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Table of Contents
Executive Summary.......................................................................................... 2 1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 3 2. Maslow and Maslow's theory .......................................................................... 4 2.1 Biographical Sketch .................................................................................. 4 2.2 Basic structure of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory ................................. 4 2.3 Inspiration for Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory ...................................... 5 3. Application of Maslow's theory ....................................................................... 6 3.1 Maslow's theory in business ...................................................................... 6 3.1.1 Workplace management ...................................................................... 6 3.1.2 Marketing .......................................................................................... 7 3.2 Maslow's theory in Psychotherapy .............................................................. 7 3.4 Maslow's theory in healthcare industry ....................................................... 8 3.5 Maslow's theory in social science ............................................................... 9 4. Theories derived from Maslow ...................................................................... 10 4.1 Motivation-Hygiene Theory ...................................................................... 10 4.2 Wilber .................................................................................................. 10 5. Empirical Studies on Maslow's theory ............................................................ 11 5.1 Studies that show some support for Maslows Hierarchy.............................. 11 5.1.1 Porter ............................................................................................. 11 5.1.2 Alderfer ........................................................................................... 11 5.1.3 Reiss and Havercamp........................................................................ 12 5.1.4 Ghiselli and Johnson ......................................................................... 14 5.1.5 Guttman Scale Test .......................................................................... 15 5.2 Studies that did not support Maslows Theory ............................................ 15 6. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory across cultures ......................................... 16 7. Summary and Conclusion ............................................................................ 17 References .................................................................................................... 18
Executive Summary
This is paper attempts to answer the question Is Maslows Hierarchy of Needs a Valid model of Motivation?. We begin by reviewing Maslows life and the basic structure of his Hierarchy of Needs Theory. Then continue by explaining what inspired his theory. The use of this theory is examined as applied in business, Psychotherapy, the healthcare industry, and social science. Similar theories are reviewed including Frederick Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory and Ken Wilburs theory as interpreted by Rowan. Then we take a look at Empirical testing of Maslows work to try to determine if his model is valid. A study by Hall and Nougian did not support Maslows theory. However, there are some studies that show support or partial support. A literature review includes reviews of studies done by Porter, Alderfer, Reiss and Havercamp, and Ghiselli and Johnson as well as the Guttman scale test. Although some argue that Maslows hierarchy of needs theory is restricted by national and cultural boundaries, we look at its use across cultures. Finally we reach our conclusion that Maslows hierarchy is a valid model of motivation, though some modification might be warranted. It is a simple but powerful concept that can help us understand, develop and utilize human potential.
1. Introduction
Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory is more than half a century old since its first publication of Personality and Motivation in 1954. Many theoretical and practical applications were developed on the basis of Maslow's theory (Brenner, Carmack, & Weinstein, 1971. Rowan, 1999. Sirgy, 1986. Shermer, 2004. Seeley, 1992). The scope and scale of the use of Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory transcends a wide range of areas. However, despite of its popularity, the validity and utility of this theory have raised many controversies over the years. On one hand, Maslow's theory is very intuitive (Heylighen, 1992), easy to understand and apply. Being one of the most enduring theories of behavioral science, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs holds high face validity. On the other hand, many questioned the validity and applicability of the theory (Wahba & Bridwell, 1976. McCarth & Perreault, 1984). Some claimed that Maslow's theory has been used without adequate scientific evidence (Soper, Milford & Rosenthal, 1995). There are studies that show support or partial support of the theory (Lawler & Porter, 1967. Ghiselli & Johnson, 1970. Manning & Curtis, 1988. Benson & Dundis, 2003. Barling 1976. Hall & Nougaim, 1968. Porat, 1977. Reiss & Havercamp 2005), while some found no evidence to support the theory (Hall & Nougaim, 1968. Lawler & Suttle, 1972). The purpose of our paper is to revisit Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, review its critiques and evaluate its applications. Our paper is to examine whether Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory is a valid theory of motivation.
