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2011, Wagner Corradi; Rodrigo Dias Trsia; Leonardo Fonseca; Maria Carolina Nemes; Wanderson Silva
de Oliveira; Karla Balzuweit
2011, Editora UFMG
www.editora.ufmg.br
editora@ufmg.br
educacaoadistancia@ufmg.br
Este livro ou parte dele no pode ser reproduzido por qualquer meio sem a autorizao escrita do Editor.
Fundamentos de Fsica I / Wagner Corradi ...[et al.]

- Belo Horizonte ; Editora UFMG, 2011
p. Il (Educao a Distncia)
Inclui referncias.
ISBN:
1. Fsica. 2. Eletricidade. 3. Eletromagnetismo
I. Corradi, Wagner II. Srie.
CDD:
CDU:
Elaborada pela DITTI Setor de Tratamento da Informao
Biblioteca Universitria da UFMG
Este livro recebeu o apoio financeiro da Secretaria de Educao a Distncia do MEC.
ASSISTNCIA EDITORIAL Eliane Sousa e Eucldia Macedo

EDITORAO DE TEXTO Maria do Carmo Leite Ribeiro
PREPARAO DE TEXTO Michel Gannam
REVISO DE PROVAS
FORMATAO
PROJETO GRFICO E CAPA Eduardo Ferreira
PRODUO GRFICA Warren Marilac
EDITORA UFMG
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www..ufmg.br info@prograd.ufmg.br
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= u/y P 5#%-+*'0%#12*# cos" = y P / u 2 + y P2 #6#$%%&'(##
I1 =
x0 + L
x0
( x P ! x #) dx #
=
[( x P ! x #) 2 + y P2 ]3/2
u2
u1
! u du
1
"
=
cos " |" 2 ,
1
(u 2 + y P2 ) 3/2 y P
#
x0 + L
x0
( x P ! x #) dx #
==
[( x P ! x #) 2 + y P2 ]3/2
'
1
[cos" 2 ! cos "1 ] = %
yP
%
&
u2
u1
! u du
1
"
=
cos " |" 2 ,
1
(u 2 + y P2 ) 3/2 y P
#
1
2
[( x0 + L) ! x P ]
+y
2
P
$
".
( x 0 ! x P ) + y "#
#
1
2
P
E.3<0#0#!"#$%&'()*+,-'%#.'!'*'#*/)0.)-"-&"#*()*/'0.)*"%1&!,/)*.0%#/A2#
E%%-# &.3*7,-8# 90/*# %*,# :-8:28-/-# :0'# 2'-# 3-+*8-# /*# &.3*7,-&%# 02# %*72&./0# 0%# 9-%%0%#
&./&:-/0%#-#%*72&,6##
!"#
!F#
Ex =
1
1
$ &$
!
4# " 0 $ [( x + L) ! x ]2 + y 2
( x 0 ! x P ) 2 + y P2
0
P
P
%
;2<=><.-"?>@2A.-1-"1-<"-./0/1-12<"=;>=><.-<"
#
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!
"
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$%#
;#$*$+$(,2#4'<$1$(/')*#4$#/)+32#9$1)4)#3$*)6#40)6#+$,)4$6#7%##
$ &$
Ey =
4# " 0 y P $
%
#
!.
!
2
2
2 !
2
[x P ! ( x0 + L)] + y P ( x0 ! x P ) + y P " #
x P ! ( x0 + L)
x0 ! x P
!
dE dq =
$1dx '
1
i
4# " 0 ( x P ! x ') 2
0 & x & L/2
!
dE dq =
$ 2 dx'
1
i
4# " 0 ( x P ! x ') 2
L/2 & x & L/2. #
$
&'()*+$(,$-#!"#$%&!"'()*+,#!")%##
&
$ ,*
E Geral ( x P , y P ) = $
$ 4# " 0 *
+
%
&
$ ,*
+$
$ 4# " 0 y P *
+
%
[( x0 + L) ! x P ]2 + y P2
x P ! ( x 0 + L)
[x P ! ( x0 + L)]2 + y P2
)#
'! i
( x 0 ! x P ) 2 + y P2 '(!"
#=(,$91)(42#62>1$#,24)#)#>)11)#,$+26%#
!
E=
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'! j. "
( x0 ! x P ) 2 + y P2 '(!
"
x0 ! x P
1 L/2 $1 dx '
1 L $ 2 dx '
i+
i#
4# " 0 -0 ( x P ! x ') 2
4# " 0 -L/2 ( x P ! x ') 2
#
?# '(,$91)*# 50$# )3)1$/$# ()# $@31$66A2# 324$# 6$1# /)*/0*)4)# <)B$(42# )# ,1)(6<21+)CA2# 4$#
D)1'ED$'6%#
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""-./0/1-12"345#
'(,$91)*#<'/)%##
.)*/0*)1#2#/)+32#4$#0+#6,!"7'%,8,96,9,*!#50$#6$#$6,$(4$#4$# x0 #),7# % 8#
u = x P ! x ' # ,)*# 50$# du = ! dx ' 8# F$/)*/0*)(42# 26# *'+',$6# 4$# '(,$91)CA2# )#
"
$1
4# " 0
u = x ! L/2
u !1 |u12= x P
P
$
u =x !L
i + 2 u !1 |u12= x P ! L/2 i, #
P
4# " 0
20%##
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.)*/0*)1#2#/)+32#9$1)42#321#0+#6,!",96,9,*!#$+#0+#32(,2# P( x P , y P ) 8#
!
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$
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L/2
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4# " 0 ( x P ! L/2)( x P ! L)
G24$+26#1$$6/1$D$1#)#1$6326,)#$+#,$1+26#4)6#/)19)6#,2,)'6# Q1
"
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Q2
1
1
i +
i. #
4# " 0 x P ( x P ! L/2)
4# " 0 ( x P ! L/2)( x P ! L)
>> L -#$(,A2#,$1$+26%##
!
E(
1 Q1 + Q2
i.#
4# " 0 x P2
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=662# (A2# )/2(,$/$# <21)# 4$66$# *'+',$-# 32'6# 2# ,)+)(J2# 4)# >)11)# D)'# ,$1# 2# 3)3$*# 4$#
K4$6>)*)(/$)1K# )6# /2(,1'>0'CL$6# 326','D)# $# ($9),'D)-# 0+)# D$B# 50$# 0+)# 4$*)6# $6,)1E#
+)'6#4'6,)(,$#4$# xP 8##
!"#
!:#
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A@/=#.&*-=,%+',#)*&#-/=6%6':#-'+'# x0 #B#/+#0K+*&'#0*4%)=F'1#F*+',#@/*:#
$%&%# '()*&+',# '# -%+.'# *+# /+# .'0)'#

*2*+.5'#789:##
P( x P , y p ) # (%,)%# )'+%&1# 0%# *2.&*,,3'# 4*&%5# 6'#
E = lim EGeral #
lim
L "!
;%#-'+.'0*0)*# x #,'(&%#%.*0%,#'#,*4/06'#)*&+'#*0)&*#.%&<0)*,*,1#'#.&=+*=&'#)*06*#%#
x0 "#!
( x0 # x P )
2
( x0 # x P ) + y
2
P
( x0 # x P )
= lim
x0 "#!
( x0 # x P )
>*&'8#?0)3':##
#
Ex =
&
1
i
4% $ 0 ( x0 # x P ) 2 + y P2
$%&%#-%5-/5%&# E y #0*,)*#5=+=)*1#0')*+',#@/*:##
L "!
1
2 yP /
-1 + 00
1 ( x0 # x P ) .
= 1, #
Ey =
&
4% $ 0 y P
[1 # ( #1)] = 2
&
4% $ 0 y P
&
.
2% $ 0 y P #
'
[( x0 + L) # x P ]
[( x0 + L) # x P ]
&
#
yP
1+ %
"
[
(
x
+
L
)
#
x
]
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P !
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#
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A,,=+1#'#-%+.'#*5B)&=-'#0%#6=&*C3'# y #.%&%#/+#D='#,*+=E=0D=0=)'#D=-%##
"
$M789I#O#-%+.'#*5B)&=-'#6*#/+#6=.'5'#*5B)&=-'#F%&=%#-'+# E dipolo '
#
#
'
[( x0 + L) # x P ] =
lim
[( x0 + L) # x P ]2 + y P2 L"!
x0 " #!
lim
= lim
.'=,#'#6*0'+=0%6'&#,*&L#.',=)=F'#0*,,*#5=+=)*8#$'&)%0)':##
( L " !).
2 yP /
-1 + 00
1 ( x0 # x P ) .
E fio semi#inf . =
2
/)
( x0 # x P )
& ,*
1
i + 01 #
! j -'
2
2
2
2
0
-'
4% $ 0 * ( x0 # x P ) + y P
( x0 # x P ) + y P
1
.(
+
1
. #S'-<#*,.*&%#@/*#
rP3
'#-%+.'#6*#/+#@/%6&/.'5'#F%&=*#-'+#.')<0-=%,#+%=,#%5)%,#6*# r P##
#
#
!"#$#%!%&'()+'
#
$%&%# '()*&# *,)*# &*,/5)%6'# 6*F*+',# D%>*&1# 0'# &*,/5)%6'# 6%# A)=F=6%6*# 789# '# 5=+=)*# 6*#
x0 " #! 8# $*5%# ,=+*)&=%# *0F'5F=6%# %4'&%# 0'# .&'(5*+%# GD%C%# /+# !"#"$%&1# ,*# 03'#
-'0,*4/=&#.*&-*(*&#=,)'HI#%#-'+.'0*0)*# E y #6'#-%+.'#,*#%0/5%1#.'=,:##
#
Ex ,! = lim
x0 "0
&
1
=0
4% $ 0 ( x0 # xP ) 2 + yP2
#
#
,
&
( x0 # x P )
*1 #
x0 "! 4% $ y *
( x0 # xP ) 2 + y P2
0 P +
E y , ! = lim
)
'
'(
#
!"#
!J#
P" 3&0'63$3&" *()/-45%61$" 3&" 1$%:$'" '&" %&3/D" Q" QLSCBQOQL! CGKLEMBNBOP! T!
!
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'&%"&J+%&''("3$'"'&:/605&'"+(%"
"
!
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1*-6/1>1'"0!-!-?,0-22"0!)2!-$-+-6/)2!*-!2#,-0>7'1-!-!*-!;)$#+-!!
""""E" dV ! =
dx dy dz "+$%$"NJJEQLSOQOC!NOEDLCBOSOC<"F6:/%$"K>H$I
""""E" dV ! =
$ d$ d# dz "+$%$"NJJEQLSOQOC!NBP\SQEBNOC<"F6:/%$"K>H,I
""""E" dV ! =
r 2 sin" dr d# d" "+$%$"NJJEQLSOQOC!LCM[EBNOC<"F6:/%$"K>H1>"
"
%@A!-$-+-6/)2!*-!2#,-0>7'1-!-!*-!;)$#+-!
"!QLSCBQOQL!ZJPGW[DEBNO!QL!NOEROC]!NÔWOQO!QL! $, !!BSQBNO!J!SVWLEJ!QL!
#$%$" %&'()*&%" +%(,)&-$'" ./&" &0*()*&-" (" 12)1/)(" 3(" 1$-+(" &)45%61(" 3&"
NOEROC!KJE!GSBQOQL!QL!ZJPGWL>
36'5%6,/678&'"1(0590/$'"3&"1$%:$"&-"3/$'"&"5%;'"36-&0'8&'<"4"6-+(%5$05&"1(0=&1&%"('"
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%&3/D"$("&)&-&05("3&"2%&$A
"
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1(-("6)/'5%$"$"F6:/%$"G>H$I
""""E" dA! =
r dr d" "+$%$"NJJEQLSOQOC!KJPOELC"B+(%"&J&-+)(<"&-"/-"36'1(<"
M6:/%$" K>HA" N)&-&05('" 3&" *()/-&A" B$C" 1((%3&0$3$'" 1$%5&'6$0$'<" B,C" 16)903%61$'" &" B1C"
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"
"
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"""""""""""""""""
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k.
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k
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x # '*# 0&-10+@.# =('4%# <-*#
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<&%=>?&@' Q*&)%# ()*&4(6(/0)%# 4%)%'# %'# *1*,*&4%'# *''*&/(0('# 0%# &%''%# /@1/-1%# &0#
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!
E ( x P = 0, y p = 0) = +
R!
!
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[sen($/3) & sen(&$/3)](&i), , #
sen " % &$/3 ( &i) = +
4$ # 0 R
4$ # 0 R 2
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#
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#
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4$ # 0 R
#############
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( r %dr %d" %
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z.
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&
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z.
( r ! 2 + z P2 ) 3/2 #
###########################
2# 345)60%78*# ),# $ ! # -*/)# 9)0# :)35%# 3,)/3%5%,)45)# )# /;# (,# :%5*0# 2# <# 2# 345)60%&# .#
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u = r ! 2 + z P2
1458*?#*#+%,-*#)&.503+*#4*#-*45*#935(%/*#N#/395O+3%###/*#+)450*#/*#%4)&#.=#
' du = 2 r !dr ! #
#
#
######################## E ( z P ) = ! dE =
r !d r !
1 R 2 + z 2 du
R2 + z2
= ! 2 P 3/2 = (u 1/2 | 2 P
2
2 3/2
zP
z
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U B $ U A = $WAB = $ 4,5"10-9 C 2,0"103 N/C (0,83) 2,0 "10$2 m 2 + 3,0 "10$2 m2
U B $ U A = $ 2,7 " 10 -7 J !
!
"#$%&'!()*!
8A! K%'5.-!
qo ! /4! .4/7-0'! .4! E! 6'&'! >! -! ,&'8'7:-! &4'7#;'.-! 647'! <-&2'! 479,&#0'! 9!
.'.-!6-&!
!"#$%&"'(
+'&'! ,-.-/! -/! 0'/-/! '! 1'&#'23-! .'! 454&$#'! 6-,450#'7! 45,&4! -/! 6-5,-/! '//#5'7'.-/!
6-.4! /4&! -8,#.'! ',&'19/! .-! ,&'8'7:-! &4'7#;'.-! 647'! <-&2'! 479,&#0'! '-! .4/7-0'&!
qo !
W BC = ! q o E ds
B
!
!
45,&4!-/!.-#/!6-5,-/)!+-&,'5,-=!
C
C
W BC = ! q o (2,0 " 10 3 N/C) j ds = qo (2,0 " 10 3 N/C) ! j ds !
B
B!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
W AB = ! Fe ds !
WBC = q o (2,0 " 10 3 N/C)! cos % ds !
>-?-! Fe = q o E @!
-5.4@! 6'&'! 4/,4! 0'/-@! % ! 9! -! H5$%7-! 45,&4! E ! 4! ds )! L.45,#<#G%4! 4//4! H5$%7-! 5'!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
W AB = ! q o E ds
A
<#$%&'!()*)!M4?8&4!G%4!9!/4?6&4!-!?45-&!H5$%7-!45,&4!-/!14,-&4/! E
'A!6'&'!'!,&'B4,C&#'!.4!D!6'&'!E@!
!
e ds . J5,3-=!
WBC = (4,5 " 10 -9 C)(2,0 " 10 3 N/C) cos % ! ds !

B
!!!!!!!!
W AB = ! q o (2,0 " 10 3 N/C) j ds !
B
W AB = q o (2,0 " 10 3 N/C) ! j ds !
W BC = $2,6 " 10 $7 J !
F8/4&14!',45,'?45,4!647'!<#$%&'!G%4! j ds = (ds )cos# , o5.4! # !9!-!H5$%7-!45,&4!

!
U C $ U B = $WBC = +2,6 " 10-5 J !

!
0A!F!14,-&! E !9!64&645.#0%7'&!'-!14,-&! ds !4?!G%'7G%4&!6-5,-!.'!,&'B4,C&#'!4!.4//4!
E !4! ds )!
!!!!!!!!! W AB
W BC = (4,5 " 10 -9 C) (2,0 " 10 3 N/C) cos 135 o 4,2 " 10 -2 m 2 !
?-.-! -! ,&'8'7:-! &4'7#;'.-! 647'! <-&2'! 479,&#0'! .4! D! 6'&'! >! 9! 5%7-)! J?! -%,&'/!
B
= q o (2,0 " 10 N/C)! cos# ds !

3
6'7'1&'/@!'!.#<4&452'!.4!454&$#'!6-,450#'7!479,&#0'!45,&4!>!4!D!9!5%7')!
W AB = (4,5 " 10 -9 C) (2,0 " 10 3 C) cos #
ds
W AC = ! q o E ds !
A
W AC = (4,5 " 10 -9 C) (2,0 " 10 3 N/C) cos &
I'/=!
158
ds !
159
#K="*&$"&"#",(>.&1%+"#/>.*<&+","9%!&)9.&"#",(>.&1%+"#/>.*&>#?>#>+.3&
"
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"
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W AC = (4,5 # 10 C) (2,0 # 10 N/C) cos 90

WAC
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ds &
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UC $U A = 0 &
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&
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48"91*%3'
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U P = $ q o ! E ds
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+&,-&'&'.&-+/,%!'&
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U A = 0 <& 1.,.& )9& 1%#+%& J&
-).*-)",&1%$"9%!&"!/,"=",6&
!
$ U A &"& WAB &!"& E = $2,0 # 10 $3 j N/C?&
()M'&,&.3#!'+/"&,4#!1'&1N".#4!'%&'%O!-'4!.3!-'+/,"O!#-'
J.,.& %@+",& .& "#",(>.& 1%+"#/>.*& "*D+,>/.& $"& )9& !>!+"9.& /%#!+>+)K$%& 1%,& )9.&
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&
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$>!+,>@)>C5%&$>!/,"+.&$"&/.,(.!&D&$.$%&1%,6&
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/A.9.$%& $"& (34&/" 5&'," #&" &(&'*$!" +,-&(.$!/3& 0!!>9<& .& $>?","#C.& $"& "#",(>.&
! ! !
r = r0 $ rQ
56789:;<785=8&>().*&N&"#",(>.&1%+"#/>.*&#%&1%#+%&J3&4#+5%6&
P"
"
U P $ 0 = $W AP = $ ! Fe ds
A
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/' 5>?8@' A89B' C8' 8589D:<' EB=85;:<@' F' 8G;B@H:CBI' D89<@785=8I' 5B' EB5=B'
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160
! !
r0 $ rQ
! ! &
r0 $ rQ
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r0 $ rQ
r = ! ! &
r0 $ rQ
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U P = $ qo ! E ds = $ qo
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1
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Q
r r dr &
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UP = $
Qqo 1
Qqo ' 1 1 $
$
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4%& o r '
4%& o & r ' #
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UP =
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Qqo
1 Qqo
1
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4"# o r0 ! rQ ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''()*+,
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q3 '.'9%6' q2 '.' q3 '3$%'6.39.:#8D1=."#.&'
qo '
U 13 =
! !
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q1 q3
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! !
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4"# o r3 ! r1' '''''''''''
4"# o r3 ! r2'
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U = U 12 + U 13 + U 23
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U 12
q 2 q3
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ri = $ *'
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r2 ! r1 ; 0=1'
q1 ' 9%6' 0=1' 483#>":81'
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qo = 6,0 C ' .' q1 = 4,0C ' .3#$%' "%'

9;1"%' NT' .' 9%330.=' :%%64."1413' (UFU'
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q1 = +e J( q2 = +5e J(
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= WAO + WOB 2"
W AB = 0 + 2,7 $ 10 %7 J "
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W AB = 2,7 $ 10 %7 J "
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C = 1,4F !
C "V + C 2 "V xz
Q
= 1 xz
, !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
"V xz
"V xz
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!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! C
= C1 + C 2 . !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!L<=>?M!
!!!!!!!!!N,6,!+,-,+./%6#&!3.;,9%&!#$!-,6,3#3%7!,!+,-,+./01+.,!9%!+,-,+./%6!#'(.2,3#1/#!
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)*+,(-(.!!/01.23/(45(6.7.848/(94(0.6.01:/74!(
4N4568/()*+,(
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4#=>( >&"( #?@AB">( B=( <AC=?DA( A( =>EAD=<( >$F<=E?B">( G( <=><A(

B?H=D=C%A(B=(I"E=C;?A#+((
!
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!/8O23/'(
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.9#1/.:.+,6!'(,.&!#&/8%!3.;,9%&!#$!&46.#!#!'(,.&!#&/8%!3.;,9%&!#$!-,6,3#3%>!C%!+,&%!
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,+.$,7!+%$!,!+Q,2#! S !,R#6/,7!2#$%&!.$#9.,/,$#1/#!'(#! C1 !#! C4 !#&/8%!#$!&46.#!#!
Q1
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! C1 =
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
"V xz
C2 !#! C3 !/,$R4$!#&/8%!#$!&46.#>!5&!+,-,+./%6#&!#'(.2,3#1/#&!,! C1 !#! C4 !#!,! C2 !#!

