimes has
politeness
;
in number.
singular
its
verb in the plural, out of respect or

its
a plural subject often has
verb
in the singular,
:
so as to avoid the
cacophony of repetition.
Thus
SYNTAX.
175
zs
(bibim
gitdll&r)
my father
went, has gone,
gone
(ushaqlerl galdl) his or their servants came, or have come, are

come.
So a verb with several subjects expressed, when

third person, singular or plural,
O
O
*>
all
of the
;
may
be in the singular
as,
*Q J
-*
Ô
JJ
<-_sj)l
jS
Ju\2> J\j&. \-Jj~oj

cllr)
^^>j
(uluf-1 rizvan
sunuf-i gufrfm
shay an
thousands of prayers for God's acceptance^ and all

is
kinds of wishes for God's mercy (on him, &c.)

'
(are) fitting.
plural,
If one of
them be of the second person, singular or

O ^*O
f -S'O* ** ^ ^f"
and the other or others of the third person, the verb must be
-9^
J x O
^^
-*
of the second person plural
as,
^xjjî j\j> jXJiS^J j
^>j
(j*
(san ve pederlm ve q6ushunAz b^raber gltdliilz) tlwu

father, with your neighbour, went together.
and my
And
if
one be of the
first
person, even singular, whether the
others be of the second or third, singular or plural, the verb

J j o
J__ o
must be
,o-^0x,o^
in the first person plural
as,
tsb^jb
/,
iîlji^ j
thou,
(ben, ve san, ve qarndashin,

brother,
gyurduk)
and
and thy
saw (him,
&c.).
In conversation,
at the
as,
it
and
its
plural
are generally omitted

;
end of a phrase, affirmative, negative, or interrogative

lyl
^Jj_5C^(keyflnlz
is
ml)
is
your health
good? j^(lyl)
good ;
in
J&
(ty
dlyll)
it is
not good.
or
But,
another,
repeating
the affirmative
;
negative words
of
must be introduced
as,
^jJ
176
(buyle
is so."

dlr,
deyu,
t&sdlq
eyledl)
Tie
confirmed,
saying,
" It
In relating the words of another, no alteration

in
is
permitted
(gellrlm,
number, person, or tense of the verb

lie
as,
^jjj
+j<
dldl)
said,
").
"
will come
"
" he said he (not as in English,
would come
When
the object of a transitive verb

;
is definite, it
is
put
in
the accusative
as, *jJl
Jil (atl
aldim)
bought, have bought (or

it
taken) the horse.
But,
if the object
be indefinite,
remains in
the nominative; as, îl

horses.
ol
(at aldun)
bought a horse or
Intransitive,
like
transitive,
verbs, govern
i.e.,
their
indirect
objects
by means of
different prepositions,
the substantives
or pronouns are put into different cases according to the verb.
Thus
(3*5^5 eJ^jb'
J^jJjl
(^ um dan qorqmaq)
to
to be
afraid of death
(ulumdun qachmaq)
to look at
run away from death ;

(i.e.,
sC
AJISÎJ
(paraya baqmaq)
money
to take
money
to
into
account or consideration) ; (&jji

in the water; es)u^.^
^-> (suda
yuzmek)
to
swim
8^=j
;
(defilz^
&>\
girmek)
go into
the sea (i.e., to
bathe in the sea)
\$+j
(qillj
Ha wur(khatir
;
maq)
Ichln
<&).&
to strike
with a (or
to
the)
sword
jj^-jU
U>?^
j^*
yapmaq)
*_j1-
do (a thing) out of regard (for some one)

to
(haywand blnmek)
mount on a
beast
(florae)
SYNTAX.
to
(gemiye blnmek)
mount (go) on board ship
(ayagha qalqmaq)
get up, stand up).
to rise to one's
/^
(i. e.,
to rise,
Nouns of time and

is
place are often used adverbially (as also

;
the case in English) without prepositions after verbs

(yarln gal) come to-morrow
;
as,
J^^C
mount
;
^p\L\ (ilshaghl In, vulg,
en) descend, come or go down; jâ. (jj&

i.
(yuqari chiq) ascend,
e.,
come or go up.
Still,
on occasions, prepositions
to
are used with

the right;
them
as, u->l
dcU> (saghd sap) deviate (turn)

;
Jb Jjl
(s6la b&q) look to the left

O,
,
>
vulg. geii git) go back
JL^jJ.J^(glni,
J>
cPj^J (gerldan
gal) com^
/rom
the
rear,
from
behind.
transitive verb
has sometimes
as,
two
v\
direct objects, one

j,l
definite, the
other indefinite;
Jb
j~Z*
(ani
mushir
etdller) they
made him a mushir (duke, or
field-marshal).
passive, often takes
as the
^
-
An
its
Ottoman compound verb, active or
direct or indirect object into the

its
body of the verb,

o-
Persian complement of
(jjJbl
nominal factor;
tahsili
as,
J.^-a^ <u<ji;9Jjj
5/j
(bii
daqiqaya
vwuquf
O ;
eyledl) he acquired
s ' ' O J
OS
^
cognizance of (about) this subtle point

(sarf-i muzjat-i blza'a qilindi)
t^jJLS
^^
was
^*>*
',*>
expenditure of the
modicum of
spent).
capital
was made
(i. e.,
the modicum of capital
178
SECTION VII.
Syntax of the Participle.

particle, active
is
In conversation, the substantive qualified by a

or passive,
is
sometimes understood, and the participle
used
as a substantive; as,
(or her)
that
^&
(gelan& ver) give (thou
it) to
him
who comes
^C; AôA-Ji (gldlylmA baqma) look not at

-*ia.jj\j
which I wear ; A*^

shall do.
(yapajaghimi sorma) ask not
what I
The
active participle present of Jjj',
i.
e.
J$j\
is
often
o^
IL-J,
li
omitted after Arabic participles,

