Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

The internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine that converts chemical energy stored in a fuel into mechanical energy, usually made available on a rotating output shaft. Chemical energy of the fuel is first converted to thermal energy by means of combustion or oxidation with air inside the engine. This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases within the engine and the high-pressure gas then expands against the piston. This expansion is converted by the mechanical linkages of the engine to a rotating crankshaft, which is the output of the engine. The crankshaft, in turn, is connected to a transmission and/or power train to transmit the rotating mechanical energy to the desired final use. For engines this will often be the propulsion of a vehicle (i.e., automobile, truck, locomotive, marine vessel, or airplane). Other applications include stationary engines to drive generators or pumps, and portable engines for things like chain saws and lawn mowers. Most internal combustion engines are reciprocating engines having pistons that reciprocate back and forth in cylinders internally within the engine. Other engines include steam engines and gas turbine engines, which are better classified as external combustion engines (i.e., combustion takes place outside the mechanical engine system). Reciprocating engines can have one cylinder or many, up to 20 or more. The cylinders can be arranged in many different geometric configurations. Sizes range from small model airplane engines with power output on the order of 100 watts to large multi-cylinder stationary engines that produce thousands of kilowatts per cylinder. 1.1 /ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS Internal combustion engines can be classified in a number of different ways: 1. Types of Ignition (a) Spark Ignition Engine (SIE). An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use of a spark plug. The spark plug gives a high-voltage electrical discharge between two electrodes which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber surrounding the plug. In the suction stroke, a mixture of air and fuel is introduced in the cylinder. (b) Compression Ignition Engine (CIE). The combustion process in a CI engine starts when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high compression. In the suction stroke, air only is introduced in the cylinder. As thus, CIE has neither a carburetor nor a spark plunger. 2. Engine Cycle (a) Four-Stroke Cycle. A four-stroke cycle experiences four piston movements over two engine revolutions for each cycle. (b) Two-Stroke Cycle. A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one revolution for each cycle. 3. Valve Location (see Fig. 1.1) (a) Valves in head (overhead valve), also called I Head engine. 1

(b) Valves in block (flat head), also called L Head engine. Some historic engines with valves in block had the intake valve on one side of the cylinder and the exhaust valve on the other side. These were called T Head engines. (c) One valve in head (usually intake) and one in block, also called F Head engine; this is much less common. Figure 1-1 Engine Classification by Valve Location. (a) Valve in block, L head. Older automobiles and some small engines. (b) Valve in head, I head. Standard on modern automobiles. (c) One valve in head and one valve in block, F head. Older, less common automobiles. (d) Valves in block on opposite sides of cylinder, T head.

4. Basic Design (a) Reciprocating. Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back and forth. The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each cylinder. Power is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the pistons. (b) Rotary. Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric rotor and crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the nonrotating block. 5. Position and Number of Cylinders of Reciprocating Engines (Fig. 1.2): . They can consist of 2 to 11 cylinders or possibly more. In-line four-cylinder engines are very common for automobile and other applications. In-line six and eight cylinders are historically common automobile engines. In-line (a) Single Cylinder. Engine has one cylinder and piston connected to the crankshaft. (b) In-Line. Cylinders are positioned in a straight line, one behind the other along the length of the crankshaft engines are sometimes called straight (e.g., straight six or straight eight). (c) V Engine. Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other along a single crankshaft. The angle between the banks of cylinders can be anywhere from 15 to 120, with 60-90 being common. V engines have even numbers of cylinders from 2 to 20 or more. V6s and V8s are common automobile engines, with V12s and V16s (historic) found in some luxury and high-performance vehicles. (d) Opposed Cylinder Engine. Two banks of cylinders opposite each other on a single crankshaft (a V engine with a 180V). These are common on small aircraft and some automobiles with an even number of cylinders from two to eight or more. These engines are often called flat engines (e.g., flat four). (e) W Engine. Same as a V engine except with three banks of cylinders on the same crankshaft. Not common, but some have been developed for racing automobiles, 2

both modern and historic. Usually 12 cylinders with about a 60 angle between each
bank.