C 3 !#&/,68%!#$!-,6,3#3%>!J1/8%7!-6.$#.6%!-6#+.&,$%&!9,&!+,-,+./01+.,&!#'(.2,3#1/#&!
#!
224
225
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/'L#$8,$'"8%"$!+$F30+?*&$#(,'3+#$"?)+,"#.$
1
1
1
=
+
C1,4 C1 C 4
! C1,4 =
C1C 4
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
C1 + C 4
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ C
+$
(C1 + C2 )(C3 + C4 )
. $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
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$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
1
1
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=
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C 2,3 C 2 C3
! C 2,3 =
7"*1+%+.$
C 2 C3
. $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
C 2 + C3
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ C
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/0"*&$+##+#$1"2"#$!"(#$%&'&%()"*+#$ C1,4 $+$ C 2,3 $!+2+,$#+*$&##"%(&!"#$+,$'&*&3+3"4$

5"*)&1)"$&$%&'&%()61%(&$7(1&3$*+#83)&1)+$-$!&!&$'"*.$
!"#$#%!%&'()*('
CC
C1C4
+ 2 3 $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
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%&'&%()61%(&$
C1 = C 2 = C 3 = C 4 = C " ;$)+*+,"#.$
= 5,0 F ;$ C2 = 6,0 F +$ C3 = 3,0 F ;$ %&3%83+$ &$ %&*0&$ +,$
%&!&$%&'&%()"*$+$&$%&'&%()61%(&$+:8(2&3+1)+$!&$&##"%(&EI"4$
2
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#I";$ *+#'+%)(2&,+1)+;$ C1
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&$ #+EI"$ (1)+*1&$ )+,$ %",'*(,+1)"$ !;$ '"!+1!"$ #+$ ,"2(,+1)&*$ 2+*)(%&3,+1)+4$
T"#)*+$:8+$&$%&'&%()61%(&$+:8(2&3+1)+$1I"$!+'+1!+$!&$'"#(EI"$!&$#+EI"$%+1)*&34$
!&#$!(7+*+1E&#$!+$'")+1%(&3$!"#$%&'&%()"*+#$+:8(2&3+1)+#4$
J&3%83+,"#$+1)I";$'*(,+(*"$&$%&'&%()61%(&$+:8(2&3+1)+$+1)*+$ C1 $+$ C2 $+$+1)*+$
C 3 $+$ C4 .$
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ C1,2 = C1 + C 2 $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
+.$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ C 3,.4 = C 3 + C 4 . $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$
$
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1
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1
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C C1,2 C3,4 C1 + C2 C3 + C4
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226
227
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1
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C C1 C2
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C1 =
6#%#,+#.%'%.02+(#047"(0+(#$5#
C2 =
= 50V A#
%?#H"2"(904"#%#.%'%.0234.0%#":/0<%-"42"#,"&&%#.+9I04%)*+A#
!0 A
I?#M%-./-"#+#9;,/-+#,%#.%(C%#"9#.%,%#.%'%.02+(A#
!0 A
#
a " (b + h)
.?#H"2"(904"#%#,07"("4)%#,"#'+2"4.0%-#"42("#+&#'+42+&# x #"# y A#
642*+5#
1
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a "b"h a "b
=
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a "b
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."42(%-=# "-%# ,"'"4,"# %'"4%&# ,%# ,09"4&*+# -04"%(# >"?# ,"&2%# &")*+# "# ,%# &"'%(%)*+#
80C/(%#DEAL#%&&+.0%)*+#,"#2(K&#.%'%.02+("&
>#?#"42("#%&#'-%.%&#70@%&A
!"#$#%!%&'()*+'
B/%2(+# .%'%.02+("&# ,"# .%'%.0234.0%&#
C1 = 5,0 F , C 2 = 5,0 F 1# C3 = 3,2 F "#
C 4 = 3,2 F # "&2*+# "9# /9# .0(./02+# .+47+(9"# 9+&2(%# %# 70C/(%# DEAFA# G# ,07"("4)%# ,"#
'+2"4.0%-# "42("# +&# '+42+&# x # "#
z # $# Vxz = 50V A# H"2"(904"# %# .%'%.0234.0%#
":/0<%-"42"#,"&&%#.+9I04%)*+A#
#
80C/(%#DEAF#%&&+.0%)*+#,"#:/%2(+#.%'%.02+("&
!"#$#%!%&'()*,'
J(K&#.%'%.02+("&#,"#.%'%.0234.0%&# C1
= 5,0 F , C 2 = 5,0 F #"# C3 = 3,2 F #"&2*+#"9#
/9# .0(./02+# .+47+(9"# 9+&2(%# %# 70C/(%# DEALA# G# ,07"("4)%# ,"# '+2"4.0%-# "42("# +&#
228
229
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(
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;!<1*-#!'!&'('&)*01&)'!,23)4'.,1*,!9,%%'!&#$?)1'C-#!56!
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!
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!
C = C1 + C2 + C3 = 5,0 F + 56,0 F + 3,0 F = 14,0 F !
1
1
1
=
+
!
C eq C1 + C 2 C3
!
7!&'+8'!,$!&'9'!&'('&)*#+!56!
1
1
1
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+
!
C eq (15 ! 10 "6 F + 5,0 !10 "6 F ) (3,2 x10 "6 F )
Q1 = C1 V = 5,0F ! 10,0V = 50,0 C !

Q2 = C 2 V = 6,0F ! 10,0V = 60,0 C !
Q3 = C3 V = 3,0F !10,0V = 30,0 C !
C eq = 2,8 x 10 "6 F . !
?B! #456789( :;6( 67( ;74( 4998<=4>?8( 67( @4A4B6B8C( 4( <4AD4( E8E4B( F49( @B4<49(
G89(<4@4<=E8A69(H(4(9874(G49(<4AD49(F89(<4@4<=E8A69(=FG=I=G;4=9(6(:;6(67(
'&-.-,',"(/012(
;74(<875=F4>?8(67(9HA=6(49(<4AD49C(67(7JG;B8C((67(E8G49(49(@B4<49(G6I6(
:%! &'('&)*#+,%! C1 !,! C2 ,%*-#!,$!%5+),! ,1*+,!%)!,!,$!('+'.,.#!&#$!#!&'('&)*#+! C3 ;!
<1*-#!'!&'('&)*01&)'!,23)4'.,1*,!9,%%,%!*+=%!&'('&)*#+,%!56!
96A(4(76974;!
<1*-#!'!&'+8'!1#!&'('&)*#+! C3 !5!'!$,%$'!23,!'!9'!'%%#&)'C-#! C12 ;!<!(,.'!9,A)1)C-#!
C eq = C1, 2 + C3 !
9,!&'('&)*01&)'!*,$#%6!
>'%/!
Q2 + Q1 = Q3 !
C1, 2 =
C1C2
/!
C1 + C2
Q3 = CeqV !#3! Q2 + Q1 = CeqV !

Q3 = (2,8 ! 10 "6 F )(50V ) !
<1*-#6!
C eq =
:?%,+4,! 23,!
Q3 = 1,4 ! 10 "4 C !
C1C 2
+ C3 !
C1 + C 2
:?%,+4,!23,!#%!&'('&)*#+,%! C1 !,! C2 !,%*-#!1#!$,%$#!(#*,1&)'./!,1*-#6!
Ceq ! ,%*@! ,$! %5+),! &#$! C 4 ;! <1*-#! '! &'('&)*01&)'! ,23)4'.,1*,! 9#!
Q1 Q2
!
=
C1 C 2
&)+&3)*#!A#+$'9#!(,.#%!23'*+#!&'('&)*#+,%/! C eq !%,+@!)83'.!'6!
Ceq* =
Ceq C 4
Ceq + C 4
C1C2
C4 + C3C4
C1 + C2
!
C =
C1C2
+ C3 + C 4
C1 + C2
Q2 =
C2
Q1 !
C1
Q2 =
5
Q1 !
15
*
eq
<1*-#6!
4
Q1 = Q3 !
3
C eq* = 2,1 F !
'&-.-,',"(/013(
Q1 =
230
4
2,8 !10 "4 C !
3
231
Q1 = 3,7 "10!4 C !
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= 1,3 "10!4 C *!
+,!-'./0$1!23/!!
Vxz = Vxy + V yz = 50V !

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V yz =
Q3
Q Q
!/! V xy = 1 = 2 !
C3
C1 C 2
Vxy =
3,7 "10 !4 C
!
15 " 10 !6 F
<$=$)!
Vxy = 25V !
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">?*>,!@$(175/%/!'!A&7B75'5/!>?*C!/0!23/!23'&%$!+'#'+7&$%/1!19$!+$D$+'5$1!/0!30!
+7%+37&$)! +$0$! 7D31&%'! '! 67=3%'! >E*F)! 5/! +'#'+7&:(+7'1!
C1 = 5,0F )! C2 = 5,0F ! /!
C3 = 3,2F /! C4 = 3,2F *)
',!@'D+3D/!$!0G53D$!5'!+'%='!/0!+'5'!+'#'+7&$%*!
.,!H/&/%07(/!'!576/%/(8'!5/!#$&/(+7'D!/(&%/!$1!#$(&$1! x !/! y *!
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571&:(+7'1!5/!+'5'!30'!5'1!#D'+'1!4! d1 !/! d 2 *!H/&/%07(/!'!+'#'+7&:(+7'!/237B'D/(&/!
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I%/'!A!/!'!571&:(+7'!/(&%/!'1!#D'+'1!4! d1
+ d 2 *!@$0#'%/!$!%/13D&'5$!+$0!$!/K/%+L+7$!
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571&:(+7'! /(&%/! '1! #D'+'1! 4!
A1 !/! A2 !/!'!
d *! H/&/%07(/! '! +'#'+7&:(+7'! /237B'D/(&/! 5$! +7%+37&$!
23'(5$!/11/1!+'#'+7&$%/1!/1&9$!/0!#'%'D/D$*!
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A1 + A2 !/!571&:(+7'!/(&%/!'1!#D'+'1!7=3'D!'! d *!@$0#'%/!$!%/13D&'5$!+$0!$!!/K/%+L+7$!
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232
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%&.2.($%&.".?$"1-1-.)"%&.,&#(23-4&'(&)",&/-."&F,%&..G&.9"
S-" @20+%-" ;;7;" &.(C" %&,%&.&'(-1-" -" /20->?$" &4" ,-%-/&/$" 1&" (%6." %&.2.($%&.)" #+M-"
%&.2.(6'#2-"&*+23-/&'(&)"1&"-#$%1$"#$4"-"&*+->?$";;7TT)"N9"
"
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" i1 =
!
R1
)""" i 2 =
&
R2
i3 =
!
R3
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
=
RP 60,0 " 60,0 " 60,0 " 20,0 "
H$4-'1$"&.(-."#$%%&'(&.)"&'#$'(%-4$."-"#$%%&'(&"*+&",-..-",&/$"0&%-1$%9"
" RP = 20,0 ". """"""""""""""""
"
!" @20+%-" ;;7U" 4$.(%-" -." $+(%-." 1+-." #$'@20+%->G&." ,$..K3&2.7" S-" ,%24&2%-" 1&/-.)"
i=
!
R1
!
R2
!
R3
!
R1 + R2 + R3
:;;7I="
&'#$'(%-4)"&'(%&".2)"-..$#2-1$."&4",-%-/&/$7"
"
"
@20+%-" ;;7U-)" (&4$." +4" %&.2.($%" -..$#2-1$" &4" .N%2&" -$." 1$2." $+(%$." *+&" .&"
"
J.(&" %&.+/(-1$" '$." 2'12#-" *+&" &4" +4-" /20->?$" 1&.(&" (2,$)" 1&'$42'-1-"
"
456789:!;<!=7>74;4:"1&" N %&.2.($%&.)",$1&4$.".+D.(2(+KL/$.",$%"+4"A'2#$"%&.2.($%"
"
&*+23-/&'(&)"#+M-"%&.2.(6'#2-)" R P )"N"1-1-",&/-"&F,%&..?$"
"
"
"
"
"""""
1
=
RP
!R
j =1
. """?>;@5@A:>;@!4567B:@!;<!=7>74;4:C" """"""""""""""""""":;;7O="
"
"
"
"
"
"
!" %&.2.(6'#2-" &*+23-/&'(&" 1&" +4-" -..$#2->?$" 1&" %&.2.($%&." &4"
,-%-/&/$"N".&4,%&"4&'$%"*+&"-"%&.2.(6'#2-"1&"*+-/*+&%"+4"1$."%&.2.($%&.",%&.&'(&."
"
V20+%-" ;;7U9" :-=" W&.2.($%" /20-1$" &4" .N%2&" -" +4" #$'M+'($" 1&" 1$2." %&.2.($%&." /20-1$." &4" ,-%-/&/$" &" :D="
W&.2.($%"/20-1$"&4",-%-/&/$"-"+4"#$'M+'($"1&"1$2."%&.2.($%&."/20-1$."&4".N%2&7"
'-"-..$#2->?$7"
320
321
!"#$"%&'($)* '* &+),)%-"#,'* +./,0'1+"%+* '$* #$"2/"%$3* ./+* 4+"$(,"'($)*
RSP 3* +(*
4$,)*5'))$)6*
RS 2 = R2 + R3 = 60,0 ! + 60,0 ! = 120,0 !. ;*
*
78 9&,(+,&'(+"%+* #'1#/1'($)* '* &+),)%-"#,'* +./,0'1+"%+* 4$)* &+),)%$&+)* 1,:'4$)*
+(* 5'&'1+1$3*
B8 !(* )+:/,4'* '* &+),)%-"#,'* +./,0'1+"%+* '* %$4$* $* #$"2/"%$* >* #'1#/1'4'*
RP 2 ;* !(* )+:/,4'* +"#$"%&'($)* &+),)%-"#,'* +./,0'1+"%+* 4'*
'))$#,'"4$* $* 5&,(+,&$* &+),)%$&* +(* 5'&'1+1$* #$(* /(* &+),)%$&* 4+* &+),)%-"#,'*
1,:'<=$* +(* )>&,+* 4$* 5&,(+,&$* &+),)%$&* #$(*/(* &+),)%$&* #$(* +))'* &+),)%-"#,'*
RS 2 3*#$($*($)%&'4$*"'*@,:/&'*AA;BF;*
#'1#/1'4';*!)%+*)+:/"4$*5'))$*+)%?*&+5&+)+"%'4$*"'*@,:/&'*AA;B';*
*
*
R1
1
1
1
1
1
=
+
=
+
R PS R1 R S 2 60,0 ! 120,0 !
R1
RP2
RS2
R PS = 40,0 !. *
*
!"#$"%&'($)3*5$&%'"%$3*./'%&$*0'1$&+)*5'&'*')*&+),)%-"#,')*+./,0'1+"%+)*4')*./'%&$*
!"
!"
(a)
(b)
5$))O0+,)*'))$#,'<P+)*4+))+)*%&-)*&+),)%$&+)*,4-"%,#$)6*7QR3R ! 3*AR3R ! 3*SR3R ! **+*