Jjij j dJC.
Jlj
active or passive
as,
sjJ^JClI
(r&b'i
meskyundd vwaqf memallk
b&ldan) the countries and towns situated in the inhabited quarter

(of the globe);
uJjUaje^^.^.x*
jjl_L^sjj (bu kltabda mez-
kyur f&nun A ma'arlf )

mentioned in
this book.
the sciences
and matters of knowledge
Active participles govern
all
their objects in the

;
same way
as the verbs from which they derive
so also do the passive
participles, excepting only the object they each qualify as an
adjective
as,
^Wl ^J
(qapii achan)
he
who opens a door ;
yjUl .cij-9 (q&P^yii achan) he
who
(that which) opens the door;
jj li>J*S
ij jf
(ellm
116
achdfghim qapA) the door that I

(jTÂ^sjol JjJ j,^ d^,J^ (pederlthe reason for
opened with
mlii
my hand ;
L_>--.
bAnA qabul Idemeyejeyl sebeb)

ivill
which
my
father
nvt be able
to
accept
this.
SYNTAX.
179
The Persian and Arabic

rally,
participles are constructed, gene-
with
their
objects,
in
;
the
as,
same manner as
if
the
participles. were substantives
(jl^^â
jJU. (khallq-i her
du
jlhau), jJilU-
(^jl^s..
.i
jt
(her da jlhanfn
khjillq!) the
Creator
of both worlds ;
J^-J
J^-i
Ji^-i
(makhluq-u yed-1 qudretl),

the creature
^Û.* (sbjl^jj j^j (yed-1 qudretlerlnlii makhluqu)
of
1
the
li
hand of His almighty power ; ^\j ^J

an) the Creator of
3!
g&jjjj^sl
(aferlnende-
In
this
and
3!
that (all things);

ly/izcA
ii^Cjô--^
has reached
^/1 .â. (reside

the battlement
kyungyure-
charkh-1 eslr)
of
the ethereal sphere.
But sometimes Arabic
active participles of transitive verbs

;
govern their direct objects as do their verbs

C -u. ^s^j^ssj^ (keyf lyyet-1 mezkyure-1
the said circumstance.
thus,
.- <^-*
mubin)
ivhich explains
SECTION VIII.
Syntax of
the Verbal
Nouns and
Infinitive*
Turkish verbal nouns are constructed with their subject?,
when
substantives, as
any two substantives
thus,
^*J6
isJj>.)
(ahmedln galmesl)
the
coming of Ahmed, Ahmed's coming
action of) having .^jAo dJvvl (ahmedln galdlyl) Ahmed's (past
come
^>^T^Jjâ.l (ahmedln
gelejeyl)
Ahmed's (future action
of) coming.
When
the subject
is
a pronoun,
it is
put in the genitive
stil',
180

suffix
and the Turkish verbal noun takes the possessive

subject's
of the
number and person

CtL5sjJ
as,
*.**
(benlm galmem)
;
my
coming
^j&>.t
CtL- (sanln galdlyin) thy having come
d^JLJl
(auleiin galejekleii) their future coming.

infinitives are constructed
;
Turkish verbal nouns and
with
thus,
^*)1
their objects, direct or indirect, exactly as their verbs
Ad^Tji
(anl
gyurmem) my
seeing
him
(her, it}
dx^Js
<<*)j*a.l
(lzmlr& galejeyln) thy future coming to
Smyrna
A^,JJ
ahmedln dun mektub yazdlghi) ifiî vj-*^-* UJ J (pederlna

Ahmetfs having written a
letter to his
father yesterday.
Arabic verbal nouns are constructed with their agents sometimes in the Turkish, sometimes in the Arabic, and sometimes
o J JJ
in the
Persian manner
as,
^^
(vurudim) my arrival
4]
I
dJLas? (tahsilln) thy study;
e^s?
(tahrirl) his writing;
A^
H}*\
sun'u
'llah), 2\
11 (sun-i llah)
the act
of God;
Jjf jj
the (Idare-i pergyar-1 efkytir) a revolving of the compasses of
thoughts.
Arabic verbal nouns are constructed with their objects

the same manner as the
in
as,
compound verbs formed of them

one's utmost
;
(maqduii sarf ) an employing
c^j
to
Ul^
an acquiring
(fann-1 jagraflyayi tahsila
medar) a help
the science
of geography.
But they may
also be
constructed with them as two simple substantives, either in
SYNTAX.
the Turkish or Persian manner;
*
181
as,
ô
'
d^jju or
vJ
Os
^sO^
vt
+ +
so
'
G-"
and again,
In
all
AJLaa:
dÛ]^
or
uU1^
and
^ J-^';
&c.
cases excepting their construction with their subjects

infinitives are conas,
or objects, the Turkish verbal nouns
structed in sentences exactly like any other substantives

O
so*
-"O
*<~>
j$
jy
;
^jJjj dijjl (dlraek biindan evla dir)
to die
z*5
better
than
tins
^jJLJU. ti-+_LJjj9 (qurtAlmagha chalishdi) he laboured at
escaping
+M>\ t_^J/
^^\ ^lj (ydqmaq

(it)
ichln tertib etdlm)
arranged, have arranged

lilzim dlyll)
,.t.
/or burning
(is)
J^j
mesl
his
coming
wo< necessary;
(glde-bllejeylme shub-hem var)

to
w^
c/owJ< exists,
i.
e.,
a doubt as
my
being able to go.
SECTION IX.
Syntax of
the
Gerunds.
there the
The gerunds
discourse
is
are not
much used
in conversation
broken up into as many sentences as

O O
O"
r*,oj
needed, each with
its
personal verb
as,
^^^^ ^jJa *$jy +*&

ivent
;
may be oÔ O^"
(gltdlm, gyiirdAm, galdlm, kh&ber verdlm) /
I saw ; I
came ; I gave information.