(f) Opposed Piston Engine. Two pistons in each cylinder with the combustion chamber in the center between the pistons. A single-combustion process causes two power strokes at the same time, with each piston being pushed away from the center and delivering power to a separate crankshaft at each end of the cylinder. Engine output is either on two rotating crankshafts or on one crankshaft incorporating complex mechanical linkage. (g) Radial Engine. Engine with pistons positioned in a circular plane around the central crankshaft. The connecting rods of the pistons are connected to a master rod which, in turn, is connected to the crankshaft. A bank of cylinders on a radial engine always has an odd number of cylinders ranging from 3 to 13 or more. Operating on a fourstroke cycle, every other cylinder fires and has a power stroke as the crankshaft rotates, giving a smooth operation. Many medium- and large-size propeller-driven aircraft use radial engines. For large aircraft, two or more banks of cylinders are mounted together, one behind the other on a single crankshaft, making one powerful, smooth engine. Very large ship engines exist with up to 54 cylinders, six banks of 9 cylinders each.

Fig. 1.2: Engine Classifications by cylinder arrangement (a) Single Cylinder (b) In-Line or straight (c) V Engine. (d) Opposed Cylinder Engine (e) W Engine (f) Opposed Piston Engine (g) Radial Engine

6. Air Intake Process (a) Naturally Aspirated. No intake air pressure boost system. (b) Supercharged. Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven off of the engine crankshaft. (c) Turbocharged. Intake air pressure increased with the turbine-compressor driven by the engine exhaust gases. 3

(d) Crankcase Compressed. Two-stroke cycle engine which uses the crankcase as the intake air compressor. Limited development work has also been done on design and construction of four-stroke cycle engines with crankcase compression. 7. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines (a) Carbureted. (b) Multipoint Port Fuel Injection. One or more injectors at each cylinder intake. (c) Throttle Body Fuel Injection. Injectors upstream in intake manifold. 8. Fuel Used (a) Gasoline. (b) Diesel Oil or Fuel Oil. (c) Gas, Natural Gas, Methane. (d) liquid petroleum gas (LPG). (e) Alcohol-Ethyl, Methyl. (f) Dual Fuel. There are a number of engines that use a combination of two or more fuels. Some, usually large, CI engines use a combination of methane and diesel fuel. These are attractive in developing third-world countries because of the high cost of diesel fuel. Combined gasoline-alcohol fuels are becoming more common as an alternative to straight gasoline automobile engine fuel. (g) Gasohol. Common fuel consisting of 90% gasoline and 10% alcohol. 9. Application (a) Automobile, Truck, Bus. (b) Locomotive (a boiler and a steam engine similar to railroad cars). (c) Stationary. (d) Marine. (e) Aircraft. (f) Small Portable, Chain Saw, Model Airplane. 10. Type of Cooling (a) Air Cooled. (b) Liquid Cooled, Water Cooled. Several or all of these classifications can be used at the same time to identify a given engine. Thus, a modern engine might be called a turbocharged, reciprocating, spark ignition, four-stroke cycle, overhead valve, water-cooled, gasoline, multipoint fuelinjected, V8 automobile engine. 1.2 THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF ENGINES If an engine is to work successfully then it has to follow a cycle of operations in a sequential manner. The sequence is quite rigid and cannot be changed. In the following sections the working principle of both SI and CI engines is described. Even though both engines have much in common there are certain fundamental difference.