BR3R ! ;*
C,:/&'* AA;B6* D'8* E+),)%$&* 1,:'4$* +(* )>&,+* #$(* /(* &+),)%$&* +./,0'1+"%+* '* /(* #$"2/"%$* 4+* 4$,)**
&+),)%$&+)*1,:'4$)*+(*5'&'1+1$*+*DF8*E+),)%$&*1,:'4$*+(*5'&'1+1$*'*/(*&+),)%$&*+./,0'1+"%+*'*/(*
!"#$#%!%&'(()**
#$"2/"%$*4+*4$,)*&+),)%$&+)*1,:'4$)*+(*)>&,+;*
I$($*"$*+T+(51$*AA;73*%+($)*%&-)*&+),)%$&+)*./+*4+0+(*)+&*'))$#,'4$)3*(')*4$,)*
A8 G%,1,H'"4$* '* +./'<=$* AA;77* +"#$"%&'($)* '* &+),)%-"#,'* +./,0'1+"%+* '$)* 4$,)*
0'1$&+)*4')*&+),)%-"#,')*+./,0'1+"%+)*5$))O0+,)W
&+),)%$&+)*+(*5'&'1+1$6*
*********************************** R P 2
R2 R3
****
R2 + R3
**********I$(*$)*0'1$&+)*4')*&+),)%-"#,')3*$F%+($)6*** RP 2
*****
J*&+),)%-"#,'*@,"'1*>*+"%=$6***** RSP
**********K/3*"/(+&,#'(+"%+6* RSP
4+1+)*%-(*&+),)%-"#,'*4+*UR3R* ! *+*/(*4+1+)*%+(* &+),)%-"#,'*4+*QR3R* ! ;*V/',)* $)*
= R1 + R P 2 =
&+&,-./'(()(*
= 30,0 !. .**********
R1 R2 + R1 R3 + R2 R3
***************
R2 + R3
*X+"4$* $* 0'1$&* 4'* @+(3* Y* Z* 7A3R* !3* +"#$"%&+* $)* 0'1$&+)* 4')* #$&&+"%+)* ./+*
5+&#$&&+(* '* @$"%+* +* #'4'* /(* 4$)* &+),)%$&+)3* +(* #'4'* /('* 4')* '))$#,'<P+)*
5$))O0+,)*4$*+T+(51$*AA;7;*
= 90,0 !. *
0/.123/4' L$* +T+(51$* (+"#,$"'4$3* #'4'* /('* 4')* '))$#,'<P+)* 5$))O0+,)* @$,*
&+4/H,4'* '$* #')$* 4+* /(* N",#$* &+),)%$&* +./,0'1+"%+* 1,:'4$* '* /('* @$"%+;* 9$&%'"%$3*
L'*@,:/&'*AA;MF*%+($)*'*N1%,('*#$"@,:/&'<=$*5$))O0+13*"'*./'1*/(*&+),)%$&*>*1,:'4$*
+(* #'4'* #')$* '* #$&&+"%+* ./+* 5+&#$&&+* '* @$"%+* %+(* )+/* 0'1$&* 4'4$* 5+1$* 0'1$&* 4'*
+(* 5'&'1+1$* '* /(* #$"2/"%$* #$(* 4$,)* &+),)%$&+)* '))$#,'4$)* +(* )>&,+;* L$0'(+"%+*
"#$*4,0,4,4$*5+1'*&+),)%-"#,'*+./,0'1+"%+;*
@'H+($)*$*#?1#/1$*+(*4$,)*5'))$)6*
L'* @,:/&'* AA;7F3* $"4+* %+($)* &+5&+)+"%'4'* '* '))$#,'<=$* +(* )>&,+* %+($)* '5+"')*
M8 I'1#/1'($)*'*&+),)%-"#,'*+./,0'1+"%+*4+))+)*4$,)*&+),)%$&+)*1,:'4$)*+(*)>&,+3*
RS 2 ;*
322
/('*#$&&+"%+3* i f 3*./+*5+&#$&&+*'*@$"%+*+*$)*&+),)%$&+);*X+/*0'1$&*>6*
323
if =
$
Rs
12,0 V
= 6,67 ! 10 # 2 A = 66,7 mA.
180,0 "
D'0-4.0'.36+640.'B':3.;0..+20':37)';0..3143' i R /'<-3'B@'
!""#$%&'
()'*+,-.)'""#"/'0123'43506')'7+,)890'35':).)7370/')';0..3143'<-3':3.;0..3')'*0143/'
'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' i R =
$
R
12
= 0,2 A = 200 mA. '
60
'
i f /' 63'2+=+23'35'4.>6';0..31436'+2>14+;)6/' i R /'23=+20')0'*)40'2)6'4.>6'.36+64>1;+)6'
'
63.35')6'5365)6#'?3506'31490@'
!"#$#%!%&'(()('
12,0 V
if =
=
= 0,6 A '
R P 20,0 "
iR =
$
R
H3120'0'=)70.'2)'*35/'I'J'$"/K'!/'31;014.3'06'=)70.36'2)6';0..31436'<-3':3.;0..35'
)' *0143' 3' ;)2)' -5' 206' .36+640.36/' :).)' ;)2)' -5)' 2)6' )660;+)8L36' :066M=3+6' 2)'
)4+=+2)23'""#$#
12,0 V i f
= = 0,2 A. '
60,0 " 3
'
'
()' *+,-.)' ""#A)/' )' .36+64>1;+)' 3<-+=)73143' B'
RSP = 90" /' :0.4)140' )' ;0..3143' <-3'
:)66)':37)'*0143'B@'
'
'
'''''''''''''''''''''''''''' i f
R SP
'
12,0 V
= 1,3 ! 10 # 2 A = 13 mA ''''''''''
90,0 "
'
C64)'5365)';0..3143')4.)=366)'0':.+53+.0'.36+640.'3'63'2+=+23'35'2-)6'0-4.)6/' iP 2 /'
'
+2>14+;)6/'<-3':)66)5':3706'.36+640.36'<-3'36490'7+,)206'35':).)7370#'D-'63E)@'
'''''''''''''''''''''''''''' i P 2
if
2
'
'
1,3 ! 10 #2
= 6,7 ! 10 # 2 A = 67 mA ''''''''''''
2
'
'
()'*+,-.)'""#AF')'.36+64>1;+)'3<-+=)73143'B' R PS
= 40" '3')';0..3143'<-3':)66)':37)'
*0143'B@'
'
'
''''''''''''''''''''''''''' i f =
$
R PS
12,0 V
=
= 0,3 A. ''''''''
40,0 "
'
'
C64)' ;0..3143' 63' 2+=+23' 35' 2-)6#' G)2)' -5' 206' 20+6' .36+640.36' 35' 6B.+3/' ;-E0'
'
;01E-140'435')'.36+64>1;+)'3<-+=)73143' RS 2
'
= 120" 'B':3.;0..+20':37)';0..3143' i S 2 /'
2)2)':0.@'
''''''''''''''''''''''' i S 2 =
'
$
RS 2
12,0 V
= 0,1 A ''''''
120,0 "
'
'
'
324
325
!"#$%#&'#()%*"+&','#(,'#('&-.-,',"#($!%$%#&'#(
1
1
1
13
1
#
=
+
=
=
RP 2b 80 ! 50 ! 400 ! 30,8 !
(
'&-.-,',"(//01(
##########################%7C!!!!!!!!!!!!! R P 2 b
!"# $""%&'$()*"# +%"",-*'"# &%.# /01"# 0*"'"/%0*"# 2'3*0*4/*"# "5%# $"# .*".$"# 2$"#
3'670$"# 889:;<# 8898<# 889=$# *# 889=;9# >%4/72%<# 2*-'2%# $%# 3$/%# 2%"# 0*"'"/%0*"# "*0*.#
2'3*0*4/*"#/*.%"#2*#3'&$0#$/*4/%"#?#+%"'(5%#2*#&$2$#7.9#@$.%"#ABC#
#
!D E$"# $""%&'$()*"# 2$"# 3'670$"# 889:;# *# 8898# /*.%"# $+*4$"# 7.$# +%""';'A'2$2*# *.#
&$2$# 7.$# 2*A$"9# !# $""%&'$(5%# *.# "F0'*# 4%"# 2B# %# .*".%# 0*"7A/$2%# G7*# %# 2%#
*H*.+A%#889:C#
#########################!#0*"'"/14&'$#*G7'-$A*4/*#/%/$A#FC#
#
################################## RSPb
J"/*"# 2%'"#PA/'.%"#0*"7A/$2%"#+%2*.# "*0#*4&%4/0$2%"#7"$42%#2'0*/$.*4/*#$#
#
QD E%#&$"%#2$#3'670$#889=;#/*.%"#/$.;F.#27$"#"'/7$()*"#+%"",-*'"#
#
Q:D# R# 0*"'"/%0# 2*# KL ! <# G7$42%# A'6$2%# *.# +$0$A*A%# $%# &%4M74/%# 2%"# 2%'"#
ID !#$""%&'$(5%#*.#+$0$A*A%#4%"#2BC#
0*"'"/%0*"#2*#NL ! #A'6$2%"#*.#"F0'*#4%"#2BC#
1
1
1
1
21
1
#
=
+
+
=
=
R S 50 ! 50 ! 80 ! 400 ! 19 !
####################### RS 2 a
= 50 ! + 50 ! = 100 !
############!#0*"'"/14&'$#/%/$A#FC#
= 19 ! .#
1
1
1
18
1
=
+
=
=
R PSa 80 ! 100 ! 800 44,4 !
J"/*"# 2%'"# 0*"7A/$2%"# '42*+*42*.# 2$# %02*.# *.# G7*# "5%# &%A%&$2%"# %"#
2'3*0*4/*"#0*"'"/%0*"9#
#
##########Q*#%42*#%;/*.%"# RPSa
>D E%#&$"%#2$#3'670$#889=$<#+%2*.%"#/*0#27$"#"'/7$()*"#2'3*0*4/*"C#
#
>:D#E$# +0'.*'0$# "'/7$(5%# %# 0*"'"/%0# 2*# KL ! # F# %# +0'.*'0%# 0*"'"/%0<# *.# "F0'*#
&%.# %# &%4M74/%# 2%"# 2%'"# 0*"'"/%0*"# 2*# NL ! # $""%&'$2%"# *.# +$0$A*A%9#
O*.%"#*4/5%<#&%.%#4%#*H*.+A%#889:<#
########################%7C######################### RP 2 a
######Q8D#J#G7$42%#%#0*"'"/%0#2*#KL ! #F#A'6$2%#*.#"F0'*#&%.#7.#2%"#2*#NL ! #/*.%"##

$#PA/'.$#"'/7$(5%C#
#
###################### RS 2b
#################
= 25 ! #
##########%7# RPSb
########################!#0*"'"/14&'$#*G7'-$A*4/*#/%/$A#"*0BC#
################################### RSPa
= 44,4 ! .
= 80 ! + 50 ! = 130 ! ####
###########*#$#0*"'"/14&'$#/%/$A#FC#
1
1
1
1
=
+
=
RP 2 a 50 ! 50 ! 25 !
= 50 + 30,8 = 80,8 ! 9#
*G7$(5%#889:N9#
RS = 50 ! + 50 ! + 80 ! = 180 ! #
%7C# RS
= 30,8 ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!#
= 80 + 25 = 105 ! #9#
>8DE$#"*6742$#"'/7$(5%#%#0*"'"/%0#2*#KL ! #F#A'6$2%#*.#+$0$A*A%#&%.#7.#2%"#
0*"'"/%0*"#2*#NL ! #*#*""*#&%4M74/%#F#A'6$2%#*.#"F0'*#$%#%7/0%#0*"'"/%0#2*#
1
1
1
18
##
=
+
=
RPSb 50 ! 130 ! 650 !
= 36,1 ! #9#
J"/*"#2%'"#0*"7A/$2%"#+%2*.#"*0#*4&%4/0$2%"#7"$42%#$#*G7$(5%#889:S9#
J.# 0*"7.%<# %"# -$A%0*"# *4&%4/0$2%"<# &%.# /%2$"# $"# "*'"# &%43'670$()*"# +%"",-*'"#
3%0$.#:KL ! <#:T ! <#:LN ! ,#KL<K ! <#UU,
!"#$%&'()*"$+,-(%*'%()*'#.',),)$$"/%)01",'*,$2(%',&"$,.(3$,('$%$."('$4,
J$.), *'$*), /"(('#.', -'(/"((', ", ('$%$."(, &', "%.'#.), "D*$, ', $', &%=%&', '*,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, i SPa80
= i SPa = 114 mA ,', iSPa50 =
iSPa
= 57,1 mA 4,
2
56, 7'$.', /)$"+, "$, .(3$, ('$%$."('$, ', ), 8"#.', $1", -'(/"((%&"$, -'9), *'$*), /"(('#.'+,
K6 7), $'@;#&), "-01", ", ('$%$."(, &', /%#:C'#.), "D*$, 2, /"9"/)&", '*, $2(%', /"*, ),
:;', 2, &)&), -'9), ()<1", '#.(', ), 8"(0), '9'.("*".(%<, ', ), ('$%$.3#/%), ':;%=)9'#.', #",
)$$"/%)01", '*, -)()9'9", &", ('$%$."(, &', "%.'#.), "D*$, /"*, ", ";.(", ('$%$."(, &',
/%(/;%.">,
/%#:C'#.),"D*$4,5,/"(('#.',:;',).()='$$),),8"#.',',",-(%*'%(",('$%$."(,2,&)&)+,
/"*",$'*-('+,-'9),8'*,&%=%&%&),-'9),('$%$.3#/%),&),)$$"/%)01">,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, i S =
%
RS
12 V
= 6,67 " 10 $ 2 ! 66,7 mA 4,
180 #
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, i SPb
E$, &"%$, ('$%$."('$, )$$"/%)&"$, '*, -)()9'9", '$.1", $;F*'.%&"$, G, .'#$1",
= i SPb1 =
?6,!"*,"$,.(3$,('$%$."('$,'*,-)()9'9"+,),/"(('#.',:;',-)$$),-'9),8'*,2>,
& 1
1
1 # 12 V
!! =
iP =
= 12 V " $$
+
+
= 6,3 " 10 $1 A ! 630 mA 4,
RP
% 50 # 50 # 80 # " 19 #
-("&;<%&),-'9),8"#.',$;F.()L&),&),:;'&),&',.'#$1",#",-(%*'%(",('$%$."(4,J$.),:;'&),
2, &)&), -'9), ('$%$.3#/%), &", -(%*'%(", ('$%$."(, *;9.%-9%/)&), -'9), /"(('#.', :;', ",
!)&), ('$%$."(, 2, -'(/"((%&", -"(, ;*), /"(('#.', %@;)9, )", =)9"(, &), 8'*, &%=%&%&",
-"(,$;),-(A-(%),('$%$.3#/%)4,
,
B$$", $%@#%8%/), :;', /)&), ('$%$."(, &', /%#:C'#.), "D*$, 2, -'(/"((%&", -"(, ;*),
/"(('#.'>,
,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, i P 50
12 V
= 2,4 " 10 $1 A ! 240 mA +,
50 #
).()='$$)>,
,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, VSPb1 =
R1 iSP = 7,43V 4,
5$,/"(('#.'$,#"$,&"%$,";.("$,('$%$."('$,$'(1"+,-"(.)#.">,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, i SPb 2
(12 $ 7,43) V
= 5,8 " 10 $ 2 A ! 58 mA ,
80 #
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, i SPb 3 =
(12 $ 7,43) V
= 9,1 " 10 $ 2 A = 91 mA 4,
50 #
',
'#:;)#.",",('$%$."(,&',"%.'#.),"D*$,2,-'(/"((%&",-'9),/"(('#.'>,
12 V
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, i P 80 =
= 1,5 " 10 $1 A ! 150 mA 4,
80 #
EF=%)*'#.'+,),$"*),&'$$)$,.(3$,/"(('#.'$,2,%@;)9,G,/"(('#.',:;',-)$$),-'9),
,
J6 7), )$$"/%)01", &), 8%@;(), HH4IF+, /"#$%&'()#&", ", ('$%$."(, &', "%.'#.), "D*$, '*,
8"#.'4,
-)()9'9", /"*, ), )$$"/%)01", '*, $2(%',&"$, &"%$, &', /%#:C'#.), "D*$, ),/"(('#.', #),
8"#.',2,
!6,7),8%@;(),HH4I),/"#$%&'()*"$+,/"*",-(%*'%(),"-01"+,",('$%$."(,&',"%.'#.),"D*$,
9%@)&", '*, $2(%', /"*, ), )$$"/%)01", '*, -)()9'9", &"$, &"%$, ('$%$."('$, &', /%#:C'#.),
"D*$4,
,
12 V
= 1,49 " 10 =1 A ! 149 mA 4,
80,8 #
5, /"(('#.', :;', -'(/"((', ), 8"#.', 2, &)&), -"(, $;), 8"(0), '9'.("*".(%<, &%=%&%&),
12 V
%
=
= 2,70 " 10 $1 A ! 270 mA ,,
R PSa
44,4 #
,
,,,E,('$%$."(,&',"%.'#.),"D*$,2,-'(/"((%&",-'9),/"(('#.'>,
-'9),('$%$.3#/%),':;%=)9'#.',&'$.),)$$"/%)01">,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, i SPa
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
i PSa =
12 V
= 1,14 " 10 $ 2 A ! 114 mA 4,
105 #
i PSa 80 =
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
328
%
R PSa
12 V
= 1,5 " 10 $1 A ! 150 mA ,
80#
329
!"#$%"&'('()!*&%"&!(+%(,'))!"&!(-%**%(-')(%./'*('*()!*0*&')!*(+!(,0"#1!"&%('2.*3(
(
((((((((((((((((((( i PSa 50
= iPSa ! iPSa80 = (270 ! 150) mA = 120 mA 4(
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349
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Rc
( $t a = RC ln(2 ) = 0,693RC = 0,416 s %!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#$%H_'!
\4..-! G)0*-! -! ;U*3-/-! 340*-+4,4! -3-1-/-! 3)0! 8*! 5+640=-;)! /4! 64*3)! 518-;! -!
Q*! /4640*5+-/)! .5.64*-! ?35.,-T35.,-A! 8.-T.4! 8*! ,50,856)! ,)*)! )! /-! G5180-! #$%H2!
4*!784!)!04.5.6)0!>2!+-!=40/-/42!8*-!34784+-!;U*3-/-!4!-!,<-=4!>!8*!/5.3).565=)!
-86)*R65,)!784!-;640+-!.8-!3).59:)2!6)/-!=4V!784!-!,)004+64!/5*5+85!3-0-!=5+64!3)0!
357
0,916 RC = 0,550 s %!!

F-0-!4+,)+60-0*).!)!64*3)!/4!,-01-!/)!,-3-,56)0!/4=4*).!5+6410-0!-!478-9:)!#$%H!
8.-+/)! ,)*)! ;5*564! 5+G405)0! /-! ,-01-2! .48! =-;)0! 78-+/)! )! 3)64+,5-;! -65+14! )! =-;)0!
358
!"#$!%&'(&'%$)&*%+,)-&.&/()0+,1'%&23&
&
10
C" ! q
C" ! q min
=e
!t
RC
. &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&456-768&
9(1//1#:1#'%& %)& ,(/!%)& '(),1& (;01<=%& (#>%#,/1!%)& 1& >1/?1& 4%0& %& @%,(#>$1+8& #%&
>1@1>$,%/3&
&
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& q =
!t
q mim + (C" ! q min )&$1 ! e RC #!. &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&456-7A8&
%
"
Tenso (V)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
B(/$*1#'%&(!&/(+1<=%&1%&,(!@%&(#>%#,/1!%)&1&(C@/())=%&@1/1&1&>%//(#,(3&
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& i
" ! Vmin
R
!t
RC
. &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&456-7D8&
Tempo (s)
&
E%'(!%)& *(/& ;0(F& )(#'%& 5FGG& !& 1& ,(#)=%& !"#$!1& (& 75FG& !& 1& H(!& '%& >$/>0$,%F& 1&
>%//(#,(& !IC$!1& '0/1#,(& 1& >1/?1& '%& >1@1>$,%/& 2& 1& !()!1& ;0(& (#>%#,/1!%)& #1&
W$?0/1&56-Q3&&J&,(#)=%&#%&>1@1>$,%/&*1/$1&(#,/(&%&*1+%/&!"#$!%&'(&5FG&!&1%&*1+%/&!IC$!%&'(&
'()>1/?1-&J&>%//(#,(&>1$/I&@1/1&5GK&'(),(&*1+%/&(!&0!&$#,(/*1+%&'(&,(!@%&$'L#,$>%&
7G&!F&1+$!(#,1'%&@%/&0!1&H(!&'(&75&!&(&>%#,/%+1'%&@%/&0!1&>V1*(&10,%!I,$>1&;0(&1+,(/#1&
1%& '1& '()>1/?1F& ;0(& 2& ,(!@%& #(>())I/$%& @1/1& 1& (C@%#(#>$1+& 1,$#?$/& %& *1+%/& GF5-&
)01&@%+1/$'1'(&;01#'%&1&,(#)=%&1,$#?(&%)&*1+%/()&+$!$,()-&
M)1#'%& (),(&*1+%/& '1& (C@%#(#>$1+& #1& (C@/())=%& '1& >1/?1& (#>%#,/1!%)&%&@%,(#>$1+&