Growing up in a non-Jewish neighborhood and not being close to his parents, Maslow spent his childhood in loneliness and misery (Hergenhahn, 2005). He grew up in libraries among books and without friends (Hall, 1968). Maslow's relationship with his mother was bitter (Hoffman, 1988). So, it is interesting that he got the motivation for his work in humanistic psychology from his hatred of his mother (Lowry, 1979). Maslow attended City College of New York and did research at Columbia University afterwards. From 1937 to 1951, Maslow was on the faculty of Brooklyn College. He taught at Bradeis University from 1951 to 1969 and then became a resident fellow at Laughlin Institute, Berkley, CA. In 1970, he died of a heart attack. Maslow's primary contribution to psychology is his hierarchy of needs theory.
theory.
actualization (Maslow, 1971). He views human beings are benign in nature. Eckerman (1968) generalizes that self-actualization for a person involves doing one's best in addition to inventiveness, creativeness, and ingenuity. Self-actualization is the capstone of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. To self-actualize is to reach the peak of one's potential. Maslow's studies shift from traditional psychologists' work of studying dysfunctional people, mental diseases and the negative side of human behaviors to studies on the positive side of human behaviors. His focus is to understand people who are working toward self-actualization, attempt to learn how they think and learn what motivates them. His model is to exhibit how a mature, happy, and healthy person behaves. Maslow's (1954:14) states, ... health is not simply the absence of disease or even the opposite of it. Any theory of motivation that is worthy of attention must deal with the highest capacities of the healthy and strong person as well as with the defensive maneuvers of crippled spirits. When Maslow lived in New York during the 1930s and 1940s, he came to know many prominent European scholars including Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Margaret Mead and Max Wertheimer, founder of Gestalt psychology. Maslow also befriended with the famous anthropologist Ruth Benedict around the same time. Maslow was very much inspired by Ruth Benedict and Max Wertheimer, whom he admired both professionally and personally. He began his informal study of healthy people by observing them, taking notes and trying to analyze what made them such outstanding human beings (Hergenhahn, 2005). Besides studying his personal friends and acquaintances, Maslow's selected people groups also included public figures living and dead such as Thomas Jefferson, Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Eakins and Walt Whitman, among others. However, Maslow's subjects shared a common characteristic that they all showed considerable evidence of self-actualization (Hjelle
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& Ziegler, 1976). They were all psychologically healthy individuals by Maslow's definition. His study of these people serves as the foundation for Maslow's lifetime research of optimal psychological health and human potential.
employee's growth into higher levels. For example, Maslow's theory can be used in human resource management in medical workplaces. Medical professionals usually are well paid, however, not all nurses and doctors go into and stay in the healthcare industry with the same commonly assumed motivator -- monetary incentive. It will be more productive for managers and administrators to understand the need that care providers bring to their professions and motivate them from Maslow's perspective (Carpenito-Moyet, 2003. Benson & Dundis, 2003). A good retention strategy for departments of nursing is to offer different incentives depending on where the nurse is on Maslow's hierarchy. Monetary incentive is effective to motivate nurses working to meet their lower level needs; paid vacation, flexible schedules or future opportunities for further education may be more satisfying incentives for those who are at higher levels of Maslow's hierarchy. 3.1.2 Marketing Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory has made influential impact on marketing. Maslow's theory has been written into many marketing textbooks as a principle of understanding human needs (Husted, Varble & Lowry, 1989; Stanton & Futrell, 1987; Kotler, 1991). Seeley (1992)
constructed an economic model of consumer behavior by using Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. This model is designed to track consumers' expenditure patterns as the satisfaction of their needs progresses. Maslow's theory has shaped marketing research and consumer research theory and practice associated with consumer motivation (Pincus, 2004). One of the key insights of Maslow's theory is that satisfied needs do not motivate. Therefore, by focusing on the similarity of unmet needs, the need-based segmentation approach opens up more opportunities in marketing and brand management.
psychology was mainly dominated by Freud's psychoanalysis and Skinner's behaviorism. Psychology used to be concerned with abnormalities of mental health. It can be generalized that
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counseling clients used to be treated like animals by psychoanalysts, and like machines by behaviorists, but Maslow wanted to treat people like people. He was more concerned with the positive constitution of mental health and human potentials. Maslow (1954:180) commented that: it becomes more and more clear that the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a crippled psychology and a crippled philosophy. With Maslow's theory being the foundation, counselors take the approach of assessing an individual's needs from a positive viewpoint, helping the client to remove obstacles and eventually regain the path toward self-actualization. psychological state. What is more interesting is that Maslow even advocated the use of psychotherapy to achieve self-actualization (Lowry, 1979:459). Self-reflection counseling creates opportunities for Thus, it enables the client to move toward a healthier
organizational learning. It benefits an organization in a way that leads people in organization to share their experiences, beliefs about work and gain their valuable insights to the organization (Chiaramonte & Mills, 1993). There has been great interest in applying psychotherapy to organizations since Maslow (Kets de Vries, 1978).