1.2.1 Four-Stroke Spark Ignition Engine In a four stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four strokes of the piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft. The idealized cycle of operation is the Otto Cycle where combustion takes place nearly at constant volume. During the four strokes, there are five events to be completed, viz., suction, compression, combustion, expansion and exhaust. The cycle of operation for an ideal four stroke SI engine consists of the following four strokes: (i) Suction or intake stroke (ii) Compression stroke (iii) Expansion or power stroke (iv) Exhaust stroke The ideal indicator diagram, showing the p-V plot for the four stroke SI engine is shown in Fig .1.3a. (i) Suction or intake stroke or intake Stroke: it starts when the piston is at the top dead centre and about to move downwards. The inlet valve is open at this time and the exhaust valve is closed. The fresh charge is a mixture of fuel and air (premixed). (ii) Compression stroke: The charge taken into the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed by the return stroke of the piston. During this stroke both inlet and exhaust valves are in the closed position. The mixture which fills the entire cylinder volume is now compressed into the clearance volume. At the end of the compression stroke the mixture is ignited with the help of an electric spark between the electrodes (12-35 kV). Often the ignition and combustion process begins before the completion of the compression stroke. The number of crank angle degrees before the piston reaches TDC on the number one piston at which the spark occurs is called the engine timing. (iii) Expansion or power Stroke: The high pressure of the burnt gases forces the piston towards the BDC, with both the inlet and exhaust valves remaining closed. Thus, power is obtained during this stroke. (iv) Exhaust Stroke: At the end of the expansion stroke the exhaust valve opens and the inlet valve remains closed. The pressure falls to atmospheric level as a part of the burnt gases escape. The piston moves from the bottom dead centre to top dead centre and sweeps the burnt gases out from the cylinder almost at atmospheric pressure. 1.2.2 Four Stroke Compression ignition Engine The four stroke CI engine is similar to the four stroke SI engine but it operates at a much higher compression ratio. The compression ratio of an SI engine varies from 6 to 10 while for a CI engine it is from 16 to 20 to ensure auto-ignition of the fuel when injected into the hot air.. Idealized cycle is the dual (limited pressur) cycle. Only low-speed CIEs run on the diesel cycle. The ideal sequence of operations for the four stroke CI engine is as follows: (v) Suction Stroke: Air alone is inducted during the suction stroke. During this stroke intake valve is open and exhaust valve is closed. (vi) Compression Stroke: Air inducted during the suction stroke is compressed into the clearance volume. Both valves remain closed during this stroke. By the end of compression stroke, the pressure is around 30 bar or higher. 5

(vii)

Expansion stroke: fuel injection starts nearly at the end of the compression stroke. Fuel injection pressures ranging between 80 600 bar are used to ensure good atomization of fuel and fast evaporation and mixing of fuel vapor and air. The temperature of the compressed air is higher than the self ignition temperature of the fuel. As thus any atomized fuel enters the cylinder gets ignited. ICE has neither a carburetor nor a spark plug. The rate of injection is such that the combustion maintains the pressure constant in spite of the piston movement on its expansion stroke in creasing the volume. Both the valves remain closed during the expansion stroke. (viii) Exhaust stroke: The piston traveling from BDC to TDC pushes out the products of combustion. The exhaust valve is open and the intake valve is closed during this stroke. 1.2.3 Comparison of SI and CI Engines (Table 1): In four stroke engines, there is one power stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. There are two non productive strokes of exhaust and suction which are necessary for flushing the products of combustion from the cylinder and filling it with the fresh charge. If this purpose could be served by an alternative arrangement, without the movement of the piston, it is possible to obtain a power stroke for every revolution of the crankshaft increasing the output of the engine. However, in both SI and CI engines operating on four stroke cycle, power can be obtained only in every tow revolution of the crankshaft. The main differences between the gasoline engine and the Diesel engine are:

A gasoline engine intakes a mixture of gas and air, compresses it and ignites the mixture with a spark. A Diesel engine takes in just air, compresses it and then injects fuel into the compressed air. The heat of the compressed air lights the fuel spontaneously. A Diesel engine uses a much higher compression ratio than a gasoline engine. A gasoline engine compresses at a ratio of 8:1 to 12:1, while a Diesel engine compresses at a ratio of 14:1 to as high as 25:1. The higher compression ratio leads to better efficiency. Diesel engines use direct fuel injection, in which the Diesel fuel is injected directly into the cylinder. Gasoline engines generally use either carburetion, where the air and fuel is mixed long before the air enters the cylinder, or port fuel injection in which the fuel is injected just prior to the intake valve (outside the cylinder).

