1 Running head: PERSONAL POSITION PAPER

Personal Position Paper Jo Friesen University of Calgary

PERSONAL POSITION PAPER

Table of Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 3 Philosophical Assumptions The Nature of Humans .......................................................................................................... 3 The Nature of Healthy ........................................................................................................... 6 Major Causes of Problems .................................................................................................... 7 The Nature of Change ........................................................................................................... 9 The Counselling Experience Definition of Counselling ...................................................................................................... 10 Counselling Process Beliefs Counsellor-client relationship ......................................................................................... 10 Roles of the client(s) and the counsellor ........................................................................ 11 Session length, duration and number of sessions .......................................................... 13 Emphasis on the past, present and future ..................................................................... 13 Emphasis on beliefs, emotions and behaviours ............................................................. 14 Change process ............................................................................................................ 16 Interventions .................................................................................................................. 17 Success......................................................................................................................... 20 Contextual Factors .............................................................................................................. 21 Reflection Theory Weaknesses............................................................................................................ 22 Why I Am Drawn to This Theory .......................................................................................... 23 Concluding Remarks ................................................................................................................ 24

PERSONAL POSITION PAPER

A main goal of counselling is to assist the client in making a change in his or her life (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). There are many aspects involved in the change process, including

why change may be necessary or wanted, what change looks like, and how change happens. In my pursuit of understanding the various theories of counselling, I have come to recognize that prior to investigating the nature of change, it is important to first consider who the client is. Counselling is never the same from one client to the next, or from one dysfunction to the next, even with the same therapist. What makes a difference is who the client is, which is why the nature of humans is where the development of my personal counselling framework begins. Overall, my personal theory of counselling most closely aligns with the Adlerian theory of Individual Psychology. My framework is shaped by my own belief system, my personality, my experience working with children and youth, and my future career goals and expectations. In this paper, I will outline my emerging personal counselling framework, beginning with the my underlying philosophical assumptions regarding the nature of humans, what healthy functioning looks like, the major causes of dysfunction and the nature of change. This will be followed by my personal definition of counselling, along with a discussion of my counselling process beliefs, and how I view the contextual factors that may come into play. The paper will close with a reflection of the weaknesses of my developing theory, as well as a discussion of why I believe this personal counselling framework is a good fit for me. Philosophical Assumptions The Nature of Humans Understanding who a person is begins with an underlying belief about the nature of humans. Adler believed that individuals could only be understood from a holistic viewpoint, one that included the conscious, unconscious, mental, emotional and physical aspects of a person working together in unity (Corey, 2009; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). Each person is unique based on his or her specific constellation of thoughts, beliefs, feelings, actions and social context (Corey, 2009; Osborn, 2001; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). Adler believed that a

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persons behaviour was purposeful, driven, and related to his or her life goals (Corey, 2009). Adler also held that each person is striving for significance in his or her own life, and it is this search for success that enables individuals to overcome challenges and move towards growth (Corey, 2009; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). A final factor Adler considered was that of life style, defined as the way in which an individuals core beliefs and assumptions create a lens through which he or she views, reacts and gives meaning to life events (Corey, 2009). Through connecting these factors together, a therapist would be able to understand the unique perspective of each client, and to support them in developing the goals necessary for therapeutic change. I believe that taking a holistic view of a client requires a therapist to consider multiple factors in assessing and guiding a client, and to recognize that no one factor, incident, behaviour or belief defines who a client is. It also allows for hope that a small change in one area of a clients life can have a significant impact on his or her whole life, and provides a basis for which a client can be wholly understood. Adler also believed that as these whole beings, individuals were both the creators and creations of their own lives (Corey, 2009, pg. 98). This viewpoint supports an understanding that each individual is responsible for his or her own behaviour, and that while our life experiences and personal abilities may shape who we are, these factors do not determine who we become (Corey, 2009, DeRobertis, 2011). A second belief Adler held that is consistent with my own view of human nature is the concept that human behaviour is purposeful. Each of us sets goals for ourselves, and our

behaviour is a reflection of our drive to meet these goals and our perception of ourselves, others and the world around us (Corey, 2009; Osborn, 2001; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). Therefore, in order to understand a client, it is necessary to first have a good understanding of what his or her life goals are and to recognize that individuals have an underlying desire to feel competent and to belong (Corey, 2009; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). While these goals may initially be