environment.
researcher gave examples of democratic uprising in the former Soviet Union, Eastern Europe and China. In the above countries where the democratic uprising took place, people have
experienced basic need fulfillment. Their love and belongingness needs are also relatively fulfilled in the company of each other. The younger generation demonstrates healthier levels of self-esteem. The researcher noted that participants of the democratic uprisings placed a greater value on a higher need (self-actualization), at least temporarily, because the need was continually being frustrated. Therefore, this study concludes that pursuit and gratification of higher needs can have desirable civic and social consequences (Laas, 2006). Shermer (2004) developed a bio-cultural evolutionary pyramid to explain the origins and evolution of morality, in which Maslow's hierarchy of needs has been used as a theoretical base of human needs. Quality-of-life theory, developed on the basis of Maslow's theory, postulates that the greater the hierarchical level of need satisfaction is, the greater the quality-of-life that society will have. It addresses the measure of quality of life and the optimality of institutional structures (Sirgy, 1986).
4.2 Wilber
Ken Wilbers theory is very similar to Maslows. Instead of a one-way linear trend of ascent from lower to higher levels, his theory acknowledges an ascent as well as a descent. Ascent is about rising to what we are capable of which Maslow termed self-actualization and descent is about using the insight gained as a new way of life. If this theory is applied to Maslows levels, we find an interesting new slant on deficiency and abundance motivation (Rowan, 1999). One of Maslows ideas was that our motivation was deficiency oriented, being about the satisfaction of needs, but that some of our motivation was abundance oriented, going beyond needs altogether. Rowan states that values are of two kinds deficiency or abundance, which leads to two kinds of motivation. If we apply Wilbers theory we see that self-actualization is not the end of the experience. A person may develop beyond the level of needing to get esteem from other people, but then enter a new organization and may have to go back to that level for a while, until we have learned the ropes again. Rowan suggests that when we go back to an earlier level, though, we do not enter it in the same way in which we entered it before. We come in from the top instead of the bottom and instead of ascent we now experience descent (Rowan, 1999).
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needs instead of the original five (Porat, 1977). ERG theory also does not arrange needs in a strictly ordered hierarchy and includes satisfying higher needs with lower-level desires or behavior (Gibson & Teasley, 1973). Alderfer tested Maslows hierarchy of needs against ERG theory. He found the ERG model to be more accurate than the hierarchy of needs model. The data did not support Maslows frustration hypothesis, i.e., a satisfied need is not a motivator, nor his ordered hierarchy (Gibson & Teasley, 1973). However, it must be noted that Alderfer was testing against his own theory so there is definitely bias. Based on this limited amount of research, there seems to be little empirical justification for adopting it to explain organizational behavior (Gibson & Teasley, 1973). However, the various measures previously used to test Maslows theory, such as the Need Satisfaction Questionnaire and the Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (ERG) hierarchy, have limitations such as a lack of comprehensiveness or absence of adequate validation (Reiss & Havercamp, 2005). An instrument that is well suited for testing Maslows theory was developed by Reiss and Havercamp (2005). 5.1.3 Reiss and Havercamp The Reiss Profile of Fundamental Goals and Motivational Sensitivities is a comprehensive standardized measure of motivation. It is a 120-item self-report instrument that is scored into the 15 empirically derived motives listed in the table below. Reiss and Havercamp combined data from previous studies with the Reiss Profile to take a look at the question of how motivation varies, if at all, during the adult years. They expected to show that lower motives are stronger in younger than older adults, whereas the reverse would hold true for higher motives (Reiss & Havercamp, 2005).