Table (1) Comparison between SIE and CIE Description SI Engine CI Engine Basic cycle Otto cycle Diesel cycle Fuel Gasoline, a highly volatile Diesel oil, a non- volatile fuel. Selffuel. Self-Ignition temperature Ignition temperature is comparatively is high low. Introduction of fuel A gaseous mixture of fuel and Fuel is injected directly into the air is introduced during the combustion chamber at high pressure suction stroke. at the end of the compression stroke. 6

Load control

Throttle controls the quantity Te quantity of fuel is regulated in the of mixture introduced pump. Air quantity is not controlled. Ignition Requires an ignition system Self-ignition occurs due to the high with the spark plug in the temperature of air because of the high combustion chamber. Primary compression. Ignition system and voltage is provided by a spark plug are not necessary. battery or a magneto Compression ratio 6 to 11. upper limit is fixed by 16 to 20. upper limit is limited by (CR) antiknock quality of the fuel weight increase of the engine. Speed Due to the light weight and Due to heavy weight and also due to also do to homogenous heterogeneous combustion, they are combustion, they are high low speed engines. speed engines. Thermal efficiency Lowe because of lower CR Higher because of higher CR Weight Lighter due to lower peak pressures. Heavier due to higher peak pressure

1.2.4 Actual Engines Actual engines differ from the ideal engines because of various constraints in their operation. The indicator diagram also differs considerably from the ideal indicator diagrams. The details of the actual indicator diagrams for the four stroke and the two stroke SI engines are given in Fig .1.3b.

Fig. 1.3 P-v diagrams and schematic of 4 stroke SIE 1.2.5 Two-stroke Engine There is a third type of engine, known as a two-stroke engine, that is commonly found in lower-power applications. Two-stroke engines have two important advantages over four7

stroke engines. First, 2-stroke engines do not have valves which simplifies their construction. Second, 2-stroke engines fire once every revolution (4-stroke engines fire once every other revolution). This gives two-stroke engines a significant power boost. Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle 1. Combustion With the piston at TDC combustion occurs very quickly, raising the temperature and pressure to peak values, almost at constant volume. 2. First Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke Very high pressure created by the combustion process forces the piston down in the power stroke. The expanding volume of the combustion chamber causes pressure and temperature to decrease as the piston travels towards BDC. 3. Exhaust Blowdown At about 75 bBDC, the exhaust valve opens and blowdown occurs. The exhaust valve may be a poppet valve in the cylinder head, or it may be a slot in the side of the cylinder which is uncovered as the piston approaches BDC. After blowdown the cylinder remains filled with exhaust gas at lower pressure. 4. Intake and Scavenging When blowdown is nearly complete, at about 50 bBDC, the intake slot on the side of the cylinder is uncovered and intake air-fuel enters under pressure. Fuel is added to the air with either a carburetor or fuel injection. This incoming mixture pushes much of the remaining exhaust gases out the open exhaust valve and fills the cylinder with a combustible air-fuel mixture, a process called scavenging. The piston passes BDC and very quickly covers the intake port and then the exhaust port (or the exhaust valve closes). The higher pres sure at which the air enters the cylinder is established in one of two ways. Large two stroke cycle engines generally have a supercharger, while small engines will intake the air through the crankcase. On these engines the crankcase is designed to serve as a compressor in addition to serving its normal function. 5. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke With all valves (or ports) closed, the piston travels towards TDC and compresses the air-fuel mixture to a higher pressure and temperature. Near the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired; by the time the piston gets to IDC, combustion occurs and the next engine cycle begins.

Fig. 1.4: Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle with crankcase compression a) power or expansion stroke b)Exhaust blowdown c) Cylinder scavenging d)Compression stroke e) Combustion

Scavenging types of Two-stroke Engine: As can be seen in Fig. 1.5, there are different ways to scavenge two- stroke engine. 8

Fig. 1.5: Scavenging types of two stroke engine

Advantages of the Two-stroke Engine These two advantages make two-stroke engines lighter, simpler and less expensive to manufacture. They also have the potential to pack about twice the power into the same space because there are twice as many power strokes per revolution. The combination gives two-stroke engines a great power-to-weight ratio. Disadvantages of the Two-stroke Engine

Two-stroke engines don't last nearly as long as four-stroke engines. The lack of a dedicated lubrication system means that the parts of a two-stroke engine wear a lot faster. Two-stroke oil is expensive, and you need about 4 ounces of it per gallon of gas. You would burn about a gallon of oil every 1,000 miles if you used a two-stroke engine in a car. Two-stroke engines do not use fuel efficiently, so you would get fewer miles per gallon. Two-stroke engines produce a lot of pollution. So much, in fact, that it is likely that you won't see them around too much longer.