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unarticulated, a careful interpretation of the underlying themes found in a clients behaviours, thoughts and feelings may help to uncover the underlying goals (Corey, 2009). The movement towards growth is an important concept in Individual Psychology, and is a concept that I strongly support. Adler believed that this growth came through an individuals striving for significance (Corey, 2009; Corsini & Wedding, 2011). Each person, at certain points in his or her life, would develop feelings of inferiority when faced with inevitable moments of hopelessness (Corey, 2009). Adler believed these feelings were not only natural, but good and

purposeful if these feelings pushed an individual towards growth, and motivated an individual to overcome challenges (Corey, 2009; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). However, these feelings could also lead towards dysfunction, if the individual responded by guarding and protecting his or her own needs and self-esteem (Corey, 2009). Growth involves both recognizing and honing individual strengths, as well as working to improve weaknesses (Corey, 2009). To understand all of these factors, Adler felt it was important to consider the clients life style, or the lens with which they view the world, including his or her perception of self, and of others (Corey, 2009). Adler believed it was this life style which accounted for consistency in our behaviours (Corey, 2009). He suggested our life style was primarily formed within the first six years of life, with our family constellation playing a significant role, but also recognized that later life events could have a significant effect (Corey, 2009; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). Key to Adlers theory regarding life style is that it is not the events themselves that shape an individuals life style, it is each individual persons interpretation of those events (Corey, 2009). This accounts for how different individuals can have significantly different memories and understandings of the same event, and allows hope that through changing how events are perceived, the significance given to those events can also be changed. While I, as of yet, have little practical experience with the value of understanding an individuals life style, I am intrigued by the concept and interested in incorporating this aspect of Adlerian theory into my own practice.

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The Nature of Healthy

Once human nature is defined, it is then possible to define what it means for a person to be a healthy, well-adjusted, well-functioning individual. In Individual Psychology, it is important to first remember that each individual is considered unique, and as such, no two well-adjusted individuals may look exactly alike. However, Adler believed that an individuals degree of social interest was the key factor in evaluating the individuals mental health (Corey, 2009; Rareshide & Kern, 1991). Individual psychology is rooted in the idea that individuals develop within a social context, which is filled with reciprocal exchanges and requires the consideration of interpersonal interaction (Corey, 2009). Each person is considered equal, and should be treated as such (Corey, 2009, OTHER). Adlers social interest describes our capacity to care for others, to contribute to our community and work in co-operation with others (Corey, 2009; Rareshide & Kern, 1991). Having the capacity to consider others, the desire to be out in the world and interact in a positive way with others, being able to value something outside of oneself, and the interest to care for others all speak of an individual who is well-adjusted and well-functioning (Corey, 2009; Leak, 2006; Watts, 1996). In my own work with children and teenagers, much of my career has been devoted to helping these young people to find a significant place in the community, in the hopes that developing a place of purpose and belonging will help each one to better meet and overcome obstacles. The very nature of individual psychology involves regarding each person as unique, and based on this assumption, it follows that no two people will share exactly the same life goals or consider life to have the same meaning (Stone, 2011). However, Adler believed that each persons life goals could be categorized into universal life tasks, including building friendships, establishing intimacy, contributing to society, getting along with ourselves and developing our spiritual dimension (Corey, 2009). Healthy individuals are able to tackle, to accomplish and to cope with these tasks in a productive, positive manner (Ansbacher, 1992; Leak, 2006;