But, in the literary style, one long phrase, ending with one
personal verb, will contain a
number of
clauses, each ending
with a gerund (which thus acts to the

eye, like our
ear, as well as to the

as,
commas and semicolons)
sjjTjJ^d^jj^vj^P
132
o o

o, x
^j>_j
jj> (gld&p, gyArerek, galdlkde, khaber verdlm),

seeing,
7,
going
and
on coming back, reported.

verbs are used, the auxiliary gerunds
O
When compound
o J o J 9 o
may
O, O
JJ
be omitted once or twice in a long sentence

*
r<
as,
j^j 4*-^
^j
* +
i__>jjj_l
^jjtj^ljl.^
sjjl
j (blr mevzi'a vurud, ve anda blr mlqdar

a certain place, and
sitting
qA'iid edup, ....) ...arriving at

there awhile,
....
down
In
this case,
however, a conjunction requires
to be introduced in lieu of the
gerund omitted; as
is
seen in
the example given.
The
subjects,
and direct or indirect
objects, of the
gerunds
are constructed as with their verbs.
But, as the gerunds
cannot indicate the person and number of their subjects, the

appropriate personal pronoun must be expressed before them,
O
J J
f
-,
-^
0-_x
when
the subject
is
not a substantive
as,
c-jj-jj-Jjl
i_jl
>
+*\
(adam kltab 6qAyAb) man, reading a look
(or books),
O'tJO
"to*
C^Tj' J-"lj
*J-~?
f*\*j
(fermanim
size vwfisil olijaq) at

;
what time
my command
shu.
shall attain unto you,

/, seeing that
&j*jj>
;
s>*\
j^
(ben,
adaml gyurerek)
man,
&c.
SECTION X.
Syntax of the Adverb.

it
The adverb precedes

,
the verb or adjective qualified by
^j&
ô J
c^W
(sdbahleyln galdl) he came in the morning;
r Of?
vtiz ( chi(l g.
^) very pretty.
SYNTAX.
183
The
negative
(dlyll)
wo, precedes the verb substantive,
expressed or understood, but follows the substantive or adjective
which
;
it
negatives;
as,
__.>
^S
(genj dlyllim)
I am
not
young
(y^J/Sj j^)ff. (dqlsiz dlyllsln)
tlwu art not unintelligent

not a
ji J$j
.,^1
(adim
dlyll dlr) he or
it is
man;
&c. follow
:
The
adverbial suffixes
eb
(dek), ^.^=>*
0%ln),
;
noun of time,
place, or condition, in the dative
as,
<^-*> Aa-CI
(sabaha deyln) until morning ; ebjjj^jjj) (londurayadek) as far

as
London
until death. eb,ujf,l (illumedek)
They
follow the
third gerund also, put in this
same dative
case,
and thus form

(I,
a verbal limit of time;

thou, &c.) come, came.
as,
ebû"
(gellnjeyedek) until
The agent must be named

(ben gidtnjeyedek) until
or under(or went);
stood
o *
*
as,
+
*
diWA^Jup
*
^
+
I go
'Q
O>J
e)j,u^lj
letter
Ajl^l
*>>^L
(mektubiim 6raya varinjayadek) until my

there.
reach (or reached}
The
like
tense of this gerund

as
its
is
decided by the context,

object.
in
manner
agent and
The adverb
as,
s,Jj <ulac
s^j-J
1
(gydre) according, also follows a dative
("aqlima gyure) according to

to
my judgment ;
.j
feu
(band gyure) according
me ; &c.
The adverbs
tively,
(yana),
^V>
(d6layi),
^1
in
(Aturu) rela;
follow substantives or infinitives
the ablative
as,
(kltabdan d61ayi)
relatively to (about)
a (or
the)
184
book
j

;
jjf
(gltmekdan uturu)
relatively to (about,
concerning) going.
Although
it
is
not grammatically erroneous, in answering a
question, to use the affirmative adverb ojl (evet) or

yes, or
(bell)
the negative
oo*
(yoq) orî. (khayr) no,
when
appro-
priate, it is unidiomatic to
do
so.
The more
general custom,
whether one of those adverbs be used or
not, is to repeat the
word or words of the question on which the interrogation

turns, with such
grammatical modifications as
may be
necessary.
Thus, turning back

sect.
to the five questions instanced in
Chap.
1,
II.,
21
(p. 151-2), the respective answers
may
be
oj\
(evet, ben)
yes,
I (am
;
to ride); 2,
0/jgJjl
(yoq, 6lblr gyun)
no, the
day
after
&c.
SECTION XI.
Syntax of the Preposition.

always
follows
The Turkish
preposition
the
is
word
it
governs, noun, pronoun, or verbal derivative, as
seen in
Chap.
7
II., sections 1 (p.
51),
(p. 82),
(p.
88), 6 (p. 89),
(p. 90),
and in Chap.
III., section 8
(p.
179)
but the
Arabic and Persian prepositions always precede;

in truth ('ale 't-tahqlq)
;
as,
j-5^ <J&
\Jj
(ber qarar) in permanence (with<3 (fl '1-wiiqf) in
out change);
gj^
('ala hide) singly;
jJ^Jl
;
fact
J'i.
y>
(bl-eyyl halln) in
any case
iy!^j2l
ft Jc
'ala
SYNTAX.
upon
either supposition;
185
't-taqdiieyn)
jj~$
(ez ser-1
from a new beginning (over again, again).
preposition
*
;
may govern two