Table 2: Comparison of Four-stroke and Two-stroke cycle engines Four-stroke Two-stroke The thermodynamic cycle is completed The thermodynamic cycle is completed in two in four strokes of the piston or in two strokes of the piston or in one revolutions of the revolutions of the crank shaft. Thus, crank shaft. Thus, one power stroke is obtained in one power stroke is obtained in every each revolution of the crankshaft. two revolutions of the crankshaft. Because of the above, turning moment Because of the above, turning moment is more is not so uniform and hence a heavier uniform and hence a lighter flywheel can be used. flywheel is needed. Again, because of one power stroke for Because of one power stroke for every revolution, two revolutions, power produced for power produced for same size of engine is more same size of engine is less, or for the ( theoretically twice; actually 1.3 times), or for the same power the engine is heavier and same power the engine is lighter and more 9

bulkier. Because of one power stroke in two revolutions lesser cooling and lubrication requirements. Lower rate of wear and tear. The 4-stroke engine contains valves and valve actuating mechanisms to open and close the valves. Because of the heavy weight and complicated valve mechanism, the initial cost of the engine is more. Thermal efficiency is higher; part load efficiency is better than 2-stroke cycle engine Used where efficiency is important, viz., in cars, buses, trucks, industrial engine, aero planes, power generation, etc

compact. Because of one power stroke in one revolution grater cooling and lubrication requirements. Higher rate of wear and tear. s-stroke engine have no valves but only ports( some 2-stroke engine are fitted with conventional exhaust valve ). Because of the light weight and simplicity due to the absence of valve mechanism, initial cost of the engine is less. Thermal efficiency is lower; part load efficiency is poor compared to the 4-stroke cycle engine Used where low cost, compactness and light weight are important, viz., in scooters, motorcycles, lawn mowers, marine outboard engines, etc

1.3

Parts of an Engine Cylinder (Fig. 16):

The core of the engine is the cylinder. The piston moves up and down inside the cylinder. The engine described here has one cylinder. That is typical of most lawn mowers, but most cars have more than one cylinder (four, six and eight cylinders are common).

Fig. 16: Engine parts

Spark plug The spark plug supplies the spark that ignites the air/fuel mixture so that combustion can occur. The spark must happen at just the right moment for things to work properly. 10

Valves The intake and exhaust valves open at the proper time to let in air and fuel and to let out exhaust. Note that both valves are closed during compression and combustion so that the combustion chamber is sealed. Piston A piston is a cylindrical piece of metal that moves up and down inside the cylinder. Piston rings Piston rings provide a sliding seal between the outer edge of the piston and the inner edge of the cylinder. The rings serve two purposes:

They prevent the fuel/air mixture and exhaust in the combustion chamber from leaking into the sump during compression and combustion. They keep oil in the sump from leaking into the combustion area, where it would be burned and lost.

Most cars that "burn oil" and have to have a quart added every 1,000 miles are burning it because the engine is old and the rings no longer seal things properly. Combustion chamber The combustion chamber is the area where compression and combustion take place. As the piston moves up and down, you can see that the size of the combustion chamber changes. It has some maximum volume as well as a minimum volume. The difference between the maximum and minimum is called the displacement and is measured in liters or CCs (Cubic Centimeters, where 1,000 cubic centimeters equals a liter). So if you have a 4cylinder engine and each cylinder displaces half a liter, then the entire engine is a "2.0 liter engine." If each cylinder displaces half a liter and there are six cylinders arranged in a V configuration, you have a "3.0 liter V-6." Generally, the displacement tells you something about how much power an engine has. A cylinder that displaces half a liter can hold twice as much fuel/air mixture as a cylinder that displaces a quarter of a liter, and therefore you would expect about twice as much power from the larger cylinder (if everything else is equal). So a 2.0 liter engine is roughly half as powerful as a 4.0 liter engine. You can get more displacement either by increasing the number of cylinders or by making the combustion chambers of all the cylinders bigger (or both). Connecting rod The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. It can rotate at both ends so that its angle can change as the piston moves and the crankshaft rotates. Crank shaft The crank shaft turns the piston's up and down motion into circular motion just like a crank on a jack-in-the-box does. Sump The sump surrounds the crankshaft. It contains some amount of oil, which collects in the bottom of the sump (the oil pan).