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Rareshide & Kern, 1991). According to Adler, this ability to accomplish life tasks satisfactorily was directly related to an individuals degree of social interest, and that the degree of social interest was determined by a combination of an individuals gifts, his or her personality, and his or her life style (Barclay & Wolff, 2011; Rareshide & Kern, 1991). Research into the concept of social interest has demonstrated that there is a positive correlation between well-developed social interest and life adjustment, and volunteerism (a

demonstration of social interest) can be positively linked to psychological well-being (Rareshide & Kern, 1991). Social interest is negatively correlated with depression and hopelessness, and those with a high level of social interest show fewer symptoms of anxiety and depression (Leak, 2006). In his research, Leak (2006) found that individuals with a high degree of social interest were friendly, empathetic, co-operative, tolerant and nurturing. In children, this healthy social interest is manifested in spontaneous curiosity, creativity, engagement with others and an active exploration of the world (Watts, 1996). In connecting social interest back to the Adlerian belief that the movement towards growth is a key element of human nature, evaluating what direction an individual is moving in whether towards social interest or away from it can help to evaluate an individuals mental health (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). While from a School Psychology perspective, I believe there are additional factors beyond social interest involved in understanding and defining healthy, I appreciate the value of considering social interest, and can envision working from this perspective in a counselling setting. Major Causes of Problems Understanding the nature of a healthy functioning individual allows us to in turn understand what could lead to maladaptive and dysfunctional thoughts, beliefs and behaviours. According to Adler, such problems stem from a low degree of social interest and how an individual deals with his or her feelings of inferiority (Rareshide & Kern, 1991; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). Adler also believed that clients who seek therapeutic support are not sick,

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but rather discouraged (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). As a result, the goal should not be to offer a diagnosis or label, but to instead provide encouragement and hope (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). As mentioned, Adler believed that feelings of inferiority naturally arise as individuals

seek to belong, to achieve life goals and to develop competence (Ansbacher, 1992; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). Problems arise when an individual responds to these feelings by competing with, and seeking superiority over others, which in turn leads to hostility, impatience, aggressiveness and self-preoccupation (Rareshide & Kern, 1991; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). A lack of social interest follows, along with decreased life satisfaction and maladaptive coping methods (Rareshide & Kern, 1991; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). The individual consistently puts him or herself over others, and in so doing, finds it difficult to develop or maintain positive social bonds or connections (Ansbacher, 1992; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). These inadequate methods for coping with these inferiority feelings can also lead to discouragement, which Adler believed was a key factor of poor psychological health (Corey, 2009). This discouragement diminishes the individuals desire, or courage, to strive to achieve his or her life goals, which in turn leads to maladaptive functioning (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). When an individual feels that they are not who they have the potential to become, or can no longer see their own potential, this discouragement may lead them to seek to dominate and compete with others, leading to conflict or to withdraw altogether (Barclay & Wolff, 2011; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). A preoccupation with protecting oneself can make it difficult to be concerned about others, and situations that pose a threat to an individuals self-confidence may lead him or her to choose to protect his or her own interests, rather than considering the interests of others (Ansbacher, 1992). According to Adler, part of our life style is built on our perception of the world around us (Corey, 2009). In developing our perspective, individuals create what Adler termed fictions versions of their understanding of life which they believe to be true, even if those fictions are not objectively true (Stone, 2011). While these fictions are not problematic in and of

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themselves, but they can become a problem if they lead to perceptions that are in an individuals self-interest, rather than social interest (Stone, 2011).