!IC$!%&'0/1#,(&1&>1/?13&
60
&
40
Vmax = 0,2Vmin + 0,8" = 0,400 V + 9,6 V = 10,0 V . & &&&&""""""""""""""""""""""""""&&&&&456-7N8&
O?01+!(#,(F& 1& +P!@1'1& @(/!1#(>(& 1>()1& @%/& 0!& $#,(/*1+%& '(& ,(!@%& $?01+& 1%&
(#>%#,/1'%&'0/1#,(&1&'()>1/?1-&&
9()0!$#'%3& J& +P!@1'1& @(/!1#(>(& 1>()1& '0/1#,(& @%/& Q76& !)& (& 1@1?1'1& @%/& RRG&
!)F& ,1#,%& '0/1#,(& 1& >1/?1& '%& >1@1>$,%/& ;01#,%& '0/1#,(& 1& '()>1/?1-& J& ,(#)=%& #%&
Corrente (mA)
20
&
-20
-40
>1@1>$,%/&*1/$1&(#,/(&%&!IC$!%&'(&'(S&*%+,)&(&%&!"#$!%&'(&'%$)&*%+,)-&
T1&H$?0/1&56-Q&!%),/1!%)&1&(*%+0<=%&'1&,(#)=%&#%&>1@1>$,%/&(&#1&H$?0/1&56-R&1&'1&
>%//(#,(&#%&>$/>0$,%-&T(),1&U+,$!1&*(!%)&)(,1)&V%/$S%#,1$)&;0(&$#'$>1!&%)&!%!(#,%&
(!& ;0(& 1& +P!@1'1& '($C1& '(& (!$,$/& +0SF& *%+,1#'%& 1& 1>(#'(/& ,%'1& *(S& ;0(& 1& >V1*(&
1+,(/#1&)01&@%)$<=%-&
-60
0
Tempo (s)
&
W$?0/1& 56-R3& X%//(#,(& #%& >$/>0$,%& '%& @$)>1Y@$)>1-& B0/1#,(& 1& >1/?1& '%& >1@1>$,%/& 1& >%//(#,(F&
$#$>$1+!(#,(& >%!& *1+%/& '(& RG& #$F& '$!$#0$& 1,2& %& *1+%/& '(& 7G& #$-& T())(& $#),1#,(& 1& >V1*(&
&
1+,(/#1& )01& @%+1/$'1'(& @1/1& ;0(& %& >1@1>$,%/& )(& '()>1//(?0(-& J& >%//(#,(& @1))1& 1& )(/&
&
#(?1,$*1F& >%!& *1+%/& $#$>$1+& '(& RG& #$F& ;0(& '$!$#0$& 1,2& 7G& #$F& ;01#'%& '(& #%*%& %& >1@1>$,%/&
*%+,1&1&)(/&>1//(?1'%-&J)&)(,1)&!%),/1!&%)&$#),1#,()&(!&;0(&1&+P!@1'1&'($C1&'(&(!$,$/&+0S-&
359
360
+&,-.,"!,'/.0&1"!%!,'%!,'!"#$#%!%&,'-+.-.,"!,'
!"#$#%!%&'()*('
'
!"#"$%&#"'(%))"*%)'+,'(%-%(./0)'%/1'%'/"2#30'4"'5676'!8'9"'+#:##",0#'+,%';",'4"'
!"#$#%!%&'()*2'
5676'!'-%)%'(%))"*:&<07'0'/",-0'4"'(%)*%'#").%'.2;.2./08'=0)'.#/0'+/.<.>%,0#'+,%';",'
4"'5?'!8'@+%<'0'/",-0'4"'(%)*%'2"#/%'#./+%A30'#"'#+%'(%-%(./B2(.%'1' C
= 106 F "'
#"'C:'+,%')"#.#/D2(.%'",'#1)."'(0,'"#/"'(+$%')"#.#/D2(.%'1'4"' R = 300 !. E'@+%<'0'

/",-0'2"("##:).0'-%)%' F+"'0'(%-%(./0)7'(0,'+,%' 4.;")"2A%' 4"' -0/"2(.%<' .2.(.%<' "2/)"'
#+%#' -<%(%#' 4"' 5676' !' #"' 4"#(%))"*+"' %/)%G1#' 4%' )"#.#/D2(.%' .2/")2%' 4"' +,'
G0</H,"/)0'4"'G%<0)' RV
= 47 k!. '%/1'%/.2*.)'%'/"2#30'4"'?766'!E'
9+I#/./+%' t
-")("2/+%<'
= " C ' 2%' "F+%A30' 5J8?6' "' ;%A%' 0#' (:<(+<0#7' <",I)%240' F+"' #"' 4"#"$%' 0'
4%'
&
q(t ) = C$ $$1 # e
%
#t
RC
(%)*%'
20'
/",-0'
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F+"#/308'
=0)'
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#
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# RC
&
q(t = RC ) = C$ $$1 # e RC
%
'
,:K.,%'
#
! = C$ (1 # e #1 ) = C$ (1 # 0,368) = C$ (0,632 ) '
!
"
q(t = RC )
= 0,632 = 63,2% '
C$
'
'
!"#$#%!%&'()*('
'
M'(02#/%2/"'4"'/",-0'40'(.)(+./07'4+)%2/"'%'(%)*%'40'(%-%(./0)'1L'
'
'
'
''''''''''''''' " C = RC = 300 ! % 106 % 10
#6
F = 31,8 ms. '
!"'%(0)40'(0,'%'"F+%A30'5J8N7'0'/",-0'4"'(%)*%'1'4%40'-0)L'
'
'
'
&
%
''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 20,0 V = 21,0 V $1 # e
#t
"c
#
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"
4"'024"'/.)%,0#'0'.2/")G%<0'4"'/",-08'
'
''''''''''''''''''''''''''
'
'
t = " c ln[21] = 3,04" c = 96,7 ms 8'
O0,'0'(%-%(./0)'(%))"*%40'"'4"#<.*%40'40'(.)(+./07',"4.,0#'#+%'/"2#30'(0,'
+,' G0</H,"/)0'(+$%' )"#.#/D2(.%' .2/")2%' 1' 4"' 47 k!. 8' P"#/"'(%#07' %0' (0,"A%),0#'%'
'
,"4.A307' %' 4.;")"2A%' 4"' -0/"2(.%<' 1' 4"' 5676' Q' "' G%.' (%.240' 4"' %(0)40' (0,' %' 20G%'
'
(02#/%2/"' 4"' /",-0' F+"' 1' 0' -)04+/0' 4%' (%-%(./B2(.%' 40' (%-%(./0)' -"<%' )"#.#/D2(.%'
.2/")2%'40'G0</H,"/)0L'
'
#6
'
'''''''''''''''''' " C = RC = 47 % 10 ! % 106 % 10
'
R'/",-0'4"'4"#(%)*%'17'4"'%(0)40'(0,'%'"F+%A30'5J8?67'4%40'-0)L'
'
'
'
'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 1 = 20.e
0+'#"$%'''''''''''''''''''''' t
'
361
#t
"c
F = 4,98 s.
'
,'
= " C ln(20,0 ) = 3,00" C = 14,9 s. '
362
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!&'12"3)$%()%4#-()("%
"#$%&'(! )*+,-.! */! 012324.05! */+! 6+4103+! 1! */! 7+8+734.0! 29.! :3;+-.2! 1/! 2<0315! .!
"$%&'(! )*1! /I:438:.! -+! 7.,24+,41! -1! 41/8.! ! ! <! ! 41/8.! ,17122>03.! 8+0+! @*1! */!
012324.0! 3,=:*1,73+! +! 7+0;+! />?3/+! @*1! 8.-1! 210! +0/+A1,+-+! ,.! 7+8+734.0B! ".0!
7+8+734.0!3,373+:/1,41!-127+001;+-.!1/!*/!7307*34.!#E!2<031!21Q+!7+001;+-.!7./!XX!
@*CB!"+0+!@*1!210D1!.!012324.0B!
Y!-+!7+0;+!=3,+:B!
"#$%&$(! "+0+! */+! 012324C,73+! /*34.! ;0+,-1! <! =>73:! 7.,240*30! */! 7307*34.! #E! 7./!
*/+! 7.,24+,41! -1! 41/8.! -+! .0-1/! -1! +:;*,2! 21;*,-.2! .*! /3,*4.2&! E./.! 1221!
012*:4+-.! 8.-103+! 210D30! 8+0+! +! -1410/3,+F9.! -1! */+! 012324C,73+! 49.! ;0+,-1! @*1!
"$%&$(!Z.2401!@*1!.!80.-*4.! RC !8.22*3!-3/1,29.!-1!41/8.&!!
,9.!8*-1221!210!/1-3-+!7./!.2!3,240*/1,4.2!7./*,2B!
"$%&O(! P.! 7307*34.! /.240+-.! +6+3?.! R = 10 ". &! )*+:! <! +! 012324C,73+! 1@*3D+:1,41!
1,401! .2! 8.,4.2! [! 1! \B! ]37+^! T/+;3,1! @*1! .2! 8.,4.2! [! 1! \! 1249.! :3;+-.2! +! */+!
"*"&+,+-'$%("%.-*)/0'%
=.,41&!
$5L!#
G$%&'(! H/! 7+8+734.0! 7./! */+! 7+0;+! 3,373+:!
q 0 ! <! -127+001;+-.! +40+D<2! -1! */!
012324.0&!)*1!/I:438:.!-+!7.,24+,41!-1!41/8.! ! !<!,17122>03.!8+0+!@*1!.!7+8+734.0!
R5L!#
-127+001;*1!J+(!*/!410F.!-+!7+0;+!3,373+:K!J6(!-.32!410F.2!-+!7+0;+!3,373+:B!
%5L!#
!
[
G$%&$(! H/! 7+8+734.0! -1! 1 F ! 7./! */+! 1,10;3+! 3,373+:! -1! L5ML! N! <! -127+001;+-.!
+40+D<2!-1!*/!012324.0!-1! 1 M". &!J+(!)*+:!<!+!7+0;+!3,373+:!-.!7+8+734.0B!J6(!)*+:!<!
+!7.001,41!,.!012324.0!@*+,-.!+!-127+0;+!7./1F+B!
O5L!#
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!
!
G$%&O(!P*/!7307*34.!#E!2<0315! C
= 1,80 F 5! R = 1,40 M". !1! # = 12,0V &!J+(!)*+:!<!+!
7.,24+,41!-1!41/8.B!J6(!)*+:!+!7+0;+!/>?3/+!@*1!.!7+8+734.0!8.-1!0171610!+.!210!
"$%&R(! P.! 7307*34.! /.240+-.! +6+3?.5!
R1 = 20,0 ". 5! R2 = 10,0 ". ! 1! +! =.0F+!
1:140./.403A!-+!=.,41!3-1+:!<! # = 120 V &!]1410/3,1!+!7.001,41!,.!8.,4.!+!J+(!7./!
-127+001;+-.B!J7(!)*+,4.!41/8.!<!,17122>03.!8+0+!@*1!+!7+0;+!-.!7+8+734.0!+43,Q+!
+81,+2!+!7`+D1! S1 !=17`+-+&!J6(!E./!+81,+2!+!7`+D1! S1 !1! S 2 !=17`+-+2!1!J7(!7./!
.!D+:.0!-1! C
+2!40C2!7`+D12!=17`+-+2&!
= 16,0 F B!
!
G$%&R(! H/! 012324.0! R = 850 ". ! <! 7.,174+-.! 7./! +2! 8:+7+2! -1! */! 7+8+734.0!
7+001;+-.! 7./! 7+8+734S,73+! -+-+! 8.0!
C = 4,62 F &! T/1-3+4+/1,41! +,412! -+!
7.,1?9.! 210! =134+5! +! 7+0;+! ,.! 7+8+734.0! <! U5'L! /E&! J+(! )*+:! <! +! 1,10;3+!
+0/+A1,+-+! 3,373+:/1,41! ,.! 7+8+734.0B! J6(! )*+:! <! +! 8.4C,73+! 1:<4037+! -32238+-+! ,.!
012324.0! 3/1-3+4+/1,41! +8V2! +! 7.,1?9.! 210! =134+B! J7(! )*+:! <! +! 8.4C,73+! 1:<4037+!
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01-*A3*!W!/14+-1!-.!D+:.0!7+:7*:+-.!,.!341/!J+(B!
363
364
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*/..%)Z+-%".2/"+-()<+*/.[",059"-+../3" ! 0 = q m im :"T/$<,)</3"8/-%9/."%.*$%7%$C"
C max = 90 pF " "
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C min = 8,7 pF :"
U =
"
CDEFEGCG5+;<=H"
qm2
cos 2 (!0t + $0 ) + sen2 (!0t + $0 ) ."
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"
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#$%&'()*+,."%)<$%" 1, 2 MHz "%" 7,2 MHz :"
U =
qm2
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%.<," .%" ,0<%$)," %)<$%" %05<$+*," %" 9,6)5<+*," D&4,)-/" ," #4)12/" .%)/" %0%7,-," ,/"
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544
545
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U = 5,0 "10!5 J 8'
(5)("5+&'*,+3'#)2#6*$#%#'$&'(#7#(5+&)8'9&)'&"+)&'-#%&:'!"#$%&'#'(#)0#'$&'(#7#(5+&)'
,*' #$"-#:' #' (&))*$+*' 1'23452#' *'+&%#' #' *$*)05#' ,*' *$(&$+)#' $&' (#27&'2#0$1+5(&'
T/,*).*'7*-#,'*!"#<U*,'
$&'5$%"+&)8'
'
q = qm cos($0t +#0 ) '*' i = ! im sen($ot +#0 ) :'
;"#$%&' %*)5.#2&,' #' *!"#<=&' >?8@A' *2' )*-#<=&' #&' +*27&' *' 50"#-#2&,' &'
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%*'+*27&'+MN:'#'(&$,+#$+*'%*'B#,*'1'$"-#:'
dU q dq
di
d 2q
q
=
+ Li
= L 2 i + i = 0 8'
dt
C dt
dt
C
dt
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'
U = 5,0 "10!5 J :',*$%&' U E = 5,0 "10!5 J '*' U B = 0 :'7&5,' U = U E + U B 8'
B&)2#,' *!"5.#-*$+*,C' #7-5(#$%&' #' -*5' %#,' 2#-F#,' &"' 7*-&' ",&' *47-G(5+&' %#'
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H&$,5%*)*'&'(5)("5+&'IH'%&'J4*27-&'>?8@:'&$%*' C = 0,25 F :' L = 10mH '*'&'
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9&%*2&,'#5$%#'"+5-56#)'#,'*!"#<U*,:'
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UE =
1'23452#'*'#'(&))*$+*'$"-#8'D*+*)25$*'#,'*$*)05#,'#)2#6*$#%#,'$&'(#7#(5+&):'$&'
5$%"+&)'*'#'*$*)05#'+&+#-'%&'(5)("5+&'$&,'5$,+#$+*,'%*'+*27&'+'M'N:'+'M'OPA:'+'M'OPE:'
+'M'>OPA'*'+'M'O:',*$%&'O'&'7*)G&%&'%#'&,(5-#<=&'*-*+)&2#0$1+5(#'$&'(5)("5+&8''
UE =
.&%/01&2' H&2&' $=&' F3' 7*)%#,' %*' *$*)05#:' 7&%*2&,' #B5)2#)' !"*' #'
*$*)05#' 1' (&$,+#$+*' *:' 7&)+#$+&:' +*2' &' 2*,2&' .#-&)' *2' !"#-!"*)' 5$,+#$+*' %*'
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#7-5(#%#'$&'(5)("5+&8'D#'*!"#<=&'>?8@?'+*2&,'
U =
q2
1 2
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2C
2
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q m2
1
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2C
2
7#)#'&/+*)'#,'*$*)05#,'$*,,*,'5$,+#$+*,'%*'+*27&8'
J2'+'M'N:'+'M'OPE'*'*2'+'M'O:'(&2&'
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qm2
1
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2C 2
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$0
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J2'+'M'OPA'*'*2'+'M'>OPA'
1''
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!5
1
(10 "10 !3 H )(0,10 A)2 '
2
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'
546
547
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1
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LC
#0 =
)DEF" 1" /" ;" DB" .170-" D" -" :1'H-0-" 0(" -.4$8(@I-" 181/'-,(%7C/$4(+" ?(@(" /(,AC," &,"
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(1,0 " 10
!3
1
H 15 " 10 !6 F +"
)(
#0 = 8,2"103 rad / s +"
$7./(7/1."01"/1,:-+"
AK"!"(,:8$/&01"0("4('%(":-01".1'"-A/$0(":18("12&(@I-")*+LJ"
(2,0 x10 C) + (50 x10
qm = q02 + (i0 #0 ) =
!6
!3
A 8,2 x103 s !1
"
qm = 6,4 C "
M"("(,:8$/&01"0("4-''17/1":-01".1'"-A/$0(":18("12&(@I-")*BN<B"
)(
im = #0 qm = 8,2 "103 rad / s 6,4 " 0 !6 C
) B"
im = 53m C +"
"
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"
-.4$8(@R1.B"-A/1,-."
'
C = 4$ 2 f 2 L
'
!1
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S-'/(7/-"/1'1,-.J"
'
'
Cmax =
'
) (
2
4$ 2 1,2 " 1012 s !1 " 2,0 " 10!3 H
"
Cmax = 1,8 "10!11 F = 18 pF "
'
MB"
'
'
Cmin =
'
1
4$ (7,2 " 10 s
2
) " (2,0 " 10
12 !1 2
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H)
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C min = 4,9 " 10 !13 F = 0,49 pF +"
'
'
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548
549
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f = 0,55 MHz ;# T)')2+$%)# "# H(4"2# +3K$+"# ,(2(# (# 1(,(1$'Q1$(# *)# +"*"# I7)# (&#
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#
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7+#$%*7'"2#*)#$%*7'Q%1$(# L = 2,0 H ;#
(O#T)')2+$%)#(#82)I7R%1$(#(%574(2#*(&#"&1$4(?W)&#)46'2$1(&;#
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#
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= 0,90mA;#>#
9:;9;#
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#
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)&'3#H(2$(%*"#(#7+(#'(K(#*)# 2,5 mA #%"#$%*7'"20#*)#$%*7'Q%1$(# L = 700 mH 0#)+#I7)#