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1.4 Terminology for Reciprocating Devices

The following is some terminology we need to understand for reciprocating engines. Direct Injection (DI): Fuel injection into the main combustion chamber of an engine. Engines have either one main combustion chamber (open chamber) or a divided combustion chamber made up of a main chamber and a smaller connected secondary chamber. Indirect Injection (IDI) Fuel injection into the secondary chamber of an engine with a divided combustion chamber. Smart Engine Engine with computer controls that regulate operating characteristics such as air-fuel ratio, ignition timing, valve timing, exhaust control, intake tuning, etc. Computer inputs come from electronic, mechanical, thermal, and chemical sensors located throughout the engine. Computers in some automobiles are even programmed to adjust engine operation for things like valve wear and combustion chamber deposit buildup as the engine ages. In automobiles the same computers are used to make smart cars by controlling the steering, brakes, exhaust system, suspension, seats, anti-theft systems, sound-entertainment systems, shifting, doors, repair analysis, navigation, noise suppression, environment, comfort, etc. On some systems engine speed is adjusted at the instant when the transmission shifts gears, resulting in a smoother shifting process. At least one automobile model even adjusts this process for transmission fluid temperature to assure smooth shifting at cold startup. Engine Management System (EMS) Computer and electronics used to control WideOpen Throttle (WOT) Engine operated with throttle valve fully open when maximum power and/or speed is desired.

1.5 Engine Subsystems

Most modern engines have what are called overhead cams. This means that the cam shaft is located above the valves. The cams on the shaft activate the valves directly or through a very short linkage. Older engines used a cam shaft located in the sump near the crankshaft. Rods linked the cam below to valve lifters above the valves. This approach has more moving parts and also causes more lag between the cam's activation of the valve and the valve's subsequent motion. A timing belt or timing chain links the crankshaft to the cam shaft so that the valves are in sync with the pistons. The cam shaft is geared to turn at onehalf the rate of the crankshaft. Many high-performance engines have four valves per cylinder (two for intake, two for exhaust), and this arrangement requires two cam shafts per bank of cylinders, hence the phrase "dual overhead cams."

Ignition system (Fig. 1.7)

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The ignition system produces a high-voltage electrical charge and transmits it to the spark plugs via ignition wires. The charge first flows to a distributor, which you can easily find under the hood of most cars. The distributor has one wire going in the center and four, six, or eight wires (depending on the number of cylinders) coming out of it. These ignition wires send the charge to each spark plug. The engine is timed so that only one cylinder receives a spark from the distributor at a time. This approach provides maximum smoothness.

Figure1.7. The ignition system

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Cooling system (Fig. 1.8) The cooling system in most cars consists of the radiator and water pump. Water circulates through passages around the cylinders and then travels through the radiator to cool it off. In a few cars (most notably Volkswagen Beetles), as well as most motorcycles and lawn mowers, the engine is air-cooled instead (You can tell an air-cooled engine by the fins adorning the outside of each cylinder to help dissipate heat). Air-cooling makes the engine lighter but hotter, generally decreasing engine life and overall performance.

Fig. 1.8 diagram of a cooling system showing how all the plumbing is connected.

Air intake system Most cars are normally aspirated, which means that air flows through an air filter and directly into the cylinders. High-performance engines are either turbo charged or super charged (Fig. 1.9), which means that air coming into the engine is first pressurized (so that more air/fuel mixture can be squeezed into each cylinder) to increase performance. The amount of pressurization is called boost. A turbo charger uses a small turbine attached to the exhaust pipe to spin a compressing turbine in the incoming air stream. A super charger is attached directly to the engine to spin the compressor.