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Reiss and Havercamp recruited 1,749 people to participate in the study. They were from 29 different places throughout the United States and Ontario. The participants rated how important a particular motive was to their life (Reiss & Havercamp, 2005). The results showed that higher motives were stronger in older versus younger adults. These results are consistent with Maslows prediction that maturity is associated with declining interest in lower motives (Reiss & Havercamp, 2005). The Reiss Profile can potentially be used to explore Maslows most basic ideas with the same
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degree of rigor of scientific analysis as exists in many other areas of psychological research (Reiss & Havercamp, 2005). 5.1.4 Ghiselli and Johnson Ghiselli and Johnson (1970) at the University of California, Berkeley, developed a questionnaire designed to measure need satisfaction based upon Maslows 5 need dimensions. They reasoned that the structure of an organization might affect the degree of relationship between the extent to which mangers needs are satisfied by their jobs and the extent to which they achieve success in them. They were interested in the structure that Worthy termed flat versus tall. A flat organization is one with few levels of management, whereas a tall organization is one with many levels (Ghiselli & Johnson, 1970). Ghiselli hypothesized that in flat organizations superior managers are more likely to rise in higher positions than they are in tall organizations. This suggests that there might be a better differentiation of superior and inferior mangers in flat organizations (Ghiselli & Johnson, 1970). They carried out an investigation to examine this hypothesis. The questionnaire Ghiselli and Johnson used to measure need satisfaction was a slightly shortened version of that developed by Porter, following the notions of Maslow. It provided indices of the degree of satisfaction for the need for security, social needs, the need for esteem, the need for autonomy, and the need for self-actualization (Ghiselli & Johnson, 1970). It was administered to 413 managers in a wide variety of business and industrial establishments. Results indicated that for managers in tall organizations there was little relationship between the degree of need satisfaction and success for all five needs, while in flat organizations, a positive relationship existed for the higher order needs. In flat organizations, the relationship between satisfaction and success is negligible for lower order needs, but the relationship grew stronger with higher order needs (Ghiselli & Johnson, 1970). The findings of this study support the hypothesis Ghiselli advanced earlier and provide some confirmation that Worthys position that flat organizations are superior to tall ones in
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encouraging individuality. The satisfaction of those needs which are of an individualistic sort, the need for autonomy and self-actualization, are more highly related to managerial success in flat than in tall organizations, whereas those needs which pertain to protection and reassurance, such as the need for security, are no more related to the success of mangers in the one or the other type of organization (Ghiselli & Johnson, 1970). 5.1.5 Guttman Scale Test Another test developed for Maslows theory is the Guttman Scale Test. It tests the order of needs suggested by Maslow. The scale was developed in Israel by testing managers and professionals employed in an industrial organization who responded to a Porter type questionnaire. The job context was defined as the universe; then 10 items of this universe were categorized into five needs. Next, responses were recoded and dichotomized. The Guttman scale tested Maslows theory and provided that the needs are scalable, regarding the universe of the job context. The scale does offer evidence that some kind of hierarchy exists. However, it is concerned with only one aspect of the theory, the order (Porat, 1977).
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belongingness being the lowest order need and eliminated the self-esteem need. However, this pattern is developed based on the Chinese cultural background during Mao's age. He reasoned that in Mao's China, it was paramount to accept basic social goals imposed as a result of the Cultural Revolution. Only upon accepting basic social goals and behaving as a good citizen could one then share in welfare provided in Chinese society to satisfy physiological needs (Nevis, 1983. p 85). Apparently, this conclusion has totally ignored tremendous social and cultural changes in China since the country opened up in the early 80s. With more foreign companies entering the Chinese market, the transcending of western culture and the different stages of economic development in China, the perception of needs among Chinese people is
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surely not the same as it was decades ago. Therefore, Nevis' version of Chinese hierarchy of needs is not logically convincing enough to disprove Maslow's theory. Raymond's study (2003) of Korean culture shows Korean blue collar workers ' needs pattern as belongingness, esteem, basic (physiological), safety, and self-actualization in an ascending order. Nevertheless, the study also postulates other infra-cultural factors may also attribute to possible variations of the above hierarchical orders. Another cross cultural study found some support of the existence of Maslow's hierarchical relationship in needs. From a study of 69 South African mine workers, Barling (1976) identified the existence of Maslow's hierarchical relationship in the lower order needs. In general, cross-cultural studies demonstrate similar human needs. Different rank ordering and definitions of needs do not completely invalidate Maslow's motivation model in more collectively oriented cultures. Maslow's theory can be modified to better reflect people's
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