,0 s
or
*l*
more substantives
*
in
'O
3,0s
sentence
posterity,
as,
AÛJj OT^J
friends.
V^'j J^
his family,
companions,
and
But, as the Arabic and Persian preposition precedes the

adjectives that qualify, as well as the substantives qualified, so the Turkish preposition
is
placed after
all
these; conseis is
quently, in Persian construction, and
when
the substantive
followed by the possessive suffixes, the Turkish preposition
separated from the substantive

siderable distance
(bii
;
it
governs, sometimes by a conlie)
as, Jbl
JjC (baba-m
with
my
father
muhlbb-i sadfq-dd) in
(qallyun-i
this faithful
friend
&
*}
j-^jfc
kyuh-numun-i h&mayunun
bash!) the head of the mountain-like imperial galley.
SECTION XII.
Syntax of
the Conjunction.
All conjunctions, except the enclitic

too, also,
.>
(de, da),
orô
(d&khi),
head the phrase they belong
to.
The
the
enclitic conversational aa, or liteiary
^.3,
is
placed after
;
word of a phrase
:
to
which
special attention is directed
thus
or Istanb6danda tfjlSTlijL^ ^jJJjCLl (Istanbildan dakhl,

;
top galdl) cannon came from Constantinople also
186

(istauboldan t6p dakhl galdl) cannon,
too,
came from
Constantinople.
This
enclitic
is
repeated after each

its
member
sjjj
of a phrase
linked together by
use; as,
sjj
*,.xp
(ben-da gederlm;
*0
Ox
san-da) /, too, will go, as also thou
(ben-da, san-da, 6-da,
all three go.
;
flJJJ
SO'
8jkl-J
*0*
jj*~^=>
_>^
*<dj\
*^J
-
uchumuz
gldeiiz) /, thou,
and he
too, will
It
is
often placed after a verb in the conditional,

;
its
sense
being then, in English, rendered by even

even should he come
be
;
as,
j A-J> (galse-de)
SÂ-J^
^^^(galmlsh
he Ise-de) even though

;
come; sj(_jlj6 (galseydl-da) had he even come

to
oj-Jjl
d^d
(galejek 6lsa-da) even should he be about
come (even should he
think of coming, or resolve to come).
After other verbs than conditionals,
it
is
enclitic
with each
that enters a phrase, and answers to our both, followed by

or also; as,
and
sj^JS sj^jK
;
(gelliim-da,
gyururdm-da) /
will both
come,
and
see also
sj^jSl +**~)\ jj&-> **jjj-$
**jjX
beyanlr-lse-m, allrim-da)
admire, will also buy.
will come,
and I
will see,
and
if
The
conjunctions
jL\ d/^ ^,
,
in the sense of whether
...
or whether,
^^\
(eyer)
if,
with A^(ger-chl,
vulg. gerche) or
u*^>\
the (eyer-chl, vulg. egerche) although, put

;
verb or verbs
of their phrase in the conditional
as,
A-ljÛ iLjÛ (ha galse,
SYNTAX.
h4 galmasa) whether he come, or (whether he come) not;
s
+
18
OO-"
<'
>
(eyer galsa) if lie come;
sjju-jj (JiJ^ *-*:j^=*\
(egerchl galmlsh Isa-
da) although he be even come (even
though he be come).
When
it
is
the copulative j joins one verb or phrase to another,

(to a certain degree)
pronounced ve, in conformity

;
with
its
original Arabic pronunciation

it
but when, in Persian conor adjective,

it
struction,
unites
two nouns, substantive
takes
the vowel-sound of a or A, and joins on, in pronunciation, as
though
in
a syllable, with the consonant preceding
it
as,
(*jf}
(jjJb (galdl
ve gyurdu) he came, and he saw;
JL^j ^3*
(qavi-yu
(devlet u
Iqbal)
fortune and prosperity ; eu-^JjJ j
ten-durust) strong
and
healthy.
(kl)
The Persian
conjunction
that,
always connects two

to be a
members of a phrase, and should never be supposed

relative
pronoun
;
in
Turkish
.^
(as
}
it
,
really is in Persian, as well

it
as a conjunction)
that
as,
iS
Jjl
+j** (ma'lum ola kl) be
known
Sometimes the clause that follows shows the cause

;
or reason of that which precedes
the conjunction
{
be rendered \yjfor or because;

O
9
*
as,
may
O
then
O
XO
O **,''*
* *
<o
^\S Jlij
J<sJÎ
J^*jî
Jo J
OOx
^xxOX
AJâix*
^jaJ (jjJjl dLil ^tt
(nlyjizmend
6l^l!in,
let
ve nale-kyunan, kl
us be instant in sup-
jlns-1 magferete sim-1 eshk 6ldu niiqud)
plications,
and assiduous
in moans, for the silver
of (man's)
tears
has been made the coins payable for the wares of (God's) mercy. i O -oJ JJ 3^3
(The inversion ^HJ
^jjjl
for
(jdj\ Jjij
is
poetical.)
188

to
After a verb signifying

to one's
to think), self,
say (which also
may mean,
to
say
or to ask, the conjunction A_$"introduces,

;
what
is,
was, or will be said or thought
but the question must

in the
be in the mood, tense, number, and person,

used by the speaker or thinker
yarln gellrlm) he says,
;
very words,
(dly6r kl,
A_J
as,
^^6 ^Jj
&j*
>s
I will come to-morrow ;
(s6rdu
kl,
bu ne
dlr) he asked,
What
is this
y We
is
(j^jf
see, then,
that 4$7 so used,

inverted commas.
is
the equivalent of our sign of quotation, the
We
cannot alter the phrase as
our custom,
and
say, he says he will come, or he asked what that was.

in,
Occasionally,
Ox
O*
a certain style, this

:
A_J
is
omitted
"
as,
O >
J(i^>
<j\
(^Jjo (dldl
ey shehrlyar) he exclaimed,
monarch.""
But
tion,
the
method more generally used,

is
especially in conversais
and which
the true Turkish mode,
to
quote
first
what
was
said, asked, or thought,

to say, fyc., in
O
*
and then immediately
to bring in
the verb
Ox 01
its
proper tense, number, and person;
as,
jjyjjjjv
(gellrlz dlyorler) they say,