Fig.1.9 turbocharger

Starting system The starting system consists of an electric starter motor and a starter solenoid. When you turn the ignition key, the starter motor spins the engine a few revolutions so that the combustion process can start. It takes a powerful motor to spin a cold engine. The starter motor must overcome:

All of the internal friction caused by the piston rings, valves and cam shaft. The compression pressure of any cylinder(s) that happens to be in the compression stroke. 14

All of the "other" things directly attached to the engine, like the water pump, oil pump, alternator, etc.

Because so much energy is needed and because a car uses a 12-volt electrical system, hundreds of amps of electricity must flow into the starter motor. The start solenoid is essentially a large electronic switch that can handle that much current. When you turn the ignition key, it activates the solenoid to power the motor. Lubrication system The lubrication system makes sure that every moving part in the engine gets oil so that it can move easily. The two main parts needing oil are the pistons (so they can slide easily in their cylinders) and any bearings that allow things like the crankshaft and cam shafts to rotate freely. In most cars oil is sucked out of the oil pan by the oil pump, run through the oil filter to remove any grit, and then squirted under high pressure onto bearings and the cylinder walls. The oil then trickles down into the sump, where it is collected again and the cycle repeats. Fuel system The fuel system pumps gas from the gas tank and mixes it with air so that the proper air/fuel mixture can flow into the cylinders. Fuel is delivered in three common ways: carburetion, port fuel injection and direct fuel injection.

In carburetion a device called a carburetor mixes gas into air as the air flows into the engine. In a fuel injected engine the right amount of fuel is injected individually into each cylinder either right above the intake valve (port fuel injection) or directly into the cylinder (direct fuel injection).

Exhaust system The exhaust system includes the exhaust pipe and the muffler. Without a muffler what you would hear is the sound of thousands of small explosions coming out your tailpipe. A muffler dampens the sound. The exhaust system also includes a catalytic converter. Emission control system The emission control system in modern cars consists of a catalytic converter, a collection of sensors and actuators, and a computer to monitor and adjust everything. For example, the catalytic converter uses a catalyst and oxygen to burn off any unused fuel and certain other chemicals in the exhaust. An oxygen sensor in the exhaust stream makes sure there is enough oxygen available for the catalyst to work and adjusts things if necessary. Electrical system The electrical system consists of a battery and an alternator. The alternator is connected to the engine by a belt and generates electricity to recharge the battery. The battery makes 12-volt power available to everything in the car needing electricity (the ignition system, radio, headlights, windshield wipers, power windows and seats, computers, etc.) through the vehicle's wiring.

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1.6 Gas turbine

Operation: A gas turbine is an extension on the same concept. In a gas turbine a pressurized gas spins the turbine. In all modern gas turbine engines the engine produces its own pressurized gas, and it does this by burning something like propane, natural gas, kerosene or jet fuel. The heat that comes from burning the fuel expands air, and the high-speed rush of this hot air spins the turbine. They have 3 parts:

A compressor to compress the incoming air to high pressure. A combustion area to burn the fuel and produce high pressure, high velocity gas. A turbine to extract the energy from the high pressure, high velocity gas flowing from the combustion chamber.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Engines there are two big advantages 1. Gas turbine engines have a great power-to-weight ratio compared to reciprocating engines. That is, the amount of power you get out of the engine compared to the weight of the engine itself is very good. 2. Gas turbine engines are also smaller than their reciprocating counterparts of the same power. The main disadvantage of gas turbines is that, compared to a reciprocating engine of the same size, they are expensive & use more fuel. Terminology for Reciprocating Devices The following is some terminology we need to understand for reciprocating engines typically piston-cylinder devices. Lets look at the following figures for the definitions of top dead center (TDC), bottom dead center (BDC), stroke, bore, intake valve, exhaust valve, clearance volume, displacement volume, compression ratio, and mean effective pressure.