In working with children, problems can arise when a child demonstrates a low opinion of self or when their perception of the world or of others is distorted (Ansbacher, 1992). As with adults, this leads to discouragement, and can rob the child of their innate creativity, leaving them ill-equipped to deal with challenges (Ansbacher, 1992). In my own work with children, I have seen the connection between a childs perception of the world and others, and their perception of self. I have witnessed the difficulties that arise when a child is discouraged, and the hopelessness that results out of a lack of faith in self and in others. When a child is unable to recognize his or her own potential, or to recognize his or her own strengths, the resulting discouragement can have a significant, negative impact on social relationships and a childs ability to cope. As much of my career work thus far has been dedicated to helping children to find their potential, to recognize their strengths, and to see the value in themselves and others, all in hopes of building resiliency and developing healthier individuals, my views are a close fit to the ones that Adler held. The Nature of Change If the reasons for both healthy and unhealthy functioning are considered, the nature of change can then be described by considering what mechanisms are necessary to help an individual move from unhealthy to healthy functioning. In Individual Psychology, encouragement is a fundamental to affecting change (Corey, 2009). Literally building courage, encouragement empowers individuals to take responsibility and to move toward growth (Corey, 2009). This process is accomplished by helping an individual to recognize his or her strengths, to see new possibilities and feel as though he or she belongs (Corey, 2009). The encouragement process also supports the therapeutic relationship, as it builds respect and helps the client to recognize that he or she is competent, worthy and valuable (Corey, 2009).

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A second aspect of change important in this framework is the use of goal setting. These goals are developed by the client and are used to modify and change behaviour (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). The process of understanding and setting goals is important to helping the client to change, as it provides hope, responsibility and respect for the clients own ability to

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formulate and achieve goals (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). Goals also generally involve action, and working towards goals allows the client to put his or her insight into practice (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). This process can allow the client to experience success (even if initially it is only on a small scale) and help to build up the clients courage to continue to move forward (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). The Counselling Experience Definition of Counselling In order for an individual to change, he or she first needs to desire to change and to recognize the need for change. Whether this recognition comes prior to the start of therapy, or at some point throughout the process, it is the therapists responsibility to guide the client through the counselling process. The therapist recognizes the client as a holistic, creative, purposeful individual who is the therapists equal, and allows and empowers the client to develop his or her own goals for change. These goals are developed based on the insight the therapist is able to share and to encourage in the client, based on an understanding of the clients life style. The therapist uses encouragement and an active, healthy therapeutic relationship to support the client to meet his or her goals. Counselling Process Beliefs Counsellor-client relationship. In Individual Psychology, the relationship between the counsellor and the client of is one of equality (Corey, 2009; Corsini & Wedding, 2011). The ideal relationship is one which is collaborative, co-operative, and based on mutual trust and respect (Corey, 2009). Goals are mutually decided upon, and both counsellor and client work together to help the client to attain

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these goals (Corey, 2009). As in most theoretical frameworks, the therapist strives to create a healthy therapeutic relationship by demonstrating warmth, empathy and encouragement

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(Lambert & Barkley, 2002). These common factors are of particular importance, as research has found that they alone account for 30% of therapeutic change which is of interest considering the same research demonstrated that specific therapeutic techniques account for only 15% of therapeutic change (Lambert & Barkley, 2002). The counsellor seeks to create an environment where the client can honestly and freely express who they really are, without judgment (Watts, 1996). The goal is that both the therapist and the client relate to one another with genuineness and honesty (Watts, 1996). Through behavior such as admitting his or her own fallibility and demonstrating an ability to laugh at him or herself, the therapist gives the client permission to acknowledge and demonstrate these traits as well (Watts, 1996). The creativity and uniqueness of each client is recognized and valued, with this idea being supported through having the client serve as an active participant in recognizing his or her own problems, and developing therapeutic goals (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). Social interest also plays a role in the therapeutic relationship. The therapist helps to develop a strong relationship with his or her client by modeling positive social interest, which then allows the client to understand and experience what it means to be in a healthy relationship (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). The therapist can also use the clients response to the relationship to better understand the clients life style and goals (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). Participating in the counsellor-client relationship can also help the client to understand the effort involved in healthy relationships, and conversely, what factors may be involved in any unhealthy relationships (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). This type of therapeutic relationship is designed to help the client to move towards growth in his or her self-worth, self-value, courage and optimism (Watts, 1996). Roles of the client(s) and the counsellor. In order to support clients that are believed to be discouraged and functioning ineffectively with lifes challenges, the counsellor seeks to not only become a source of