;
We
will come;
i.
e.,
they
say they will come
cJo.i +s~*jjJ> (gyurmadlm didl)

it,
lie
said,
did not
not
see.
see
(him, her,
them, you, &c.)
i.
e.,
he said he did
o
*
In this
case, if the
verb \ised be any other than
eiUjo,
is
J
the Turkish conjunction jjo (dlyu, vulg. deye), which really

o *
o
the
first
or fifth gerund, modified
by usage, of iUp,
viz.,
^^
or AO
tion
;
is
introduced before the verb used, and after the quotais
it
the equivalent of our saying
as,
SYNTAX.
IjJLl Jljl (keyfinlz lyi-ml,
dlyii, su'al
i.
189
etdlm)
e.,
7 asked
(of
he
him
or her), saying, Is your health yood ?
/ asked how
was ;
jjf_>\
$\
jjjsi (belmeyirlz,
not
; i.
dlyii,
inkyar Idly6rler) they
deny, saying.
We know
e.,
they deny,
and say
they
know
not ; I jll Uji.
Jo 3-^3*^
(galmazslnlz, diyu, khulyd etdlm)
/ /
formed an
idea, saying (to
myself), You will not come

;
i.
e.,
imagined that you would not come

dlniz) saying
^_Xj_jJS
j_o AJ (ne
dlyii, g^,l-
what
(to thyself), ar
thou
come?
i.e.,
tÂai
a?'e
you come for?
The
coDJunction A_>
sometimes, as in Persian, serves
to
connect an incidental qualifying phrase to an antecedent noun,

as though
it
were a
relative
pronoun ; but
in such case
it
never
undergoes declension or takes a preposition, the following

o
J
c
^
i o'
phrase being complete in

,jj
all
its
parts
as,
J^l
^L-. j
jk*.
(hamd A
slpas 61 khiidavend-l bi-'lllete seza dlr, kl, vAjud-1 enhar

dlr) glory
u qu'ur-1 blhar yek-qatre-1 qudret-1 na-mutenahllerl

lauds are worthy of that uncaused
and
Lord God, of whose
infinite
power
the existence
of
rivers
and
the depths
of oceans are but a
single drop.
The
foregoing example shows that
it
is
often difficult or
impossible to distinguish
is
whether the phrase that follows A_^ x
a qualificative, or the exposition of a reason.
We
might
190
take
it

in this latter sense,
and translate
for, the existence
of
rivers, #c., are but one drop, &c.
But, in ethical works and the like, generally composed by
members of the
'Alemii class
(Doctors of Canon
A)
Law) on a
is
Persian or Arabic model, the clause that follows

qualificative,
generally
and the
style
4-i^
is
anti-Turkish.
Thus
*Jjl
&
..ti
4*c u*r* J?*

e
^+*> ^>** (her kes kl dest-1 hlmmet

)
;
lid habl-1 metin-1
aql& mtUeshebbls 61a,
every one
who
shall take hold of the firm cable
of reason with the hand of

(bii janverler kt
endeavour,
n&zar-l 'ibret-U
^ jjuL* &j-siJb.>i!>^jy\Lj>
dAr,
)
m^nzur
these
animals which are
looked upon with a regard for instruction,
The
conjunctions
lest,
aJU
^
(ta kl) in order that,
&S
j)ll
(shayed
kl) perhaps,
A-L].>1* (m^-dam-kl) as long as, since,
^bC
X
(me-badfi kl)
to
lest,
&jt^* (meyer
,XO;
kl) unless, require their verbs i.X ,
be in the optative
as,
A-JU j*.*: A_)
Û
tiihtlmmAlu
be left in
qalmaya) in order that no power of endurance

^JAJjl
him
I)$L
i"Cl.
*>
jjll (
mûhezlm
(
6laler) lest they be routed;
jAj\
A-5CIbU
(
hayfitdd 61aler) since they are alive;
4,1 ji4ji
(
^^W X
^y
^ o1 ^)
lest {i be s
gyuzel olA) unless he
(she, it) be beautiful.
SYNTAX.
191
SECTION XIII.
Syntax of
the Interjection.
Some
interjections are
accompanied by nouns and pronouns,
some by nouns
precede verbs.
only, others have no accompaniment, and some
When
accompanied by a noun, the noun
is
always
in the
as,
nominative, excepting with the interjection jjLj (yaziq)

,LjLj
\)
(vwakh babam)
alas,
my
father
!
J-Cjl
^^Jl
(fiferin,
vulg. afeiim
slz)
oghlum) well done, my boy

!
^~u1 ^jJ)
(gldl edeb-
0, impudent fellow
^jj,* ^T (ey qardashim)

*Ju*l
well, brother!
fW (J^
noun.
(&man chojughum) 0, my child!

sir
I
Cjl (merhaba
the
efendlm) God's blessing on you,
They always precede
The word
its
jjlj
is
used in this
way
also,
;
but
as,
it
further
j-.lj
!
permits
(yaziq
substantive to be put in the dative
*X_Il
emeylm), A5Cj
j^lj (yaziq emeylme) alas
my
trouble
alas for
my
trouble
When
(j-~j
accompanied by a pronoun, except the interjection

the pronoun must be in the dative
;
(gldl),
as,
j^b
!
(yaziq band) poor

B^JLJl
tf.j-*\
is
me
^L^
alas for thee ~\j (vwiikh sana)
(aferlm S,nlard) well done,
thy !
The
exceptional
(J.XP
constructed with the accusative of the second person
singular,
sanl) or
which
it
may
precede or follow
as,
^ ^f
(gldl
!
^^^L
(sanl gldl) faugh, thou (good-for-nothing)
192
Interjections indicative of a desire for the future or regret

for the past, are constructed with the conditional, aorist or
past accordingly
as,
t*J6
si
(ah galsa)
he
that he
!
would come
^j-llTsl (ah galseydl)
that
had come
One of
these,
Ûl
is
constructed also with the imperative, and expresses

desire with the affirmative, or dread with the nega*
vehement
tive
;
as, t_~r+~
!
^Ll (aman gltmasa)
that he go not (by his

that he go not (if
own
desire)
^j-~iJ Ûl (ilman gitmasin)