(#1(,(1$'Q%1$(#*"#1(,(1$'"2#6# C = 3,5 F ;#
'
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im = 6,00 " 10 #2 A
%)!#.3!->&*,!#,&'%-,?!#EF#?3L34#)!,(.#3#%)!#*(..3&-3#EF#?3L34#)3&(.B#
#
H:43.?3#;%37#&3443#*,.*%,-(7#!#.3!->&*,!#/#,&?3.4!)3&-3#+.(+(.*,(&!0#I#2.3;%<&*,!7#)!4#
X C = 10,0 ! &#
!# *(..3&-3# 30/-.,*!# /# ',.3-!)3&-3# +.(+(.*,(&!0# I# 30!6# C&-5(7# 43# !# 2.3;%<&*,!# '!# 2(&-3#
im = 12,0 A %#
!%)3&-!7# !# .3!->&*,!# ',),&%,# 3# !# !)+0,-%'3# '!# *(..3&-3# !%)3&-!7# !(# *(&-.J.,(# '(#
#
*,.*%,-(#*()#!#)34)!#2(&-3#3#%)#,&'%-(.7#)(4-.!'(#&!#2,1%.!#896K6
"4"!)5)-%#(,"(6-4'78%(
:"#D!.!#%)!#2.3;%<&*,!#EF#?3L34#)!,(.#;%3#!#'(#,-3)#!7#,1%!0#!#EFFF#.!'G47#-3.3)(4#
%)!#.3!->&*,!#*!+!*,-,?!#EF#?3L34#)3&(.#3#%)!#*(..3&-3#EF#?3L34#)!,(.B#
C896E"#M(&4,'3.3# %)# ,&'%-(.#'3# .34,4-<&*,!#'34+.3LN?307#43&'(# L = 2,0 H 7# 0,1!'(# !#%)!#
X C = 2,00 " 10 2 ! #
2(&-3# '3# -3&45(# *6!7# '3# ?!0(.# 50 V 6# O3-3.),&3# !# !)+0,-%'3# '!# *(..3&-3# ;%!&'(# !#
im = 6,00 " 10 #1 A #
2.3;%<&*,!#!&1%0!.#2(.# $1
= 100 rad / s 7# $2 = 1000 rad / s #3# $3 = 10 000 rad / s 6#
(
'&-.-,',"(/013(
C896P"#Q)#*!+!*,-(.#'3#*!+!*,->&*,!# C = 3,5 F #34-J#*(&3*-!'(#!#%)!#2(&-3#*6!7#43&'(#
!"#$%!&'(#%)#,&'%-(.#/#0,1!'(#!#%)!#2(&-3#'3#-3&45(#*6!7#*()(#)(4-.!#!#2,1%.!#896K7#!#
% m = 100V 6# M!0*%03# (# ?!0(.# '!# !)+0,-%'3# '!# *(..3&-3# ;%!&'(# !# 2.3;%<&*,!# !&1%0!.# 2(.#
*(..3&-3#-!):/)#(4*,0!#*()# !#)34)!#2.3;%<&*,!#'!#2(&-36#=#.3!->&*,!# ,&'%-,?!#/#'!'!#

+30!#3;%!@5(#8969B#
X L = $ L = (100 rad / s ) 10,0 " 10 #3 H &$
$1 = 100 rad / s 7# $2 = 1000 rad / s #3# $3 = 10 000 rad / s 6#

C8968"#O3-3.),&3#!#.3!->&*,!#'3#%)#,&'%-(.#'3# 2,0 H +!.!#%)!#2.3;%<&*,!#'3# 90 Hz 6#
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##
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= 100 rad / s &#
/%,,'.+'<#/"#U!8!#1(#&0!L,!(!#&'#H!)%,')<#
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" m = 50V $&L&5-/5*-63&325-H(&53+&*+(&1/0=*>?5-(M&

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$ m im sen 2 (! t ) cos (# )dt
im2 sen 2 (! t ) dt
T
dt
1
2
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im
2
CDE9RG'
7*01*$*$)*17(03!$%&6H$
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2
1
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2
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9'
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ief =
im
2
9'
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CDE9FG'
CDE9DG'
Q'.)-(&' cos(# ) '5'%)$&(*$#%&'A<G>?$E@$I>GJFCB<9'
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"(#' ,&--)$.)' ("*.&' (#*+' #/.#' 1#-#' #.*$>*-' "(#' %).)-(*$#%#' 1&.?$,*#' %&' 3")' +)-*#'
,&--)$.)' #/.)-$#%#' ()%)' %*-).#()$.)' #' .)$+8&' )J*,#I' )' $8&' &' 6#/&-' *$+.#$.K$)&' %#'
$),)++7-*#'+)'&',*-,"*.&'&1)-#++)'1-TU*(&'M'-)++&$K$,*#')('3")'&'J#.&-'+)'#1-&U*(#'%)'
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!"#$
$
!#%$
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cos(! ) =
R
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Z
Z
=
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"#$%#&'()%*!&()+,)-!
 = R ief2 .!
=
/01.23!
dt
1
= " m im cos(! ) :!
2
1
(60V )(0,115 A)(0,520 ) = 1,79 W .!
2
!
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4%#*56"'"! 7)! $5'$75&%! 894! ")! *,'5":! ")! ;7":!

$%)!7)(!<%#&"!6"!<'";7=#$5(!(#>7?('! $
$!1,!'!'2!,$&134'()*5'
R = 200 # :! L = 50,0 mH :! C = 600 nF :!
= 10.000 rad / s !"! " m = 60 V .!@"&"')5#"!%!<(&%'!
N7(?!*"'5(!(!()A?5&76"!6(!$%''"#&"!"!(!A%&=#$5(!),65(!6%!$5'$75&%!894!6%!MOMPQ9L!01.R!
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GH.I!"!GH.J-!
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1
1
XC =
=
= 167 # !!!
$ C (10.000 rad / s ) 600 % 10 &9 F
"!
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(J+O1"1+)+#1.5'(!)+/1-'$(!%)+)1+#-!":-!1+8+!7>)3+U+-$6!6.5'(!)+/1-'$(!%)+)1+6$(>'%:-!12+
%$'1"!')%1+!"#"$%&'()*%)+$,%*-&!+"#*+
# 1i1 = # 2i2 *+
./.0123)4567)
9"+ -:%!1+ %$+ ;<<+ =2+ )'.$6+ >.!3!?)%1+ $"+ @-)603!)+ 1'%$+ )+ .$'6A1+ /1-'$(!%)+ #$3)+
O1"1+++
#1 N 2 = # 2 N1 +$+ i2 = # 2 R 2+
(1"#)'4!)+$38.-!()+8+%$+BB<+C+8+3!7)%1+$"+@$31+D1-!?1'.$+1'%$+)+.$'6A1+/1-'$(!%)+8+%$+
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R=
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#1
i1
(N 2
2
N1 ) *+
)%)#.)HA1+#)-)+>.!3!?)HA1+%1+)#)-$341*+
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.-)'6/1-")%1-M+
i1 =
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#1
100 W
= 0,91 A *+
110 V
V1712+
(J+O)3(>3$+)+6>)+-$6!6.5'(!)+$38.-!()*+
R=
8329:;3<+ )J+ E$F$P6$+ >.!3!?)-+ >"+ .-)'6/1-")%1-+ G>$+ )>"$'.$+ )+ .$'6A1+ #)-)+ BB<+ C*+
110V
(2)2 = 484 $ *+
0,91A
Q)N$"16+G>$+>")+.$'6A1+)3.$-')%)+#-1%>?+>")+F)-!)HA1+%$+/3>R1+")7'8.!(1+).-)F86+%1+
.-)'6/1-")%1-*+,N6$-F$+G>$+
# 1 = " N1
d !B
++
dt
d !B
2+
# 2 = "N2
dt
$++
1'%$+ # 1 + $+ # 2 + 6A1+)6+ .$'6I$6+'1+ #-!":-!1+$+ 6$(>'%:-!1+ $+
)
)
N1 + $+ N 2 +6A1+16+ 'L"$-16+ %$+
$6#!-)62+ -$6#$(.!F)"$'.$*+ S6.)"16+ %$6#-$?)'%1+ )+ -$6!6.5'(!)6+ %16+ $'-13)"$'.16*+
E$66)6+$G>)HI$6+(1'(3>!"16+G>$+
N 2 # 2 220V
=
=
= 2 *+
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$6#!-)6+%1+#-!":-!1*+
)
NJ+T+(1--$'.$+$38.-!()+'1+-:%!1+#1%$+6$-+1N.!%)+).-)F86+%)+#1.5'(!)+"8%!)2+
i2 =

#2
100 W
2+
220 V
)
)
i2 = 0,45 A *+
!"#$
$
!"%$
$
!"#$%#&'()%*"+&','(,'#('&-.-,',"#($!%$%#&'#(
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1+*" >$'%." -." >9.01&'()*" *'Q1/*9"
'&-.-,',"(/012(
R = 100 # 8" L = 25,0 mH 8" C = 300 nF 8" ($+"
% = 500 rad / s " ." " m = 60 V
6" M.%.9+)'." $" >*%$9" -."
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!"#$%&'()*"+,-)*","-*-*"#./*".01*23$"45678"
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1
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2
=
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!"*+#/)%1-."-*"($99.'%.","-*-*"#./*".01*23$"7:6;8"
im =
"m
Z
01*'-$"*"($99.'%.".>)(*?"'$"=.(1'-R9)$">$9")Q1*/"*"E5"+!U"
80,0V
= 0,762 A "
105 #
<*9*".'($'%9*9+$="$">*%$9"-."#$%&'()*8" cos
D4564F"G+"%9*'=>$9+*-$9"#$==1)"E555".=#)9*="'$"#9)+R9)$"."I5".=#)9*="'$"=.(1'-R9)$6"
*F"S1*/","*"A$/%*Q.+"'$"=.(1'-R9)$"#*9*"1+*"%.'=3$".>)(*?"-."EI5"J"*#/)(*-*"'$"
#9)+R9)$U"
(! ) 8"1%)/)?*+$="*".01*23$"
BF" S1*)=" =3$" *=" ($99.'%.=" ./,%9)(*=" '$=" #9)+R9)$" ." =.(1'-R9)$8" 01*'-$" $"
& X $ XC #
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! 8"
R
%
"
X $ XC
tg (! ) = L
R
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.01*23$"7:6C8"
2
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2
'
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2
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(
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<$9%*'%$8"
& Z 2 $ R2
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$
R
%
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D'%3$" cos !
'.==."()9(1)%$6"
2
#
&
#
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!
$ R2
!
"
%
"
"
<EI6IF" Y$=%9." 01." *" ($99.'%." +RW)+*" *(1+1/*-*" .+" 1+" (*#*()%$9" -." 1+" ()9(1)%$" OP"
-.#.'-." -$=" A*/$9.=" )')()*)=" -*" (*9Q*8" -*" ($99.'%." ." -*" >9.01&'()*" *'Q1/*98" -." *($9-$"
= 0,714 6"
($+"*".01*23$" qm =
!"#$%&'()*"+,-)*","-*-*"#$9"
q02 + (i0 %0 ) 6"
"
1
1
= " m im cos(! ) = (80,0V )(0,762 A)(0,714 ) "
2
2
<EI67F" Y$=%9." 01." .+" 1+" ()9(1)%$" OP8" *" ($'=%*'%." -." >*=." ," -*-*" #./*" .01*23$"
= 21,8W 6"
tg (!0 ) =
"
$ i0
%0 q0
6"
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!
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$
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$
UNIDADE 13
PROPRIEDADES MAGNTICAS DA MATRIA E EQUAES DE
MAXWELL
Nas unidades anteriores, vimos que correntes eltricas geram campos

magnticos, que campos magnticos variveis geram correntes eltricas e
que esses campos e essas correntes interagem. Entretanto, no estudamos
as causas da existncia de campos magnticos gerados por ims, nem
porque certos materiais podem apresentar caractersticas magnticas. Esta
aula dedicada ao exame de tais questes sob a perspectiva da Fsica
Clssica, embora se saiba que a resposta correta a esses fenmenos s
pode ser obtida com o uso da Fsica Quntica. Por isso, a descrio que
faremos nos dar uma idia apenas qualitativa sobre o comportamento
magntico da matria e na medida do possvel introduzirmos a viso e
correes da mecnica quntica.
I=q f =q
AULA 41 PROPRIEDADES MAGNTICAS DA MATRIA
(41.2)
em que ! a freqncia angular do movimento. A corrente eltrica gerada pelo

movimento da carga pode ter o mesmo sentido ou no que o vetor velocidade da
carga; se a carga for positiva, a corrente tem o mesmo sentido de percurso no
circuito que o vetor velocidade da carga; se ela for negativa, o sentido da corrente
oposto ao do vetor velocidade.
OBJETIVO
"
2!
DESCREVER A ORIGEM DO MAGNETISMO NOS MEIOS MATERIAIS
De acordo com a equao 41.1, se r o raio do crculo descrito pela carga

eltrica, o momento de dipolo magntico do circuito descrito pela carga , em
mdulo:
41.1 MOMENTOS MAGNTICOS ATMICOS
= I A = (q f ) (" r 2 ) =
Vimos que um circuito de rea A, percorrido por uma corrente eltrica I, tem
!
associado a ele um momento magntico dado por:
q! 2 1
" r = q! r 2.
2"
2
(41.3)
A direo perpendicular ao plano do circuito e o sentido depende do sinal da

carga eltrica q , como mostra a Figura 41.2.
= I A n,
(41.1)
em que n o vetor unitrio normal ao plano do circuito, com sentido dado pela
regra da mo direita (Figura 41.1).
Figura 41.2: Sentido do momento magntico: (a) se a carga eltrica for positiva; (b) se a
carga eltrica for negativa.
Por outro lado, se m for a massa da partcula, o seu momento angular orbital
, em mdulo:
L = r (m v ) = m ! 2 r.
Figura 41.1: O vetor momento magntico de um circuito. Os dedos no sentido da circulao
da corrente tal que o dedo aponta na direo de
Consideremos agora uma carga eltrica
De (41.3) e (41.4) vem que:
M=
q descrevendo uma rbita circular
em um campo magntico. Se f for a freqncia de seu movimento, isto , nmero

de vezes por segundo que a carga descreve o crculo, a corrente gerada no circuito
:
(41.4)
q
L,
2m
(41.5)
ou, na forma vetorial:
q !
L
2m
(41.6)
Nesta equao, os vetores
e L
possuem o mesmo sentido ou

O momento magntico total do eltron , ento:
sentidos opostos, de acordo com o sinal da carga eltrica, conforme pode

ser visto nas figuras 41.2a e 41.2b, respectivamente.
Suponhamos agora que a carga eltrica seja um eltron e que ele esteja
e =
circulando em torno de um tomo. Nesse caso, temos, na equao (41.6):
e = !
e !
L
2 me
!
!
e
! L + 2S
2 me
(41.7)
A equao (41.6) a relao da Fsica Clssica entre momento de dipolo

magntico e momentum angular orbital. Ela tambm ocorre na Fsica Quntica,
em que e a carga do eltron. O sinal negativo porque a carga do eltron
mas a, o momentum angular j no tem as mesmas propriedades do momentum
negativa. Com essa notao, fica claro que, para o eltron, o momento
angular clssico: ele quantizado, isto , s ocorre na Natureza em mltiplos
magntico tem sentido oposto ao do momentum angular orbital. Temos
inteiros de
tambm que ambos os vetores so perpendiculares ao plano orbital do
consequncia
eltron.
eletromagntico do prton que impede o eltron de estar em qualquer rbita(isto ,
h / 2# = 1,05 "10 !34 J.s ( h a constante de Planck). A quantizao

do
confinamento
ou
aprisionamento
do
eltron
no
campo
Alm do momento magntico orbital, a Fsica quntica nos diz que o
com qualquer energia). Como uma corda presa em ambas as extremidades que s
eltron possui uma outra propriedade que no existe na Fsica Clssica
pode vibrar em configuraes nas quais o comprimento da corda seja um nmero
!
chamada de spin ( S ),
equivalente a um momento de dipolo magntico. Do ponto
de vista clssico, o spin do eltron seria anlogo ao momentum angular de rotao

do eltron em torno de si mesmo. O momento de dipolo magntico correspondente
ao spin :
de
! 2.
O s pode girar em rbitas cujas energias sejam mltiplos inteiros
E0
!! 0
.
ou
2
2
Se expressarmos o momento magntico orbital em termos de
"
spin em termos de S / ! , a equao (41.7) pode ser escrita como:
!
e !
S = !
S,
2 me
onde
inteiro de
"
um coeficiente, denominado razo giromagntica, que depende
e =
da estrutura da partcula atmica e do sinal de sua carga. Os prtons e os
"
L / ! e o de
"
"
e! & L
S#
$ ' + 2 !.
2 me $% !
! !"
nutrons tambm possuem spin e os valores da razo giromagntica so

dados na Tabela 41.1.
A constante:
Tabela 41.1: Valores da razo giromagntica para partculas atmicas
PARTCULA
RAZO
GIROMAGNTICA
Eltron
-2,024
Prton
5,585
Nutron
-3,826
B =
e!
= 9,27 " 10 !24 A.m 2 = 9,27 " 10 !24 J / T = 5,79 " 10 !5 eV / T
2 me
tem o nome de magnton de Bohr.
!
! dm
M =
.
dV
Um tomo contm geralmente muitos eltrons e estes se acomodam aos

vrios nveis de energia de modo a terem spins opostos; assim, o momento
(41.8)
magntico de um tomo com nmero um par de eltrons nulo (como exemplo, os

tomos de H e He). Quando o nmero de eltrons no tomo mpar, o tomo
possui um saldo de pelo menos um eltron com spin sem o par; o tomo, ento,
apresenta um momento magntico de spin no nulo.
Os prtons e os nutrons embora possuam spin, tm massas muito maiores
que as do eltron e, por isso, eles possuem momentos magnticos muito menores
(da ordem de
A unidade deste vetor no Sistema Internacional a do momento de dipolo

magntico dividida pela unidade de volume, isto , A.m .
10 3 vezes o do eltron); portanto, sua contribuio para o clculo do
momento magntico total de um tomo tem pouca influncia.
Quando um material colocado em um campo magntico de induo

campo induz um campo magntico
!
Bm dentro
!
B0 ,
este
material de modo que o campo
magntico que medimos a soma vetorial desses dois campos. Ento, para
distinguir a contribuio de cada campo dentro do material ao campo magntico
total B , definimos o vetor intensidade do campo magntico ( H ) como:

ATIVIDADE 41.1
Mostre que as unidades
!
!
! B
!
B
H= 0 =
! M.
A.m e J T para o magnton de Bohr so equivalente
34.3 VETORES MAGNTICOS
No Sistema Internacional, H e
(41.9)
!
!
M tm as mesmas unidades. O vetor H
mede a contribuio das fontes de campo magntico externas ao material;
movimento orbital e principalmente ao spin dos seus eltrons. Essa a razo
!
M , o campo magntico gerado pelos momentos de dipolo do
! !
! !
!
!
material. Os vetores B , H e M so anlogos aos vetores D , E e P na
principal para que os materiais sejam ou no magnticos: um material composto
eletrosttica.
Como acabamos de ver, os tomos possuem momento magntico devido ao
por tomos com nmero mpar de eltrons, ser capaz de apresentar propriedades
o vetor
A equao (41.9) pode ser escrita:
magnticas, pois o momento de dipolo magntico total de seus tomos no nulo.

Tal material , portanto, magneticamente polarizado.
!
! !
B = 0 ( H + M )
Quando colocamos esse material magneticamente polarizado em um campo
(41.10)
magntico, os dipolos magnticos do material tendem a se alinhar com o campo

magntico externo, criando dentro do material, um campo magntico induzido
EXEMPLO 41.1
paralelo aos momentos de dipolo magnticos.

Para descrever o estado magntico de um material vamos definir algumas
Consideremos um solenide percorrido por uma corrente eltrica I. Se, dentro do

solenide houver vcuo, o vetor magntico
quantidades, tal como foi feito no estudo da polarizao em dieltricos.