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'-7 Engine Emissions and Air Pollution

The exhaust of automobiles is one of the major contributors to the world's air pollution problem. Recent research and development has made major reductions in engine emissions, but a growing population and a greater number of automobiles means that the problem will exist for many years to come. During the first half of the 1900s, automobile emissions were not recognized as a problem, mainly due to the lower number of vehicles. As the number of automobiles grew along with more power plants, home furnaces, and population in general, air pollution became an ever-increasing problem. During the 1940s, the problem was first seen in the Los Angeles area due to the high density of people and automobiles, as well as unique weather conditions. By the 1970s, air pollution was recognized as a major problem in most cities of the United States as well as in many large urban areas around the world. Although harmful emissions produced by engines have been reduced by over 90% since the 1940s, they are stilI a major environmental problem. Four major emissions produced by internal combustion engines are hydrocarbons (He), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), and solid particulates. Hydrocarbons are fuel molecules which did not get burned and smaller nonequilibrium particles of partially burned fuel. Carbon monoxide occurs when not enough oxygen is present to fully react all carbon to CO2 or when incomplete air-fuel mixing occurs due to the very short engine cycle time. Oxides of nitrogen are created in an engine when high combustion temperatures cause some normally stable N2 to dissociate into monatomic nitrogen N, which then combines with reacting oxygen. Solid particulates are formed in compression ignition engines and are seen as black smoke in the exhaust of these engines. Other emissions found in the exhaust of engines include aldehydes, sulfur, lead, and phosphorus. Two methods are being used to reduce harmful engine emissions. One is to improve the technology of engines and fuels so that better combustion Occurs and fewer emissions are generated. The second method is aftertreatment of the exhaust gases. This is done by using thermal converters or catalytic converters that promote chemical reactions in the exhaust flow. These chemical reactions convert the harmful emissions to acceptable CO2, H20, and N2

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Example 1: A four-cylinder, four-stroke, spark-ignition engine has a bore of 80 mm and stroke of 80 mm. The compression ratio is 8. Calculate the cubic capacity of the engine and the ?clearance volume of each cylinder. What type of engine is this

Solution:

Swept volume, VS =

2 d L = 82 8 4 4 = 402.1 cc

Cubic capacity of the engine = Number of cylinders V8 = 4 x 402.1 = 1608.4 cc

Compression ratio, r =

V S + VC V = 1+ S VC VC

1 Clearance volume, Vc = V s r 1 1 = 402.1 8 1 = 57.4 cc

Since the bore and stroke are equal the engine is called a square engine.

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PROBLEMS 1-1. List five differences between SI engines and CI engines. 1-2. A four-stroke cycle engine may or may not have a pressure boost (supercharger, turbocharger) in the intake system. Why must a two-stroke cycle engine always have an intake pressure boost? 1-3. List two advantages of a two-stroke cycle engine over a four-stroke cycle engine. List two advantages of a four-stroke cycle engine over a two-stroke cycle engine. 1-4. (a) Why do most very small engines operate on a two-stroke cycle? (b) Why do most very large engines operate on a two-stroke cycle? (c) Why do most automobile engines operate on a four-stroke cycle? (d) Why would it be desirable to operate automobile engines on a two-stroke cycle? 1.5. Describe the major functions of the following reciprocating engine components: piston, connecting rod, crankshaft, cams and camshaft, valves, intake and exhaust manifolds. 1.6. Indicate the approximate crank angle at which the following events in the four-stroke and two-stroke internal combustion engine cycles occur on a line representing the full cycle (7200 for the four-stroke cycle; 360' for the two-stroke cycle): bottom- and topcenter crank positions, inlet and exhaust valve or port opening and closing, start of combustion process, end of combustion process, maximum cylinder pressure. 1.7. The two-stroke cycle has twice as many power strokes per crank revolution as the ourstroke cycle. However, two-stroke cycle engine power outputs per unit displaced volume are less than twice the power output of an equivalent four-stroke cycle engine at the same engine speed. Suggest reasons why this potential advantage of the two stroke cycle is offset in practice. 1.8. Suggest reasons why multi cylinder engines prove more attractive than single-cylinder engines once the total engine displaced volume exceeds a few hundred cubic centimeters.

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