!
my
wish prevail)
With an
challenge;
galsin) just
imperative,
as,
let
4*
(hele) expresses
an invitation or a
!
J^4-*
(hele gal) come along

!
^^JS
j^-b
(hele
him only come
Arabic phrases are often used as interjections, generally

-
jji
,,&'
\$*
*Z
after proper
names
as,
^W
*JJl
A*,^=U>
$*=*+ (mekke-1
the
mAkerreme, kerrema-ha
which
'llahA
taala)
Mekka
Venerated,
!
may God, who
be exalted, cause to be venerated
IjcV
^Tzs Majesty, the
champion of
the faith,
Sultan
Selim Khan, the shadows of whose clemency
may God spread
over the crowns of the heads of mankind, so long as the months

repeat themselves
and
the years renew themselves
FINIS.
193
ADDENDUM.
IN
p.
45, after line 5, as a further
remark on the uses of

its
letter
the following rule
is
not without
use
viz.,
,
In a few words of Persian origin only, the

ing a letter
is
letter
follow1
and
itself
followed by a long vowel-letter
suppressed and lost in the pronunciation.

kh'ahlsh.
Thus (j^
kh'iin,
y. kh'ah, JUljL
class,
The word
,
*J>
,
kh'aja, of this
and
its
derivatives, Jj*\j>>
J^J^ji.
&c.,
have been
In
corrupted in Turkish into khoja, khojagjan, khojalfq, &c.
Persian proper, a very few words beginning with
ji.,
without
;
a following
this is
elide the
in like
manner
in
pronouncing
it
but
never observed in Turkish, unless
may
be
in the
rhyme-words of ancient poetry.

read khush in Persian, khish in
Thus
word ^>j^ (usually Turkish) is made to rhyme

the
with
^J>j
vesh, for instance
and
in
consequence must then be

is
read kh'ash.
^
jj
(usually khud, Turkish khid)

;
made
to
rhyme with
bed
something after the manner of our poets,

find, mind, &c.
who make wind rhyme with
This
is
what
is
in Persian. styled Jjjjw>j[j (vwfiwi ma'dule), deflected j,
195
INDEX.
A.
Accidence, p. 51.
Alphabet,Semitic,Greek,and Latin,
Synopsis
of, 4.
Active participles, 100, 105.

aorist,100
,,
102.
Aorist active participle, 100 102. Aorist passive participle, 103. Aorist tense, 100.
,,
future, 100, 101.
past, 100, 101.

perfect, 100,101.
,,
conditional, 109.
indicative, 107.
present, 100, 101.
necessitative, 108,
Active verb, 92.
optative, 109.
Addendum on
Adjectives, 61,
*!j
J*
jlj
193.
Apposition, 160.
Adjectival expressions, 72.
Arabic active participles (nomeii

agentis), 59, 61, 62.
6874.
7072.
70-2.
Arabic, 61, 69.

Persian, 68,
Arabic adjectival expressions, 72.

adjectives, 61,69.
Compound,
Syntax
of,
adverbs, 73.
168.
broken plurals, 55
60.
Turkish, 68, 69, 73-4.
chapters of derivation, 57,
Adverbial expressions, 154.
6264.
Arabic diminutives,
60, 67.
Adverbs, Arabic, 73.
Syntax
of,
182.
irregular plurals,
5560.
Turkish, 73.
Affirmative verb, 92.
noun of instrument and

receptacle, 60.
Alphabet by forms,
2.
3.
Arabic nouu of kind or manner,

60.
Numeral,
Semitic, Greek, and

tin, 3.
La60.
place of abundance,
19G
INDEX.
Complex
fractional numbers, 80.
Arabic noun of time and place, 60.

unity, 60.
Compound Persian
(nomen
Adjectives, 70.
Arabic ordinals, 78.

passive
participle
Verbs, 148.
Active, 149.
Intransitive, 149.
patientis), 59, 61, 62.
Arabic plurals, 55.

,,
Passive, 149.
60.
irregular, 55
Transitive, 149.
regular, 55.
Conditional mood, 100.
Arabic quadriliteral roots, 65.

regular plurals, 55.
substantives, 53, 54.
,,
Conjugation, 99.
Combined
ish), 133.
(true
Turk-
triliteral roots, 56.
Conjugational root, 96.

Conjunctions, 156.
,,
verbal nouns (nomen verbi),
58,61-2.
Syntax
Consonants, 15.
B.
of,
185.
Hard, 47.
Brevity, Conversational, 158.
Movent,
60.
31,
32
ter,
Broken(irregular) plural, 19,55
33
ter.
Consonants, Neutral, 48.

C.
Quiescent, 27.
Soft, 47.
Cardinal numbers, 74-7.

Categories of verbs, 99.
Conversational brevity, 158.
Complex, 99,^119, Category First Complex, 119, 120. "Second 119,125.

5<
D.
Simple, of verbs, 99, 1 19. Third Complex, 119, 129.
Dates of documents,
&c., 81.
Declination of Demonstratives, 88.

Interrogatives, 89.
'
Causal gerund-like locution, 113. Causative verb, 93.

,,
,,
Nouns,
82.
51.
Compound,
150.
Personal Pronouns,
Closed syllable, 27.
Combined
(true Turkish) Conjuga-
Defective Verbs, 98.
tion, 133.
Demonstrative Pronouns,
99,
88.
Complex Categories of Verb,

119.
Derivation of Verbs, 92.
Determinate Verb, 93.
INDEX.
Digits, 81.
197
G.
Diminutive, Arabic, 67.

Persian, 67.
Gender, 51.
Turkish, 66, 73.
General Verbal Noun, 103.
Directing vowels, 27.

Distributive numbers, 78.
Gerund, Fifth, 112.