O estado magntico de um material descrito pelo seu vetor magnetizao
!
M , cujo mdulo igual ao momento de dipolo magntico por unidade de volume
do material:
!
M ser nulo porque no h material
magntico na regio. O campo magntico total existente nela devido corrente

eltrica que percorre o solenoide; ento,
!
!
B = B0 = 0 H . Para o solenide com
vcuo, temos:
Para materiais paramagnticos e diamagnticos, o vetor magnetizao
B0 = 0 n I
onde n o nmero de espiras por unidade de comprimento do solenide. A
equao (41.10) nos d, ento, que:
!
!
M diretamente proporcional ao vetor do campo magntico H e podemos
escrever que:
H = nI
!
!
M = ! H,
Se preenchermos o interior do solenide com um material e a corrente permanecer
(41.11)
constante, o vetor H no muda, pois ele depende apenas da corrente. Entretanto o

campo magntico
B dentro do solenoide passa a ser diferente do que existia
quando havia vcuo nesta regio. A diferena est no fato de que houve
magnetizao do material, descrita pelo termo
!
0 M
em que a constante
denominada susceptibilidade magntica do
material. Para substncias paramagnticas, ela positiva, e a magnetizao
!
!
M tem o mesmo sentido que H . Para substncias diamagnticas, ela
!
!
negativa e M tem sentido oposto ao de H .
da equao (41.10)
A relao linear entre a magnetizao e a intensidade do campo magntico

em
41.3 MATERIAIS MAGNTICOS
uma
substncia
no
vale
para
materiais
ferromagnticos;
neles,
susceptibilidade magntica no constante.

A Tabela 41.2 mostra valores da susceptibilidade magntica para algumas
De acordo com seu comportamento quando colocados em um campo

magntico, os materiais podem ser classificados em trs tipos:
substncias.
Levando a equao (41.11) em (41.10), obtemos:
!
! !
!
!
!
B = 0 ( H + M ) = 0 ( H + ! H ) = 0 (1 + ! ) H .
(a) Paramagnticos: em que os momentos de dipolo magntico dos

eltrons em metais ou dos tomos e molculas do material, ficam
parcialmente alinhados quando submetidos um campo magntico
externo, fazendo-o aumentar;
Definindo, agora, a permeabilidade magntica do material por:
(b) Diamagnticos: em que o momento de dipolo magntico total

nulo. Ele induzido pelo campo magntico externo e tem sentido
m = 0 (1 + ! )
oposto ao campo magntico aplicado, fazendo-o decrescer;
(c) Ferromagnticos: em que os momentos de dipolo magnticos do
(41.12)
vem que:
material interagem fortemente com os seus vizinhos; ocorre, assim,
!
!
B = m H ,
um alto grau de alinhamento desses dipolos no material e, quando

ele sujeito a um campo magntico externo, mesmo muito
(41.13)
pequeno, ocorre um aumento muito grande desse campo. Mesmo

sem o campo externo, um material ferromagntico pode produzir
relao entre induo magntica e intensidade de campo magntico vlida para
campo magntico devido ao alinhamento de seus dipolos.
materiais
paramagnticos
diamagnticos.
Notemos
que,
nos
materiais
10
paramagnticos,
m > 0 ;
nos
materiais
diamagnticos,
tambm, que, como a susceptibilidade magntica

materiais, a permeabilidade magntica
m < 0 .
A energia potencial ( U ) de um dipolo magntico de momento
Notemos,
muito pequena para esses
m muito prxima da permeabilidade

! !
U = ! B
(vrios milhares de vezes maior). Finalmente, a relao (41.13) no vlida para
em
!
um campo magntico de induo B dada por:
magntica do vcuo ( 0 ). Entretanto, para materiais ferromagnticos, m >> 0
materiais ferromagnticos, porque
colocado
U = " B cos! .
no caracterstica do material, mas
depende tanto do estado anterior da substncia quanto do processo que leva a

substncia a seu estado fsico atual.
A energia potencial menor quando o dipolo est paralelo ao campo ( !
do que quando ele est com sentido contrrio ao do campo ( !
TABELA 41.2: Susceptibilidade magntica para algumas substncias a 300 K.
Platina
2,9 "10 !4
Bismuto
! 1,7 "10 !5
Cromo
2,7 "10 !4
Chumbo
! 1,7 "10 !5
Nibio
2,6 "10 !4
Diamante
! 2,2 "10 !5
Tungstnio
6,8 "10 !5
Prata
! 2,6 "10 !5
Mostre que, para
Alumnio
2,3 "10 !5
Mercrio
! 2,9 "10 !5
trmica
Clcio
A diferena
Substncia
Paramagntica
Ltio
= 180 ).
= 0 )
Substncia
Diamagntica
2,1"10
!5
Ouro
! 3,6 "10
1,9 "10
!5
Silcio
! 4,2 "10 !6
"U = U (180 ) ! U (0 ) = !2 B.
ATIVIDADE 41.2
B = 1T , #U = 1,16 "10 !4 eV e que, para T=300 K a energia
U t = 2,59 " 10 !2 eV .
!5
O exemplo 41.1 nos mostra que a energia trmica cerca de 200 vezes maior
que a energia potencial do dipolo. Portanto, mesmo com um campo magntico to
forte quanto o de 1 T a maioria dos dipolos no estar alinhada com o campo por
causa da agitao trmica dos tomos do material.
41.3.1 PARAMAGNETISMO
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) estabeleceu experimentalmente a relao entre o

Quando os tomos de um material possuem momentos de dipolo magnticos
que quase no interagem entre si, a susceptibilidade magntica do material muito
pequena. Se ela tambm positiva, quando o material colocado em um campo
campo magntico externo, a temperatura do material e a magnetizao do material

paramagntico em um campo magntico fraco. Essa relao, conhecida como a lei
de Curie, se expressa da seguinte forma:
magntico externo, os momentos de dipolo que antes disso estavam orientados em

todas as direes, passam a se orientar paralelamente ao campo, com o mesmo
M =C
sentido dele. Essa orientao no , entretanto, absoluta pois os seus tomos
B
,
T
possuem agitao trmica que tanto maior quanto maior for a temperatura do
material. Assim, a frao dos tomos cujos dipolos se alinham com o campo
em que
magntico externo depende da intensidade do campo e da temperatura.
uma constante, denominada constante de Curie que depende do
material. A Figura 41.3 mostra grficos da relao entre a magnetizao (em
11
12
unidades do magnton de Bohr por on) em funo
BT
(em quilogauss por grau
Kelvin) para trs materiais paramagnticos. Vemos que, para
BT
O nmero de molculas por unidade de volume dado por:
muito pequenos,
a lei de Curie obedecida; para valores grandes do campo magntico, a
n=
magnetizao tende a um valor constante que depende do material; isto significa
N (tomos por mol )

! (kg / m 3 ),
M (kg )
que, para valores grandes de B/T, h uma saturao de dipolos magnticos

orientados com o campo magntico.
em que
M a massa molecular do material. Pode-se
o nmero de Avogadro e
mostrar que, na regio onde a lei de Curie vlida, a constante C dada por:
C=
em que
3k
Ms,
k a constante de Boltzmann.
41.3.2 DIAMAGNETISMO
Figura 41.3: Grfico da magnetizao em funo de B/T. A lei de Curie obedecida para
valores pequenos de B/T.
Os
materiais
diamagnticos
possuem
uma
susceptibilidade
magntica
negativa e muito pequena. Podemos estudar o efeito da induo causada por um

campo magntico externo a um material diamagntico com um modelo de eltrons
com movimento circular em torno do ncleo do tomo. Sejam, ento, dois eltrons
ATIVIDADE 41.3
A partir da Figura 41.3, determine a constante de Curie para os trs materiais
mostrados.
que circulam em torno de um tomo com sentidos de movimento opostos (Figura

41.4).
Se todos os tomos e molculas do material tiverem seus momentos de

dipolo alinhados com um campo magntico externo, o momento magntico por
unidade de volume do material o produto do nmero de molculas por unidade de
volume n pelo momento de dipolo de cada molcula. Neste caso extremo, temos,
para a magnetizao de saturao:
M s = n .
Figura 41.4: Movimento de eltrons em campo magntico.
13
14
Para um observador situado no ncleo N do tomo, com a cabea no sentido
m ! 2 r = F0 e v B = F0 e ! r B = m! 02 r e!rB ,
positivo do eixo OZ, o movimento circular do eltron da parte (a) da figura, gera
uma corrente eltrica convencional com sentido horrio; portanto, o momento de
dipolo magntico orbital associado a essa corrente tem sentido oposto ao do eixo
OZ. O movimento do eltron da parte (b) da figura gera uma corrente eltrica
convencional com sentido anti-horrio; portanto, o momento de dipolo magntico
em que o sinal (+) se aplica ao eltron da figura 41.4a e o sinal (-), ao eltron da
figura 41.4b. A fora centrpeta maior no eltron da figura 41-4a que no da figura
41.4b.
orbital associado a essa corrente tem sentido coincidente com o do eixo OZ.
Eliminando
Suponhamos que os raios das trajetrias dos eltrons sejam as mesmas;
assim, suas velocidades orbitais so tambm as mesmas, dadas por:
F das duas ltimas equaes, obtemos a variao da freqncia
angular de movimento de qualquer dos eltrons, devida presena do campo

magntico:
eBr
v=
.
m
m (! 2 " ! 02 ) = e ! B
O momento de dipolo magntico orbital do tomo, devido aos dois eltrons, ,

portanto, nulo.
Os eltrons so mantidos nas suas rbitas pela fora eltrica entre eles e o
ou:
ncleo do tomo. Esta fora a fora centrpeta necessria para manter o

movimento circular. Ento, de acordo com a segunda lei de Newton, temos que:
m (! + !0 ) (! " !0 ) = e ! B,
F0 =
m v2
= m !02 r ,
r
mas
! " !0
e, ento, podemos escrever que:
! + !0 " 2!
! # !0 = "! .
Assim,
a equao acima fica:

em que
!0
a frequncia angular do movimento dos eltrons em sua rbita
2 m !" = e B.
circular.
!
Quando um campo magntico de induo B aplicado sobre o tomo, este
A variao da frequncia angular do movimento do eltron, causada pela

presena do campo magntico, , ento:
sofre ao de uma fora magntica:
Fm = e v B = e ! r B,
!" =
eB
.
2m
em que ! a nova frequncia angular de movimento dos eltrons. De acordo com

a regra da mo direita, ela radial, mas tem sentido contrrio para os eltrons da
Figura 41-4. Com o campo magntico, a fora centrpeta que atua sobre o eltron
Essa variao de freqncia angular do movimento do eltron produz uma

variao da corrente eltrica gerada pelo eltron, dada por:
fica:
15
16
$I = #e
atmicos que tendem a se alinhar mutuamente mesmo na presena de um campo
$"
e2 B
=#
.
2!
4! m
magntico muito fraco.

Todos os materiais ferromagnticos so formados por regies microscpicas,
chamadas de domnios magnticos, com volumes entre
O momento de dipolo magntico do tomo passa a ser:
contendo
10 !12 m 3 a 10 !8 m 3
1017 a 10 21 tomos cujos momentos de dipolo magnticos so alinhados.
Os domnios possuem orientaes magnticas diferentes uns dos outros. No
e2 r 2
m = 0 + "m = "I A = "I (# r ) = !
B
4 m
material no magnetizado, eles esto orientados ao acaso de modo que o momento
de dipolo magntico total do material nulo (Figura 41.5a). Entretanto, quando o

material colocado em um campo magntico externo a ele, os domnios se alinham
ao campo externo (Figura 41.5b). Esse alinhamento to grande que o campo
ou, vetorialmente:
magntico gerado pelos dipolos vrias ordens de grandeza maior que o campo
externo. Ao contrrio do que ocorre com os materiais paramagnticos, quando o
campo externo removido, o material costuma manter a magnetizao adquirida,
!
e2 r 2 !
m=!
B,
4 m
com mesmo sentido do campo externo. Nas temperaturas normais, a agitao

trmica no capaz de eliminar a orientao adquirida.
em que o sinal negativo mostra que o momento de dipolo se ope ao campo

magntico aplicado.
Todas as substncias diamagnticas possuem momento de dipolo
magntico total nulo e somente quando colocados em campos magnticos,
este momento fica diferente de zero. Os momentos induzidos que causam
o diamagnetismo tm intensidades da ordem de
10 !5 B .
Figura 41.5 Os domnios magnticos e sua orientao.
PENSE E RESPONDA 41.1

Que caractersticas da estrutura atmica so relevantes para determinar se um
elemento diamagntico ou paramagntico?
Os materiais ferromagnticos apresentam uma propriedade importante. Para

descrev-la, consideremos um solenide e uma barra de ferro dentro dele.
Faamos passar uma corrente eltrica no solenide, aumentando-a de zero at um
valor I. O solenide criar um campo magntico H em seu interior e, com a
41.3.3 FERROMAGNETISMO
presena da barra de ferro, surgir um campo magntico
!
0 M
paralelo a ele. A
O ferromagnetismo ocorre no ferro, cobalto, nquel, gadolnio, disprsio e nas
!
Figura 41.6 mostra um grfico do campo resultante B dentro do solenoide,
ligas desses elementos. Ele devido interao entre os dipolos magnticos
denominado curva de magnetizao. medida que aumentamos a corrente
17
18
eltrica, o campo magntico B dentro da barra aumenta ao longo da curva Oa de
Este efeito chamado de histerese (do grego atraso) e mostra que a
zero at um valor mximo correspondente ao ponto a da figura. O achatamento da
magnetizao de uma substncia ferromagntica (no caso, nossa barra de ferro)
curva perto do ponto a o resultado do fato da magnetizao estar aproximando
depende da histria da substncia assim como do campo magntico aplicado a ela.
de seu valor de saturao, em que todos os momentos de dipolo magnticos esto
A trajetria fechada na Figura 41.6 chamada de curva de histerese. Sua
alinhados com o campo do solenide. Acima deste valor limite da magnetizao, o
forma e dimenso dependem da substncia e da intensidade mxima do campo
campo na barra de ferro aumenta apenas devido ao aumento do campo gerado
magntico externo. Para materiais ditos duros (Figura 41.7a) ela larga,
pelo solenide.
correspondendo a uma maior magnetizao remanescente. Esses materiais no so

desmagnetizados facilmente. Para materiais ditos moles, como o ferro, a curva
estreita (Figura 41.7b). Esses materiais so magnetizados e desmagnetizados
facilmente.
Figura 41.6: Curva de magnetizao para material ferromagntico.
Quando a corrente reduzida a zero a partir do ponto a, o campo do
Figura 41.7 Curva de histerese para materiais duros e moles.
solenide diminudo at se anular, mas a magnetizao do ferro no diminui do

mesmo modo que aumentou; o campo magntico B dentro da barra, embora de
mesmo sentido que antes, segue a curva ab. Isto ocorre porque a orientao dos
domnios no se torna mais aleatria como antes, e resta alguma magnetizao
mesmo quando o campo externo nulo (ponto b na figura).
A curva de magnetizao tem uma informao importante: sua rea

representa o trabalho necessrio para fazer o material passar pelo ciclo de
histerese. A energia adquirida pelo material durante a sua magnetizao
Se o sentido da corrente eltrica no solenide invertido, o sentido do campo

magntico H no solenide tambm se inverte e os domnios se reorientam at que
o material se torna desmagnetizado no ponto c, onde o campo no material nulo.
Um aumento da corrente eltrica a partir do valor zero causa a magnetizao
produzida pela fonte do campo externo (a fora eletromotriz que atua no solenide,
por exemplo). Quando o ciclo de magnetizao repetido o realinhamento dos
domnios magnticos do material produzem dissipao de energia atravs da
transformao de energia magntica em energia interna, o que aumenta a
temperatura do material. Por isso, quando usamos materiais magnticos em
da barra no sentido oposto at a saturao no ponto d.

Se repetirmos a seqncia de eventos a partir deste ponto, a corrente
reduzida a zero e depois aumentada no sentido oposto (original); na curva de
magnetizao, a trajetria do sistema representada pela linha def. Se a corrente
conjunto com campos magnticos variveis (como adaptadores para celulares,

fontes de potncia, etc.) o ncleo do aparelho feito de um material mole, que
estreita a curva de histerese e diminui a perda de energia por ciclo.
aumentada novamente, a magnetizao da barra aumenta e a curva chega ao

ponto a onde h a saturao da magnetizao.
19
20
deve ser feita sobre uma curva fechada
AULA 42: AS EQUAES DE MAXWELL
C envolvendo a superfcie sobre a
qual se calcula o fluxo magntico. O fato da integral ser diferente de zero

neste caso, mostra que o campo eltrico induzido por uma variao
OBJETIVOS
temporal do fluxo magntico no um campo conservativo, como o campo

eletrosttico, que gerado por uma carga ou distribuio de cargas em
DISCUTIR AS EQUAES DE MAXWEEL E AS SUAS CONSEQUNCIAS
repouso. A lei de Faraday foi o primeiro passo para unificar a eletricidade e o

magnetismo, uma vez que ela nos mostra que existe uma outra fonte de
42.1 LEIS DO ELETROMAGNETISMO ANTES DE MAWWELL
campos eltricos, alm das distribuies de cargas, e que esta fonte est
diretamente relacionada aos campos magnticos:
As leis do eletromagnetismo que estudamos at aqui foram leis descobertas

empiricamente, no laboratrio. Elas so escritas como:
(a) Lei de Gauss:
"
um volume do espao
cargas.
uma fora eletromotriz e portanto, um campo eltrico induzido.
!
Q
E n dS =
,
(d) Lei de Ampre:
S , envolvendo
V , contendo uma distribuio discreta ou contnua de
Q a carga lquida positiva diferena entre a carga total positiva e
a total negativa contida no volume
V . A lei de Gaus estabelece a
existncia de cargas eltricas isoladas na Natureza.
!
B n dS = 0.
! !
B dl = 0 I
que descreve o campo magntico induzido por uma corrente eltrica de

conduo
I . Observe que I a corrente eltrica que atravessa a superfcie
limitada pela curva fechada
C.
Se, por um instante, deixarmos de lado a lei de Faraday, veremos que, em
"A fonte dos campos eletrostticos so distribuies estticas de carga".
"A fonte dos campos magnetostticos so correntes eltricas".
Observando agora as Leis de Faraday e de Ampre
Ao contrrio das cargas eltricas, no existem plos magnticos isolados na

Natureza (ou pelo menos eles ainda no foram detectados). Por exemplo,
quando partimos um im em dois, obtemos outros dois ims, cada um com
dois plos (um Norte e o outro Sul). Portanto, se calcularmos o fluxo do
vetor induo magntica atravs de qualquer superfcie fechada envolvendo
um im, este fluxo ser nulo.
(c) Lei de Faraday:
situaes estticas, temos a seguinte imagem:
(b) Lei de Gauss para o Magnetismo:
!0
que descreve o campo eltrico em uma superfcie fechada
Faraday concluiu que
variaes temporais do fluxo de campo magntico so capazes de produzir
teremos a sensao
estranha de que as equaes no esto simtricas! A lei de Faraday mostra que um

campo magntico que varia no tempo capaz de gerar um campo eltrico mas a lei
de Ampre no contem um termo que indique que um campo eltrico varivel no
tempo no pode gerar um campo magntico? Se esse termo existisse teramos uma
simetria nas equaes (descobertas em laboratrio) para o eletromagnetismo.
Haveria ento duas fontes para o campo eltrico: distribuies de
cargas e campos magnticos variveis no tempo; e tambm duas fontes
! !
d! B
E dl = "
dt
possveis
para
campo
magntico:
correntes
campos
eltricos
dependentes do tempo.
que descreve o campo eltrico induzido que gerado quando ocorre uma
variao temporal do fluxo magntico. A integral de linha do campo eltrico
A pergunta fundamental : porque esse efeito no foi observado? Logo
chegaremos resposta dessa pergunta. Antes disso, vamos ver como foi que em
1862, James Clerck Maxwell (1831 1879) chegou a essa mesma idia sem usar
experimento algum, apenas estudando o conjunto de equaes que ele tinha
disponveis. Seus resultados permitiram a previso da existncia de ondas
eletromagticas
como
resultado
da
auto-induo
dos
campos
eltricos
magnticos. Em 1866, as ondas eletromagnticas foram descobertas por Heinrich
em que
!
v a velocidade da carga e n o unitrio da direo perpendicular
superfcie em cada ponto dela. Mas
!
!
j = qnv
a densidade lquida de corrente que
atravessa a superfcie de dentro para fora do volume
V . Ento, a corrente eltrica
que atravessa a superfcie :
Herz (1857 1894).
!
I = ! j n dS .
S
42.2 CONSERVAO DA CARGA ELTRICA