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encouragement, but also to help the client to discover and correct any faulty beliefs he or she may have (Corey, 2009). To do this, counsellor works with the client to provide a

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comprehensive assessment of the clients life style (Corey, 2009). This is accomplished through developing an understanding of the clients social context, including his or her family constellation, his or her early recollections and in some cases, his or her dreams (Barclay & Wolff, 2011; Corey, 2009). The belief is that this thorough assessment of a clients life style will allow the therapist to help the client to recognize, to understand and to challenge any faulty perceptions, which will in turn allow the client to make changes to these perceptions (Corey, 2009). Since Adler believed that social interest could be developed and trained, modeling and providing understanding of social interest is an important aspect of the therapists role (Watts, 1996). This is of particular importance when working with children, since children have less life experience to fall back on when attempting to give meaning to circumstances (DeRobertis, 2011). The counsellor can help to guide this process through first taking the childs perspective, and then, from this perspective, helping to guide and support the child to correct any faulty perceptions (DeRobertis, 2011). The clients role is initially to provide genuine and honest responses to the counsellor in order to allow for this assessment to occur (Stone, 2011). However, Adler recognized that certain aspects of the clients responses, particularly early recollections, did not have to be factual to be of use to the counsellor (Stone, 2011). Of interest is the clients perspective of the recollection and how it relates to his or her life style; therefore the narrative content is of less importance (Stone, 2011; Taber & Briddick, 2011). The client must also be interested in change and willing to pursue change (Corey, 2009). It is the clients responsibility to develop his or her own therapeutic goals (in collaboration with the counsellor), based on what the client determines he or she would like to change (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). These goals provide focus for both the client, and the therapeutic process, and are used to target and modify behaviour (Corey, 2009; Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). Having the client and counsellor agree on these goals not only

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allows for the therapeutic process to move forward, but also provides encouragement to the

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client, demonstrates respect for the clients ability to take responsibility, and allows the client to feel safe and accepted all of which aids the change process (Taber & Briddick, 2011). Session length, duration and number of sessions. The development of specific therapeutic goals provides direction for the therapeutic process and leads to a natural end point. Since these goals are determined by the client, and not the counsellor, the number of session involved will naturally vary from client to client. While the therapy needs to extend long enough for allow for different components to occur (development of the therapeutic relationship, assessment, understanding and education), these components are not necessarily linear and can be accomplished in finite number of sessions (Corey, 2011). In working with children, it is important to allow sufficient time for a trusting, genuine relationship to develop, but to also not prolong the therapy past its usefulness. I would anticipate in my own work seeing a child for 8-12 sessions, depending on the nature of the child and the goals he or she is seeking to accomplish. In order to provide the type of active listening necessary for building a strong therapeutic relationship and taking the childs perspective, I would want to keep sessions to 45-60 minutes in length. This would also take the childs attention span into consideration, but not be too short to allow for progress in each session. Emphasis on the past, present and future. At the foundation of Individual Psychology is the notion that people can only be understood by considering the whole person. This must therefore include a consideration of the past, the present and the future. However, not all of these components are considered to have the same relationship to the therapeutic process. According to Adler, consideration of the past in important in understanding an individuals life style, which is why the assessment process includes consideration of early recollections and the clients family constellation (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). How a person thinks and acts in the present, and the goals they are attempting to achieve in the future are

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both related to the persons life style, and therefore, also to the past (Barclay & Wolff, 2011). The past does not define a person in the present, or who he or she will be in the future, but rather provides understanding of the perspective from which a person sees his or her own