First, 111.
Documents, Dates
of, 81.
Fourth, 112.
Dominant
(letter
or vowel), 48, 49.
Second, 111.
Dubitative Verb, 1 11.
Seventh, 112.
150.
Sixth, 112.
Compound,
Third, 112.
Gerund-like locutions, 110, 111.

Causal, 110,
Esere, 16
bis.
113.
51.
Etymology,
Gerund-like locutions of proportion, 113.
Euphony, 15,48-50.
Expressions, Adjectival, 72.
Adverbial, 154.
Gerund-like locutions of time, 111,

114, 115.
Gerund-like locution of time, Fifth,

115.
Facile Verbs, 141.
First, 114.
Compound,
First
119, 120.
150.
Fourth, 114.
Second,114.
>,
Complex Category of Verbs,
Sixth, 115.
First Person Plural of Verbs, 116.
Third, 114.
Pronoun,
82.
Gerunds, 99, 110.
Singular of Verbs, 115.
Syntax
of,
181.
Pronoun, 82.
Formation of the Tenses, 106.

Fractional numbers, 79.
Half, 79.
H.
Future Active Participle, 100, 101.

Passive
,,
,
Hard
cor. sonants, 47.
103.
vowels, 48.
Tense, Imperative, 100.

Indicative, 108.
Hemze,
10,
3033.
omitted, 24.
Radical, 30, 31.
Servile, 30, 31.
Past, 100.
Verbal Noun, 104.
193
I.
INDEX.
M.
Medd, 24-26.
Months, Signs
for, in dates, 81.
Identity of Semitic, Greek, and
Latin Alphabets, 3. Imperative Mood, 100.
Moods, 100.
Imperfect Tense, 100.

indicative, 107.
Mood, Conditional, 100.

Imperative,
Indicative,
Infinitive,
,,
Impotential Verbs, 92.
Compound, 150
Indefinite numerals (pronouns), 80.
Necessitative,
Indeterminate Verbs, 93.

Indicative Mood, 100.
Infinitive
Optative,
Mood, 100.
Syntax
of,
N.
179.
Interjections, 157.
Names
of,
of Letters, 1,
10-14.
Syntax
Interrogation, 151.
191.
Necessitative Mood, 100.
Negative Verbs, 92.
Interrogative Pronouns, 89.
Compound,
Neuter Verbs,
149.
97.
150.
Verbs, 151.
Intransitive Verbs, 92.
Neutral consonants, 48.

vowels, 48.
Compound,
J.
Noun
Jnnctional Letters,
Adjective, 68.
Arabic, 68, 69.

9.
Persian, 68.
Compound,70. Syntax
Letters, 1
of,
168.
Turkish, 68.
Substantive, 51.
Junctional, 9.
Names
of the, 1,
1014.
9.
Syntax
Verbal, 99, 103-5.
of,
161.
Non-Junctional,
,,
of prolongation, 17.
of the Alphabet, 1. Radical, 30, 31.
Syntax
of,
179. 115.
,,
Numbers and persons of verbs, Numeral Alphabet, 3.

Numerals, 74-82.
Reduplicated, 29, 30, 32.

Servile, 28, 30, 31.
Cardinal, Arabic, 74-7.

Persian, 74-7.
Locutions, Gerund-like,
110115.
ITTDEX.
199
Numerals, Cardinal, Turkish, 74-6.

Distributive, 78.
Past future tense, 100.

Past future indicative, 100, 108.
Past tense, 100.
indicative, 107.
Fractional, 79.
Indefinite, 80.
Interrogative, 76.
,,
Peculiar Turkish numerals, 80.

relatives, 91.
Ordinal, Arabic, 78. Persian, 78.
Perfect active participle, 100, 101.

Perfect tense, 100.
,,
Turkish, 77.
Turkish Peculiar, 80.
indicative, 107.
Syntax
0.
of, 170.
,,
verbal noun, 103.
Permissive verbs, 93.

Persian adjectives, 68, 70-2.
,,
Compound, 70-2.
Open
syllables, 27.
Persian diminutive, 67.
Optative Mood,
100.
Orthographic signs, 15,
2833.
letters, 2, 13.
plurals of nouns, 54.
substantives, 53, 54.
P.
Participles, 100.
Personal pronouns, 82.
Phonetic values of letters, 15,34-50.
Active, 100-105.
Aorist, 100, 102.
Phonetic values of vowels,17,48-50

Pluperfect tense, 100.
indicative, 108.
Future, 100,101.
General, 100.
Past, 100, 101.
Perfect,100,101.
Plural of nouns, Arabic irregular,
55-60.
Plural of nouns, Arabic regular, 55.
Persian, 54.
Present, 100-2. Passive, 101, 103, 105.

Aorist, 103.
Turkish, 51.
Possessive pronouns, 83-8.
Potential verbs, 141-2.
Future, 103.
Syntax
of,
178.
Compound, 150.
Precision in writing, 158.
Prepositions, 156.
Twenty-eight, 101.
Passive participles, 101, 103, 105.
verb, 92.
Syntax
149.
tense, 100.
of,
184.
Compound,
Present active participle, 100-2.
verbal adjective, 104.
Past active participle, 100, 101.
indicative, 106.
200
Present tense
infinitive, 110.
INDEX.
Signs for the months in dates, 81.
verbal noun, 103.
Simple Category of Verbs, 99

verbs, 93.
119.
Prolongation, Letters
of, 17.
Pronoun, 82.
Demonstrative, 88.
,,
Soft consonants
and vowels,
48.
Substantives, 51.
Indefinite (numeral), 80.
Syntax
Syllables, closed
of,
16L
2, 17.
Interrogative, 89.
Syllabary, No. 1 and No.
Personal, 82.
Possessive,
8388.
and open, 27. Synopsis of Semitic, Greek and

Latin Alphabets,
Syntax, 158.
of adjectives, 168.
4.
Relative, 90.
Peculiar Turkish, 91.
of adverbs, 182.
.
Q-
of conjunctions, 185.
<p
,
derived from
4, 8, 40.
of gerunds, 181.
of infinitive, 179.
Quiescence, sign
of, 19,
28.
of interjections, 191.
R.
of numerals, 170.
of participles, 178.
Radical letters, 30, 31.