Vamos comear discutindo o princpio da conservao da carga eltrica. O que
quer dizer que a carga conservada, matematicamente? Existem, na realidade,
duas maneiras completamente distintas de implementar a conservao da carga,
supondo que:
Observe que esta corrente a carga eltrica positiva lquida que atravessa a
superfcie
S por unidade de tempo, no sentido de dentro para fora do volume V .
Esta corrente representa a taxa de perda de carga que ocorre no volume
V e
podemos escrever que:
a) A lei de conservao de cargas GLOBAL. Isto quer dizer que se uma

quantidade de carga desaparece de um lugar e aparece num lugar
arbitrariamente distante, a carga estar, neste sentido, conservada.
dq
=
dt
! j n dS ,
(42.1)
b) A lei de conservao de cargas LOCAL. A lei de conservao LOCAL de

cargas nos diz que a carga no desaparece instantaneamente de um volume
para aparecer em outro volume arbitariamente distante, mas que a
em que o sinal negativo da equao indica que ocorre a perda de carga no volume
densidade de carga por unidade de volume que desaparece, no desaparece
V . Esta equao representa o princpio de conservao da carga eltrica com a
"de qualquer jeito". Ela obrigada a atravessar a superfcie que engloba o
suposio de que a carga eltrica no criada ou destruda na Natureza.
volume considerado. Se a densidade de carga desaparece de um volume
Mas, de acordo com a lei de Gauss, a carga positiva total dentro da superfcie S :
arbitrrio, ela o faz atravessando as fronteiras desse volume, como uma

densidade superficial de corrente. Esta ser a maneira que usaremos para
!
q = " 0 ! E n dS
discutir a conservao da carga eltrica.
Consideremos, ento, um volume

fechada
Perda da carga em
Se
V do espao limitado por uma superfcie
de modo que :
. O princpio de conservao da carga eltrica neste volume nos diz que:
dq
d
= "0
dt
dt
V = fluxo de carga para fora de S fluxo para dentro de S .
n o nmero lquido de cargas positivas dentro de V , que atravessam
a superfcie
Substituindo a equao (42.1) na equao acima, obtemos:
S , por unidade de tempo e de volume, e se q a carga de cada
partcula, o fluxo total de partculas para fora do volume :
! E n dS .
! j n dS + "
S
d
dt
! E n dS = 0
(42.2)
!
! = q n v n dS ,
3
que expressa o princpio de conservao da carga eltrica incorporando a lei de

Gauss. Note que, quando o campo eltrico for esttico, a integral do segundo termo
Neste caso, a lei de Ampre nos diz que:
da equao (42.2) no depende do tempo, o que d:
! j n dS = 0
!
! j n dS = 0.
expresso que concorda com o princpio de conservao da carga eltrica, enquanto

Isto quer dizer que, para campos eltricos estticos, no h acumulao de
cargas eltricas em qualquer regio do espao e a corrente eltrica lquida que
atravessa qualquer superfcie fechada sempre zero. Essa, alis, a razo da
primeira lei de Kirchoff para circuitos eltricos.
o campo for esttico. Quando o campo eltrico no for esttico, a obedincia ao

princpio de conservao da carga representada pela equao (42.2). Levando em
conta este fato, Maxwell props que, quando o campo eltrico no for esttico,
a lei de Ampre passa a ser escrita da seguinte forma:
!B dl
42.3 LEI DE AMPRE-MAXWELL
= 0
"B dl
Depois de discutirmos o aspecto matemtico da conservao de carga
! j n dS +
= 0 i + 0 # 0
"0
d
dt
! E n dS
d
!E.
dt
(42.3)
eltrica, podemos agora estudar a modificao que Maxwell fez da lei de Ampre
para introduzir a relao entre um campo eltrico varivel e o campo magntico
Esta equao se reduz lei de Ampre para campos estticos e se torna a

equao (42.2) quando a curva
gerado por ele.
! !
!B dl = 0
Maxwell.
!
! j n dS
O termo:
#0
se aplica a uma superfcie S limitada por uma curva
mas com a condio de ser limitada pela curva
C . A superfcie S arbitrria,
d! E
d
= #0
dt
dt
" E n dS = I
C . Se a curva C diminui seu
comprimento, o valor da integral da induo magntica tambm diminui. No limite

em que a curva
C se reduz a um ponto. Assim, todas as situaes
fsicas ficam satisfeitas com a lei nessa nova forma, conhecida como lei de Ampre-
A lei de Ampre, escrita em termos da densidade de corrente:
C se torna um ponto, a superfcie S torna-se uma superfcie
fechada (Figura 42.1).
tem unidade de corrente eltrica e denominado corrente de deslocamento. Com

isso, a equao (42.3) pode ser escrita como:
!B dl =
( I + I D ).
(43.4)
O sinal positivo da corrente de deslocamento na equao de Ampre-Maxwell

indica que, se o fluxo eltrico aumentar com o tempo, o sentido do campo
magntico induzido por ele o mesmo sentido que o dado pela regra da mo
direita; se o fluxo eltrico diminuir com o tempo, o sentido do campo magntico
Figura 42.1: Superfcie S limitada por uma curva C: S aberta (b) S fechada.
induzido por ele oposto ao sentido dado pela regra da mo direita.
B.
A discusso acima puramente matemtica, feita para tentar fazer a lei de
Ampre compatvel com a conservao da carga eltrica. Ela s tem significado se
pudermos confirmar a veracidade da equao (42.3) com experimentos. Isso pode
Enquanto o capacitor carregado, o campo eltrico
superfcie bojuda aumentam. A carga instantnea dada por:
ser verificado em um nmero imenso de experincias e de resultados que
q = CV
corroboram a lei.
Vamos ver como o problema pode ser colocado experimentalmente no
exemplo 42.1.
!
E e o fluxo !E atravs da
onde C a capacitncia e V a diferena de potencial instantnea. Para o capacitor

de placas paralelas temos:
EXEMPLO 42.1
C = !0
Vamos considerar o processo de carga de um capacitor, semelhante ao da Figura

42.2. Os fios conduzem uma corrente iC para dentro da placa da esquerda e para
fora da placa da direita. A carga Q e o campo eltrico entre as placas aumentam
com o tempo.
A
d
onde A a rea da placa e d a distncia entre elas. Como a diferena de potencial

entre as placas :
V = Ed
podemos escrever a carga no capacitor na forma:
q = CV =
"0 A
d
Ed = " 0 A = " 0 ! E
onde !E = EA que o fluxo eltrico atravs da superfcie.

Figura 42.2: Capacitor de placas paralelas sendo carregado.
SOLUO: Vamos aplicar a lei de Ampre no percurso
!
dl mostrado
Enquanto o capacitor carregado, a taxa de variao da carga q :

na figura,
d! E
dq
= "0
dt
dt
consistindo em um crculo em torno do fio.
Pela superfcie
S1 :
Como, na superfcie bojuda,
! !
! B dl = 0ic .
Pela superfcie
" B ! dl
= 0 iD
S2 :
! B dl
C
Para resolver notamos que
vem:
= 0.
iD = " 0
d
! E = iD = iC
, pela continuididade da corrente e de
dt
7
d! E
dt
resultado em acordo com a lei de Ampre-Maxwell.
EXEMPLO 42.2
Determine o campo magntico dentro e fora das placas do capacitor, Figura 42.2.
Faa um esboo de B em ambas as situaes.
Figura 42.3 Sentido da corrente eltrica nas placas do capacitor.
EXEMPLO 42.3
A carga de um capacitor varia com o tempo razo dq/dt. Mostre que a corrente
Figura 42.2 campo magntico em um capacitor

SOLUO: Fora do capacitor, no caso ser em volta do fio, o campo magntico
dado pela lei de Ampre:
! B " dl
c
de deslocamento, na regio interna s placas, igual corrente de conduo que a

elas aflui da regio externa.
SOLUO: Sabemos que a corrente num fio
= 0i
ento:
iC =
dq
, e que a lei de Gauss para o
dt
campo eltrico pode ser escrita da seguinte maneira:
i
B= 0
2!r
iC =
Dentro do capacitor inclumos a corrente de deslocamento e exclumos a corrente
de conduo pois no tem nenhum meio condutor entre as placas. Com a lei de
Ampre-Maxwell:
# B " dl
c
= 0 i + 0$ 0
d! E
dq
= "0
= iD
dt
dt
EXEMPLO 42.4
Obtenha uma expresso para o campo magntico induzido na regio entre placas
d! E
dt
em funo de r. Considere tanto r ! R e r " R.

SOLUO: Sabendo que entre as placas a corrente de conduo zero, podemos
! !
d!
#c B " dl = 0 + 0$ 0 dt E
usar:
# B " ds = $
0
B 2#r = 0 + 0" 0
B=
" 0 ! E = q , ento:
d! E
dt
Para
d
dE
( E!r 2 ) = 0" 0!r 2
dt
dt
B=
d! E
dt
r ! R:
B 2!r = 0" 0
0# 0 d! E
2"r dt
1
dE
0! 0 r
2
dt
10
Para
r!R
B 2!r = 0" 0
d
dE
( E!R 2 ) = 0" 0!R 2
dt
dt
ou:
B=
0 ! 0 R 2 dE
2r
dt
EXEMPLO 42.5
Uma rea
eltrico
A = 0,20m
est no plano
xy e completamente inmersa num campo
E com sentido do eixo Oz, dado por:
E = Em cos (" t ) k
com um perodo
Em = 8,00 ! 105 N / C
T = 4,0 s .
(a) Ache uma expresso para a corrente de deslocamento.

(b) para
t ! 0 em que instantes do tempo iD = 0 ?
SOLUO: (a) Temos que:
iD = " 0 &
!
%E
2!
2!
n dS = " 0 ($# ) Em sen (# t ) A = $" 0 Em A
sen (
t)
%t
T
T
iD = !(0,220 A)sen (1,57 " 10 6 rd.s !1t )

b)
t ! 0 em que instantes do tempo iD = 0 ?
1,5708 "106 = n! n = 0,1,2,...

t=
n!
= 0s,2s,4s, ,...
1,5708 #10 6 s "1
11
AULA 43: FORMA DIFERENCIAL DAS EQUAES DE MAXWELL
sobre um escalar (V), para produzir um vetor
!
& ' ! ' '#
!V !V ! !V
i+
j+
k.
(V = $$ i
+j
+ k !! V =
!x
!y
!z
'
x
'
y
'
z
%
"
OBJETIVO
!
!V :
(43.3)
ESTUDAR A FORMA DIFERENCIAL DAS EQUAES DE MAXWELL
As equaes de Maxwell, estudadas na aula anterior, descrevem o campo
Um operador uma entidade matemtica que executa uma operao. No
eletromagntico de uma forma global, isto , nos pontos do espao sem levar em
caso em discusso, o operador ! , aplicado a um escalar V(x,y,z), produz um vetor
conta o que acontece na vizinhana imediata de cada ponto. Para fazer uma
descrio local, temos que modificar a forma das equaes, escrevendo-as na
forma diferencial. Antes de fazermos isso, porm, vamos fazer uma digresso
matemtica necessria para nosso objetivo.
!
!V cujas componentes em um sistema de coordenadas cartesianas so as
!
derivadas parciais de V em relao a x, y e z. O operador ! denominado Del ou

Nabla.
43.1 O OPERADOR DEL

No estudo do campo eltrico (eletrosttico) vimos que ele pode ser
especificado em um ponto P do espao por duas grandezas: O vetor intensidade
do campo eltrico
!
E (x,y,z) e o escalar potencial eletrosttico V(x,y,z). Vimos
EXEMPLO 43.1
Suponhamos uma distribuio esfrica de matria de modo tal que a densidade
volumtrica dessa distribuio varie com o inverso da distncia ao centro:
tambm que essas duas quantidades esto relacionadas pela equao:
! !
!V !V ! !V
E = "V =
i+
j+
k.
!x
!y
!z
O vetor
! (r ) =
(43.1)
sendo
A
A
=
2
2
r
x + y + z2
1/ 2
A uma constante de dimenso kg / m 2 . O gradiente de densidade da
distribuio , ento:
!
!V denominado gradiente do potencial. Seu significado que ele
!
, - ! - - ) &$
1
&1#
./ = A .$ ! = A *i
+ j
+k '
-y
-z ( $% x 2 + y 2 + z 2
%r"
+ -x
indica a direo e o sentido da maior variao do potencial no espao. Portanto, a
1/ 2
#
!
!
"
direo e o sentido do campo eltrico so os mesmos que os da maior variao do

Ento:
potencial eletrosttico.
Matematicamente, a funo
!
!V pode ser vista de outra maneira, qual seja:
a aplicao de um operador vetorial:
!
! ! ! !
" = i
+j
+k
!x
!y
!z
"
1
"x x 2 + y 2 + z 2
"
1
"y x 2 + y 2 + z 2
"
1
"z x 2 + y 2 + z 2
(43.2)
1/ 2
=!
1
2x
2 x2 + y2 + z 2
1/ 2
=!
1
2y
2 x2 + y2 + z 2
1/ 2
=!
1
2z
2 x2 + y2 + z 2
3/ 2
=!
x
r3
3/ 2
=!
y
r3
3/ 2
=!
z
r3
! ! !V
!V y
!V y
!V
!V
!V
j i + y j j + y j k +
" V = x i i +
i j + z i k +
!x
!x
!x
!x
!y
!z
e:
Portanto,
!
"!
!
!
x
y ! z
x i + y j + z k
r
r
"# = ! 3 i ! 3 j ! 3 k = !
=! 3 =! 2
3
r
r
r
r
r
r
um vetor que tem a direo radial, com sentido para o centro da
!Vz !Vz !Vz

k i +
kj+
k k,
!x
!y
!z
distribuio e que varia com o inverso do quadrado da distncia ao centro.

como:
ATIVIDADE 43.1
i i = j j = k k = 1
Calcule o gradiente da seguinte funo escalar:
V ( x, y, z ) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
e o restante zero pois
Mostre que :
em que r = r / r o vetor unitrio na direo de
formam uma base ortonormal, temos que:
! ! !V
!Vy !Vz
" V = x +
+
.
!x
!y
!z
ATIVIDADE 43.1
! 1
r
" n = !n n+1
r
r
i, j e k
!
r e r o mdulo deste vetor.
(43.4)
A divergncia, por ser um produto escalar, uma grandeza escalar.
43.2. DIVERGNCIA DE UM VETOR
EXEMPLO 43.2
!
A divergncia de um vetor V definida como o produto escalar do operador
!
!
! pelo vetor V :
Calculemos
! !
!
! r , com r = x i + y j + z k .
SOLUO: Temos que:
! ! !x !y !z
" r = + + = 1+1+1 = 3
!x !y !z
! ! & ' ! '

'#
( V = $$ i
+j
+ k !! Vx i + V y j + Vz k .
'y
'z "
% 'x
ATIVIDADE 43.3
Mostre que:
Desenvolvendo o produto escalar e lembrando que o operador atua sobre as
componentes do vetor V (que so grandezas escalares), temos:
! & r! # & 3 ' n #

( $ n ! = $ n !
%r " % r "
EXEMPLO 43.3
EXEMPLO 43.4
A intensidade do campo eltrico em um ponto P do espao, situado distncia
No Exemplo 43.3 mostramos que nula a divergncia do vetor intensidade do
de uma carga Q que gera o campo eltrico e que est situada na origem de um
campo eltrico em um ponto P de um campo eltrico onde no h cargas eltricas.
sistema cartesiano de coordenadas :
De acordo com o teorema de Gauss, se escolhermos um volume V em torno de P,
!
E=
Calcule a divergncia de
r
4" !0 r3
Q
o fluxo do vetor
!
E atravs da superfcie que delimita o volume V :
"
" !
" = # E n dA = # (! E) dV = 0
!
E no ponto P.
Soluo: De acordo com o resultado da Atividade 43.2, temos que:
! & r! # & 3 ' 3 #

( $ 3 ! = $ 3 ! = 0.
%r " % r "
ATIVIDADE 43.4
O resultado do exemplo 43.4 consistente com a Lei de Gauss?
Este resultado nos mostra que a divergncia de um vetor que proporcional a
1r
sempre nulo.
43.3. ROTACIONAL E CIRCULAO DE UM VETOR

ATIVIDADE 43.3
Verifique o resultado do Exemplo 43.3 calculando diretamente a divergncia do
vetor
!
E.
4.3.1 ROTACIONAL
O rotacional de um vetor definido como o produto escalar do operador !
A divergncia de um vetor G em um elemento de volume dV , envolvendo
um ponto P, pode ser relacionada com o fluxo do vetor G atravs da superfcie

fechada dA que limita o volume dV . Essa relao obtida do clculo vetorial e
tem o nome de Teorema de Gauss. Matematicamente, temos que, se G um

vetor no ponto P, contido no volume V que, por sua vez limitado pela superfcie
A:
pelo vetor
!
V:
. i
! ! ,'
0 /V = ,
, 'x
,-Vx
!
j
'
'y
Vy
!
k+
' ) & 'Vz 'V y # & 'Vx 'Vz # & 'V y 'Vx #
!i + $
! k . (43.6)
)=$
(
(
(
! j + $$
'z ) $% 'y
'z !" % 'z
'x "
'y !"
% 'x
Vz )*
Por ser um produto vetorial, o rotacional um vetor.
!
! !
# = ! G n dA = ! (" G) dV .
EXEMPLO 43.5
(43.5)
Calculemos
! !
!
" ! r , com r = x i + y j + z k .
SOLUO:
O fluxo de um vetor atravs de uma superfcie igual integral da
divergncia deste vetor sobre o volume limitado pela superfcie.
! ! & 'z 'y # & 'x 'z #