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present and future (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). Adler was not concerned with the etiology of a disorder, or therefore any past causes of dysfunction, but rather felt it was important to maintain an orientation to the future, while acknowledging the influence of the past (Osborn, 2001). Adler believed that in helping clients to reach their self-determined future goals, the therapist works in the present with the client to evaluate, assess, and where necessary, reeducate the client in regards to their present perceptions and beliefs (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). Therapeutic techniques and strategies are action oriented, allowing the client to put his or her learning into practice, but ultimately the goal of these techniques is to support the client as he or she strives for his or her future goals. Feedback in the present can provide reinforcement of new, adaptive behaviors that allow a client to continue to strive for his or her goal (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). By focusing on future goals, the client is pulled forward towards growth, rather than pushed along by factors outside of his or her control (Osborn, 2011). Having worked with a number of children and youth who have indeed been influenced by their past, I believe it is important to acknowledge that influence, without allowing those past experiences to define the child in the present or predict who he or she may become in the future. The Adlerian perspective of working with a clients present beliefs and perceptions, in order to support and encourage their potential and future goals, all while acknowledging where the child has come from, is a good fit with my own views. Emphasis on beliefs, emotions and behaviours. As discussed, Individual Psychology takes a holistic view of the individual. As such, it follows that this framework considers how beliefs, emotions and behaviours work in connection with one another (Corey, 2009). It is these beliefs, emotions and behaviors that a therapist

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seeks to understand while conducting the client assessment, with the confidence that a consistent pattern with emerge and help to describe the clients life style (Sherman &

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Dinkmeyer, 1987). Once a clients life style, or lens, is understood, the therapist is better able to take the clients perspective, and from that perspective, able to again consider the clients beliefs, emotions and behaviours (Barclay & Wolff, 2011). From this new perspective, the therapist can consider social and personal strategies and techniques that fit with the clients goals (Barclay & Wolff, 2011). According to Adler, our thoughts happen first, then we feel, and finally we act. In this perspective, our feelings occur in alignment with our cognitions and beliefs, and these feelings in turn motivate us to act (Corey, 2009). Our thoughts and beliefs are connected to our life style. How an individual perceives him or herself, others and the world is influenced by his or her belief system (Corey, 2009). If this belief system is faulty, or if the individual is guided by misperceptions, he or she may develop feelings, and eventually behaviours, which are maladaptive and dysfunctional (Corey, 2009). In order to change the end result the behaviour the therapist goes back to the beginning of the process the beliefs and cognitions (Corey, 2009). Through understanding the clients life style, the therapist and client can work collaboratively to determine which beliefs may be based on faulty logic, and may be in need of change (Corey, 2009). The therapists task is to then help the client to re-learn or re-orient his or her belief system, in the hopes that changes to the clients feelings, and behaviors may follow (Corey, 2009). If a client does not receive support to challenge his or her faulty beliefs, dysfunction can arise out of a downward spiral of the belief emotion behavior process. A client who thinks no one cares about him, may begin to feel unlovable, which is then followed by the client acting hostile and aggressive towards others. This process reinforces the clients belief that no one cares about him, and the cycle continues (Corey, 2009). While generally the intervention process would begin with the clients beliefs, Adler did also use the technique of

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encouraging a client to at as if a different belief were true if the process would assist the client in making the necessary change to his or her belief system (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). Change process. In alignment with the philosophical assumptions of Individual Psychology, and the roles of both the counsellor and the client, Adlerian psychology generally follows a four step therapeutic process: development of the therapeutic relationship, life style assessment, selfunderstanding and insight, and reorientation and reeducation (Corey, 2009). While these steps do not necessarily progress in a linear fashion, the development of the therapeutic relationship provides the foundation for the rest of the process to occur (Corey, 2009). This relationship helps the client to recognize his or her strengths, to experience the value of being heard and respected, to have hope that change is possible, and to see his or her own potential all of which are important elements in the change process (Corey, 2009). This therapeutic relationship also addresses both the clients lack of social interest and his or her level of discouragement, both of which contribute to unhealthy functioning (Corey, 2009). The second step in the process is the comprehensive assessment of the clients life story. This is accomplished through exploring the clients present social context, allowing the client to tell his or her life story, and determining past influences (done through a discussion of the clients family constellation and early recollections) (Corey, 2009). For children, this may be accomplished through play or art, as these mediums allow a child to more effectively express who he or she is, and how he or she sees the world (Rotter, Horak & Heidt, 1999). Regardless of the method, what is important is that the therapists goal is not to interpret the results of the assessment for the client, but rather to use the assessment to better understand the clients perspective, which can in turn help to inform interventions (Corey, 2009; Rotter, Horak & Heidt, 1999). The third step in the process is for the therapist to use the information from the assessment to help the client to have insight into his or her own motivations and goals (Corey,