Reciprocal verbs, 93.
of prepositions, 184. of pronouns, 173.

150.
Compound,
Reflexive verb, 98.
of substantives, 161.
of verbal nouns, 179.
Reduplicated letters, 29, 30, 32.
of verbs, 174.
Root of conjugation, 96.

tense, 106, 115.
T.
Table of verbal derivation, 94-5.

Tenses, 100, 104,
106110.
Second Complex Category of Verbs,

119, 125.
Aorist conditional, 109.

indicative, 107.
Second person
plural, 118.
necessitative, 108.
singular, 116.
optative, 109.
Servile letters, 28, 30, 31.
Formation of the, 106.

Future imperative, 100;
26,
,,
Sign of quiescence,
19, 28.
reduplication, 24
indicative, 108.
INDEX.
Tense, Imperfect, 100.
indicative, 107.
201
Y.
Past, 100.
indicative, 107-
Values of letters,
Verb,
1550.
92153.
Active, 92.
Affirmative, 92.
Future, 100.
,,
indicative, 108.
Perfect, 100.
indicative, 108.
Auxiliary, 149.
Causative, 93.
.
Pluperfect, 100.
indicative, 108.
Compound,
150.
of,
Combined
133.
.
conjugation
Present, 100.
indicative, 106.
infinitive, 110.
Complex Categories
133.
of,
99
Teshdid, 32.
Verb, Complex Category

119, 120.
of, First,
Third Complex Category of Verbs,

119, 129.
Verb, Complex Category of, Second,

119, 125.
Third person plural, 118.

singular, 106.
Verb, Complex Category

119, 129.
47.
of,
Third,
Transitive verb, 92.

Transliteration, 15, 17, 34
Verb, Compound, 148.
Turkish adjectives, 68, 69, 73-4.

adverbs, 73.
cardinal numbers, 74-6.
interrogative, 76.
Conjugation
of, 99.
Defective, 98.
Determinate, 93.
Dubitative, 141.
conjugation
133.
(combined),
Facile, 141.
Compound,
n
150.
Turkish ordinal numbers, 77.

plural of substantives, 51.
substantives, 51.
Compound,
150.
Impotential, 92.
Compound,
Indeterminate, 93.
Interrogative, 151.
Intransitive, 92.
150.
true combined conjugation,

133.
U.
Compound,
Negative, 92.
>
149.
Ustun, 16.
>
Compound,
150.
Uturu, 16.
Neuter, 97.
202
INDEX.
Verbal Nouns, Future, 104.
General, 103.
Perfect, 103.
Verb of Existence, Non-Existence,

Presence, or Absence, 147.
Verb, Passive, 92.
Compound,
Permissive, 93.
Potential, 141-2.
149.
Present, 103.
Syntax
Vowels, 15.
Directing, 27.
of,
179.
Compound, 150.
Reciprocal, 93.
Hard, 48.
150.
Letters, 15, 16.
Compound,
Reflexive, 98.
Long, 17,
99-119.
bis.
Simple, 93.
Neutral, 48.
of,
Simple Category
Substantive, 144.
174.
Points, 15, 16.
Short, 16, 17.

Soft, 48.
Syntax
of,
Transitive, 92.
,,
Compound, 149.
Written
of,
W.
digits, 81.
Verbal adjective passive, 104.

derivation, 92.
Table
94.
81.
signs for
months
in dates,
Nouns,
99,
103105.
as a vowel, 17, 23, 26, 27.
JWI
57.
numeral, 4.
\
consonant, 23.
JU
*
57.
T24.
i
25.
57.
57.
57.
57.
16.
INDEX.
204
INDEX.
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00 oo

OTTOMAN -TURKISH LANGUAGE

AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.

TRUBNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE

EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST,

M. GELDAET, M.A. Price 2s. Qd.

BASQUE. BY W. VAN EYS.

Price 10s. 6d.

Grammars of the following

HON. MBMBEB OB THB

GILBEET AND EIVINOTON, LIMITED, JOHN'S SQUARE, CLEEKENWELL EOAD.

Note on Identity of Alphabets

LETTERS AND ORTHOGRAPHY.

Number, Order, Forms, and Names of

Phonetic Values of Letters, Vowel-Points,

VII. Relative Pronouns

VIII. Derivation of Verbs

IX. Conjugation of Verbs

Numbers and Persons

XI. Complex Categories of Verbs

XII. First Complex Category

XVI. Negative and

and Facile Verbs

XVIII. Verb Substantive

XIX. Verbs of Presence and

XXII. Adverbial Expressions

highly polished branch of the great Turkish tongue, which

spoken, with dialectic variations, across the whole breadth,

Ottoman provinces, and

The Ottoman language

grammar and vocabulary,

It has, however, adopted,

more and more

to adopt, as required, a vast

of Arabic, Persian, and foreign words

Slavonic, Hungarian, Italian, French, English, &c.),

with the use of a few of the grammatical rules of the Arabic

and Persian, which are given as Turkish rules

pages, their origin being in each case specified.

great Turkish language, AS J turkje,

Ottoman and non-

Ottoman, has been

by European writers as one of the

which were once

dependent words," to the root- words, and thus forming

mind, this term "agglutinative" and

are inapplicable to the Turkish language in general, and to

the Ottoman Turkish in

truly, inflexional tongues

none of their inflexions

distinctive character of all

the Turkish languages, or

that the root of a whole family,

of inflexions and derivations,

always recognizable at sight,

complex in character these may

always of the simplest

kind, always the softening of a hard or sharp consonant into

the corresponding more liquid letter, and always of the final

consonant only of the root.

then pronounced like our most useful consonant

The Ottoman Turkish has more vowel-sounds

known number) than any other tongue

a short and a long modification, they