& 'y 'x #
* ) r = $$ ( !! i + $ ( ! j + $$ ( !! k = 0
% 'y 'z " % 'z 'x "
% 'x 'y "
ATIVIDADE 43.5
Calcular
do vetor V e do elemento de comprimento
! !
!
" ! r , com r = 5 x i + 3 y j + 4 z k .
"
d ! , o sinal da integral depende do
sentido de percurso da curva. Convencionaremos que o sentido positivo de

percurso ser aquele em que a superfcie S esteja sempre esquerda da curva.
Isso, de fato, a noo de para dentro de uma curva, que trabalhamos nas
primeiras aulas.
Em segundo lugar, no caso mais geral, o valor da circulao depende da curva
EXEMPLO 43.6
que escolhermos para calcul-la. Nesse caso, o valor da circulao no definido
Calcular:
univocamente. Por exemplo, o trabalho da fora de atrito.
! & r #
( ' $ n ! , r = x2 + y2 + z 2
%r "
1/ 2
Por outro lado, h casos em que o valor da circulao independente da

curva usada para calcul-la: o valor da circulao sempre o mesmo. Por exemplo,
SOLUO:
no caso do campo eltrico induzido. Esses casos so muito importantes em Fsica
&
$
i
$
! - r * $
'
/.+ n ( = $
'x
,r ) $
x
$
$% x 2 + y 2 + z 2
!
j
'
'y
y
3/ 2
(x
+ y2 + z2
#
!
!
!
!
!
!
2
2
2 3/ 2 !
x +y +z
"
porque permitem simplificaes na soluo de problemas muitas vezes complexos.
!
k
'
'z
z
3/ 2
Por isso, interessante determinarmos as condies em que esses casos podem

ocorrer.
Da mesma forma que acontece com o fluxo e a divergncia de um vetor, a
circulao nos fornece uma soluo global, vlida em uma regio do espao. Ela
ou:
pode ser relacionada com o rotacional que, por ser um operador diferencial, nos
! ' r $
n
)(% n " = !
&r #
x2 + y2 + z 2
( n+ 2 ) / 2
!
( yz ! zy ) i + ( zx ! xz ) j + ( xy ! yx ) k = 0
fornece uma informao local, perto de um ponto do espao. Essa relao dada
pelo Teorema de Stokes, do clculo vetorial, que nos diz:
A circulao de um vetor V ao longo de uma curva C igual ao fluxo

de seu rotacional atravs de uma superfcie A delimitada pela curva C:
43.3.2 CIRCULAO
A circulao (C) de um vetor V a integral de linha deste vetor sobre uma
! !
CC = # V d " =
curva fechada:
" "
CC = ! V d !
c
! !
(! " V ) n dS.
(43.8)
(43-7)
Esta grandeza um escalar, pois uma integral de um produto escalar. Ela j
Nesta expresso,
n a normal superfcie encerrada pela curva C. a noo
conhecida de ns (apesar de no com esse nome de circulao), pois a usamos no
do lado de dentro de uma curva como fizemos no comeo do livro: com o polegar
enunciado e nas aplicaes das leis de Ampre e de Faraday. Vamos agora estudar
apontamos o sentido positivo de percurso da curva C; o sentido da normal dado
algumas de suas propriedades.
fechando-se a mo.
Em primeiro lugar, h duas maneiras de se percorrer uma curva: no sentido

horrio ou no sentido anti-horrio. Alm disso, uma curva fechada encerra uma
ATIVIDADE 43.6
Calcule
I2 + I4
superfcie S. Como o produto escalar do integrando depende dos sentidos relativos
Um resultado fundamental do Teorema de Stokes que, quando a
# E n dA =# (" E ) dV = !
!
circulao de um vetor ( V ) nula em uma trajetria fechada, essa
circulao independe da trajetria escolhida para calcul-la; alm disso,

ela univocamente determinada em cada ponto do espao. Como a
circulao um escalar, cada ponto do espao tem, associado a ele, um
sendo S a superfcie que envolve o volume infinitesimal V. Se, neste volume
valor desta quantidade.
elementar, a carga eltrica tiver um distribuio caracterizada por uma densidade
A variao deste valor entre dois pontos depende apenas da posio relativa
volumtrica
! = dQ / dV , temos, na equao acima, que:
entre eles. Este fato est na base do princpio de conservao das quantidades
fsicas como a energia. Por exemplo, o trabalho de uma fora entre dois pontos
uma integral de linha do produto escalar da fora pelo deslocamento sob ao dela
! (" E ) dV = $ !
entre esses dois pontos. Quando a trajetria fechada, o trabalho da fora pode
# dV .
ser nulo ou no, dependendo da natureza da fora. Se este trabalho nulo, ele
independe da trajetria usada para calcul-lo.
Como consequncia do Teorema de Stokes, a circulao de um vetor igual
Como o volume elementar arbitrrio, podemos escrever que:
ao rotacional deste vetor. No caso da fora, a condio do trabalho ser nulo

significa que o rotacional da fora nulo. A fora , ento, dita ser conservativa.
! ! "
#E =
!0
(43.9)
43.4 A FORMA DIFERENCIAL DAS EQUAES DE MAXWELL

A mesma coisa pode ser feita para o campo magntico. A lei de Gauss para o
As equaes de Maxwell, na sua forma diferencial, constituem-se na
campo magntico:
representao local do campo eletromagntico (na vizinhana de um ponto do

campo). Elas so obtidas pela aplicao dos teoremas de Gauss e de Stokes s
formas integrais.
! B n dS =0
S
A lei de Gauss, nesta forma :
" E n dS = !
S
fica, com o mesmo raciocnio:
em que S uma superfcie atravs da qual calculamos o fluxo do vetor intensidade

do campo eltrico,
Q a carga (ou distribuio de carga) lquida positiva encerrada
! !
! B = 0.
(43.10)
no volume V delimitado pela superfcie S . Vamos, ento, aplicar a lei de Gauss a

um volume infinitesimal em torno de um ponto P. De acordo com o teorema de
Gauss, podemos escrever que:
Aplicando o teorema de Stokes lei de Faraday:
10
! !
d# E
d
E d" = "
="
C
dt
dt
!
! !
!
!E
# " B = 0 j + 0 $ 0
.
!t
! B n dS
S
obtemos:
(43.12)
As equaes (43-9), (43-10), (43-11) e (43-12) so as equaes de Maxwell

na sua forma diferencial. No vcuo e em uma regio onde no existem cargas
eltricas ( !
!
! !
d !
!B
(
$
#
E
)
n
dS
=
"
B
n
dS
=
"
%S
%S !t n dS
dt %S
!
= 0 ) ou correntes eltricas ( j = 0 ),
temos
!
!
!E / dt = 0 e !j / dt = 0 .
As equaes de Maxwell estabelecem as relaes entre os campos eltricos e

os magnticos. Elas esto de acordo com a Teoria da Relatividade e constituem,
juntamente com a fora de Lorentz:
ou, como a superfcie S arbitrria, temos:
!
! ! !
F =Q E+v!B
!
! !
!B
$# E = " .
!t
(43.11)
a base da eletrodinmica, cuja aplicao cobre todos os casos em que grandes
agregados de cargas eltricas interagem, tais como antenas, circuitos eltricos,
ondas eletromagnticas, e at tomos e molculas, Elas, entretanto, precisam ser
Finalmente, a lei de Ampre-Maxwell:
modificadas
quando
se
trata
de
interaes
entre
partculas
fundamentais,
principalmente em altas energias. Nesse caso, s a Eletrodinmica Quntica
! !
!
d
B d " = 0 ! j n dS + 0 " 0
S
dt
capaz de descrever essas interaes.
! E n dS
S
43.5 DEMONSTRAO DO TEOREMA DE GAUSS (OPCIONAL)

fica, com a aplicao do teorema de Stokes ao primeiro membro:
Para demonstrar o teorema de Gauss, seja P um ponto do espao contido em um
! !
!
d
!S (# " B) n dS = 0 !S j n dS + 0 $ 0 dt
!
E n dS .
elemento de volume dV , o qual est limitado por uma superfcie elementar dA .

Como o elemento de volume infinitesimal, podemos tom-lo na forma de um
cubo de arestas dx , dy , dz para facilitar os clculos. Seja ento um sistema de
coordenadas cartesianas Oxyz com origem em um vrtice do cubo e eixos dirigidos
Novamente, como a superfcie S arbitrria,
ao longo de trs arestas do cubo (Figura 43.1).
11
12
!
G2 = G2 x i + G2 y j + G2 z k
A normal superfcie S2 tem o mesmo sentido que o eixo Ox, de modo que
podemos escrever que n = i . Ento, o fluxo do vetor
!
d" 2 = ! G2 n dA = ! (G2 x i + G2 y j + G2 z k) (i) dy dz = ! G2 x dy dz
Figura 43.1: Elemento de volume em torno do Ponto P.

Vamos calcular o fluxo do vetor
!
G(x, y, z) atravs de S2 :
!
G(x, y, z) atravs da superfcie do cubo. Para isso,
!
devemos notar que, no caso mais geral, o vetor G varia de ponto a ponto dentro
O fluxo atravs da superfcie S3 calculado de forma similar s anteriores. Os
do cubo e tambm na sua superfcie.
pontos dessa superfcie tm coordenadas (x,0,z). Portanto,

Comecemos com a superfcie S1. Os pontos dessa superfcie tm coordenadas
(0,y,z). Portanto,
vetor de
!
!
G(x, y, z) = G(0, y, z) . Para simplificar a notao, chamaremos este
!
G1 . Em termos de suas componentes em relao a Oxyz, ele se escreve:
!
!
G(x, y, z) = G(x, 0, z) .
Chamemos este vetor de G3 . Em termos de suas componentes em relao a Oxyz,

ele se escreve:
!
G3 = G3 x i + G3 y j + G3 z k
!
G1 = G1x i + G1 y j + G1z k
A normal superfcie S3 tem o sentido oposto ao eixo Oy, de modo que podemos
A normal superfcie S1 tem sentido oposto ao do eixo Ox, de modo que podemos
escrever que
n = !i . Ento, o fluxo do vetor
!
G ( x, y , z )
escrever que
!
n = ! j . Ento, o fluxo do vetor G(x, y, z) atravs de S3 :
atravs de S1 :
!
d#3 = ! G3 n dA = ! (G3x i + G3 y j + G3z k) (" j ) dx dz = "! G3 y dx dz
!
d#1 = ! G1 n dA = ! (G1x i + G1 y j + G1z k) ("i) dy dz = "! G1x dy dz
Calculemos o fluxo atravs da superfcie S4. Os pontos dessa superfcie tm

Calculemos agora o fluxo atravs da superfcie S2. Os pontos dessa superfcie tm
!
!
coordenadas (0+dx,y,z). Portanto, G(x, y, z) = G(0 + dx, y, z) . Chamemos este vetor
!
de G2 . Em termos de suas componentes em relao a Oxyz, ele se escreve:
coordenadas (x,0+dy,z). Portanto,

de
!
!
G(x, y, z) = G(x, 0 + dy, z) . Chamemos este vetor
!
G4 . Em termos de suas componentes em relao ao sistema Oxyz, ele se
escreve:
!
G4 = G4 x i + G4 y j + G4 z k
13
14
A normal superfcie S4 tem o mesmo sentido que o do eixo Oy, de modo que
!
podemos escrever que n = j . Ento, o fluxo do vetor G(x, y, z) atravs de S4 :
A normal superfcie S6 tem o sentido oposto ao eixo Oz, de modo que podemos
escrever que n = !k . Ento, o fluxo do vetor
!
G(x, y, z) atravs de S6 :
!
d" 4 = ! G4 n dA = ! (G4 x i + G4 y j + G4 z k) ( j ) dx dz = ! G4 y dx dz
!
d#6 = ! G6 n dA = ! (G6 x i + G6 y j + G6 z k) ("k) dx dz = "! G6 z dx dz
Calculemos agora o fluxo atravs da superfcie S5. Os pontos dessa superfcie tm
O fluxo total a soma dos fluxos. Ento, escrevendo os fluxos de modo
coordenadas (x,y,0+dz). Portanto,
conveniente, teremos:
!
!
G(x, y, z) = G(x, y, 0 + dz) . Chamemos este vetor
!
de G5 . Em termos de suas componentes em relao a Oxyz, ele se escreve:
!=
# (G
2x
" G1x )dy dz + # (G4 y " G3y )dx dz + # (G5z " G6 z )dx dy
!
G5 = G5 x i + G5 y j + G5 z k
Na equao acima, agrupamos os fluxos atravs de superfcies paralelas, como
podemos observar na Figura 43.1. Mas, como a separao entre as superfcies
A normal superfcie S5 tem o mesmo sentido que o eixo Oz, de modo que
podemos escrever que
!
n = k . Ento, o fluxo do vetor G(x, y, z)
!
d! 5 = " G5 n dA =
paralelas so diferenciais, podemos escrever que:
atravs de S5 :
G2 x " G1x =
" (G
5x
i + G5y j + G5z k)(i)dy dx = " G5z dy dx
!G
dx
!x
G4 y " G3 y =
!G
dy
!y
G5 z " G6 z =
!G
dz
!z
Levando essas expresses na expresso do fluxo total, obtemos:

O fluxo atravs da superfcie S6 calculado de forma similar s anteriores. Os
pontos dessa superfcie tm coordenadas (x,y,0). Portanto,
!
!
G(x, y, z) = G(x, y, 0) .
Chamemos este vetor de G6 . Em termos de suas componentes em relao a Oxyz,
#=!
ele se escreve:
"G
"G
"G
dx dy dz + !
dy dx dz + !
dz dx dy
"x
"y
"z
ou:
!
G6 = G6 x i + G6 y j + G6 z k
' (G (G (G $
) = ! %%
+
+
"" dx dy dz
& (x (y (z #
15
16
"
B "
B
I1 = ! V d ! = ! (Vx dx + V y dy ),
ou, ainda, das definies de divergncia e de fluxo:
!
! = # G n dA =
mas, ao longo de AB, temos que
! !
# (" G)dV
(43-5)
y = 0, dy = 0 . A componente Vx
pode ser expressa
em srie de Taylor em torno de seu valor em A, por:
43.6 DEMONSTRAO DO TEOREMA DE STOKES (OPCIONAL)
Vx = Vx (0,0) +
!Vx (0,0)
x +!
!x
Assim, a integral I1 fica:

O Teorema de Stokes relaciona a circulao de um vetor em um circuito C e o fluxo
de seu rotacional atravs de uma superfcie A delimitada por C. De acordo com ele,
# V d" = #
a '
!V (0,0)
1 !Vx (0,0) 2
$
I1 = ( %Vx (0,0) + x
x + !" dx = Vx (0,0) a +
a +!
0
!x
2 !x
&
#
! !
(" !V ) n dS
y = b dy = 0 .Observando
A demonstrao do Teorema de Stokes muito complexa e, aqui, faremos uma
Ao longo de CD, temos que
simplificao mas sem perda do rigor necessrio. Consideremos uma curva fechada
de AB mas com a funo avaliada em
y = b.
A integral
que CD o caminho inverso
I 3 fica:
C na forma de um retngulo de lados paralelos aos eixos Ox e Oy de um sistema de
coordenadas cartesianas (Figura 43.2). Calculemos a circulao de um vetor V ao

longo deste retngulo, de lados a e b, comeando pelo ponto A.
0 (
!V (0, b)
1 !Vx (0, b) 2
%
I 3 = ) &Vx (0, b) + x
x + !# dx = "Vx (0, b) a "
a +!
a
!x
2
!x
'
$
Somando as duas integrais, obtemos:
I1 + I 3 = ([Vx (0, b) ( Vx (0,0)]a (
Figura 43.2: Retngulo representando a curva C
1 & 'Vx (0, b) 'Vx (0,0) # 2

(
!a .
2 $% 'x
'x
"
Temos que:
" "
" C " " D " " A " "
B "
C xy = ! V d ! = I1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4 = ! V d ! + ! V d ! + ! V d ! + ! V d !.
C
Como a e b so infinitsimos, podemos escrever que:
Ento:
17
18
Vx (0, b) = Vx (0,0) +
!Vx (0,0)
b +!
!y
' (V (V y
C yz = %% z )
(z
& (y
!Vx (0, b) !Vx (0,0) ! 2Vx

=
+
b +!
!x
!y
!x!y
A REPETIO DOS CLCULOS E A CONTINUAO DA DEMONSTRAO

SERO
Levando essas expresses na soma
I1 + I 3 e
$
"" !A
#
desprezando os termos maiores que a
FEITAS
AQU
SE
FICAR
DECIDIDO
MANTER
AS
DEMONSTRAES DOS TEOREMAS DE GAUSS E GREEN.
segunda ordem, temos:
I1 + I 3 = "
!Vx (0,0)
ab
!y
Podemos ento, ajuntar esses resultados na forma vetorial:
De modo anlogo podemos calcular as integrais I 2 e I 4 . O resultado :
! !
! !
C = # V d " = (" !V ) n dS
C
I2 + I4 =
!V y (0,0)
!x
ab
Em que a normal superfcie S dada pela regra da mo direita: seu sentido o
Finalmente,
sentido de fechamento da mo quando envolvemos a curva C no sentido positivo

do percurso (com o polegar apontando neste sentido).
" "
' (Vy (Vx $
" !S
C xy = * V d ! = I1 + I 2 + I 3 + I 4 = %%
)
(y "#
& (x
C
com
!S = a b ,
rea da superfcie limitada pela curva C. Esta equao nos diz que,
dada uma curva C no plano xy, a circulao do vetor V por unidade de rea da
superfcie S, envolvida
pela curva C, igual componente do rotacional deste
vetor na direo do eixo Oz.

Se repetirmos os clculos para outros retngulos, (nos planos xz e yz, obteremos
que:
' (V (V $
C xz = % x ) z " !A
(x #
& (x
e:
19
20
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Apndice E Tabela Peridica
660
!"#"!$%&'()*+'+,'-.!/#'&()*
*
*
ALONSO, M.; FINN, E. J. Fsica. So Paulo: Edgard Blcher, 1999.
BLAU, P. J. Friction Science and Tecnology. New York: CRC Press, 2008.
CHAVES, Alaor S. Fsica. Rio de Janeiro: Reichmann & Affonso Editores, 2001.
EISBERG R.M.; LERNER L.S.. Fsica, fundamentos e aplicaes. So Paulo: Editora
McGraw Hill do Brasil, 1982.
FEYNAM R.P., LEIGHTON R.B., SANDS M. The Feynman Lectures on Physics. 1963.
Reading: Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1963
HALLIDAY D., RESNICK R. Fundamentos de fsica. 3. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Livros
Tcnicos e Cientficos S.A., 1993.
KELLER F.J., GETTYS W.E., SKOVE M.J.. Fsica. So Paulo: Makron Books do Brasil,
1999.
NUSSENZVEIG, Moyss H. Curso de fsica bsica. 3. ed. So Paulo: Edgard Blcher,
1997.
RESNICK R., HALLIDAY D.,,KRANE K.S. Fsica. 4. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Livros Tcnicos
e Cientficos S.A., 1996.
RESNICK R., HALLIDAY D.,,KRANE K.S. Fsica. 5. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Livros Tcnicos
e Cientficos S.A., 2003.
SEARS & ZEMANSKY; YOUNG H.D., FREEDMAN R.A.. Fsica. 10. ed. So Paulo:
Addison-Wesley, 1993.
SERWAY, R. A. Fsica. 3. ed. So Paulo: Pioneira Thomson Learning Ltda., 2004.
TIPLER P.. Fsica para cientistas e engenheiros. 4. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Livros Tcnicos e
Cientficos S.A., 2000
*
661

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