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2009). The therapist actively guides the process based on his or her own interpretation of the clients life story, and what has emerged as the clients own central interests and perceptions, but it is important the client develops self-awareness and comes to his or her own understanding of what the problem is, what aspects of his or her own life story is maintaining the problem, and what can be done to make a change (Corey, 2009;Taber & Briddick, 2011).

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The final part of the process involves action, and is aimed at helping the client to put his or her new insights into practice (Corey, 2009). The therapist reminds the client of his or her strengths and resources, and challenges the client to take risks, to make changes and to have courage (Corey, 2009; Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). The therapeutic relationship allows the client the security and safety to pursue these actions, with a goal being to make a positive change, rather than simply behaving in a particular way (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). Adler believed change ultimately occurred through re-orienting the client to healthier styles of interaction and patterns of behavior, and re-educating clients in order to combat faulty perceptions or maladaptive coping mechanisms (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). This re-education is done through identifying discouraging thought processes, focusing on efforts rather than outcomes and emphasizing strengths and assets over weaknesses (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). While I have yet to employ a process this thorough or developed, over the years I have certainly used elements of each step in working with children and youth. I am intrigued by the insight to be gained through intentionally exploring a childs past and that the goal is not to interpret or define, but to understand. I believe in the importance of helping others to understand, to recognize and to appreciate who they truly are, as well as the value in focusing on strengths and abilities over deficiencies and weaknesses. Interventions. At some stage of the therapeutic process, the therapist initiates the action phase namely the strategies and techniques the client will be challenged with in order to encourage him or her to meet the agreed upon goals (Corey, 2009). Within the Adlerian theory, the nature

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of these interventions is flexible, with no strict framework of implementation (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). This is due to the belief in the unique nature of each client, the reality that each client is operating from a different life style, and the fact that it is the client who develops the goals (Rotter, Horak & Heidt, 1999). With the therapists guidance, these goals will work towards the clients desire to be connected, to belong, to grow and feel significant, but the nature of the goals, and therefore the nature of the interventions, will be unique to each client (Rotter, Horak & Heidt, 1999). Despite the flexible nature of the framework, I anticipate two general types of interventions to play a key role in my counseling practice. Considering I will be working primarily with children, the first type of intervention I would consider is play therapy. Play is a natural way for children to communicate and is an excellent way to assist with learning (White, Flynt & Draper, 1997). Play allows for children to be imaginative and creative, and that creativity can in turn be used in the development and pursuit of goals (DeRobertis, 2011). A therapist can use play therapy to better understand what a child is struggling with both during the assessment process, as well as during the re-education process (DeRobertis, 20110). What a child reveals through play may be more insightful and genuine than what he or she is able to verbally articulate (DeRobertis, 1997). Another benefit of play therapy is that it can assist in the reeducation process, as children can practice new insights in a setting that is safe and familiar to them (DeRobertis, 1997; White, Flynt & Draper, 1997). Play can help to facilitate the therapeutic relationship as well, providing the therapist with a vehicle in which to demonstrate and model acceptance, empathy and other factors involved in developing social interest (White, Flynt & Draper, 1997). It is also an appropriate way to set limits for the child, which may be important for children who do not experience such limit-setting in other contexts (White, Flynt & Draper, 1997). For many children, moving towards growth only occurs in settings in which they feel safe and secure, and having appropriate limits placed upon them can help to provide that security (White, Flynt & Draper, 1997).

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A second type of intervention that I believe would be valuable within this framework is an intentional focus on encouragement. While encouragement is not only a foundational element within Adlerian theory, it is also essential if we are hoping to help children to learn (or re-learn) and to feel significant (White, Flynt & Draper, 1997). Encouragement is a critical aspect of growth, and a way to help a client to recognize his or her worth, as well as his or her strengths (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). Encouragement helps to empower clients to make decisions, and reinforces the positive choices they make (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). With children, encouragement can help with goal identification, can facilitate disclosure, and can provide reinforcement of logical consequences (White, Flynt & Draper, 1997). Adlerian theory describes four mistaken goals of children: the desire for attention, the struggle for power, the need to retaliate and the decision to give up (White, Flynt & Draper, 1997). Once these goals are identified (another useful aspect of play therapy!), encouragement can be a key element in helping children to correct their mistaken goals and to move forward with more productive, healthy ones (White, Flynt & Draper, 1997). This encouragement primarily occurs throughout the therapeutic process, but can also be used as a means in which to get families and educators involved in the childs change process, through teaching, modeling and empowering parents and teachers to intentionally encourage the child in home and school settings (White, Flynt & Draper, 1997). In addition to these two general areas, there are a number of other interventions that have been discussed in our course and in our text that I believe could be a good fit with both my theoretical framework, and the practicalities of my professional situation. Role playing, which allows a child (or adult) to not only practice new insights, but to receive immediate feedback and guidance could be a valuable way to help a hesitant client to take an initial step (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). Task setting, in which the client is given simple tasks which are set at level where success is highly probable, is a means to build trust between the client and the counsellor, and to allow for the client to move forward, even if it is at his or her own pace

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(Corsini & Wedding, 2011). Catching oneself encourages a client to notice his or her old

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behaviour, even if he or she is not yet willing or able to modify the behavior (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). While there are certainly other interventions that could fit into this framework, these ones that allow a client to move carefully and cautiously, but still be moving forward, are a good fit for the clients I currently work with. Success. In considering success within a counselling framework, there are two elements to consider. The first element is how success is defined within the therapeutic process. Since this framework involves brief, time-limited therapy, it is important to define success in a reasonable way, in order to ensure that success is met before the end of therapy. Successes can occur within each stage of the therapeutic process, but may look different for each client due to the unique nature, and perspective, or each client (Rareshide & Kern, 1991). Considering that encouragement is considered a significant mechanism for change, it will be important to define success in tangible, attainable ways whether through the successful attempt of an action step, having the courage to share their life story, or recognizing and being willing to change a faulty perception. In order to help a patient achieve the success of affecting a positive change, I believe recognizing and honoring smaller steps to success along the way are an important element of the therapeutic process. The second element is how that success is achieved, and recognized. Adler considered success to be largely dependent on the encouragement the therapist provided to the client. While the specific techniques and strategies played an important role, the encouragement involved in supporting the client as they pursue these tasks plays a significant role in helping the client to be successful (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). This encouragement was demonstrated through the therapists unconditional concern for the client, through common therapeutic factors such as empathy and active listening, and by showing confidence and respect in the client throughout the process (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). Key to helping clients to achieve success is

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helping the client to focus on his or her effort, rather than the outcome of the effort (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). The therapist can also recognize and honor the clients progress, even if the

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ultimate goal is not met, and keep the client cognizant of his or her own strengths and resources (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). What specifically resonates with my personal viewpoint is the need to recognize, to acknowledge and to encourage the clients potential, while offering hope and support for the client to reach that potential. Contextual Factors One of the strengths of Adlerian theory is the focus it has on a therapist striving to consider the clients viewpoint, and taking the time to allow the client to define and explain their own context (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). This sensitivity to the client, and the recognition that the client knows his or her life story the best, is an important aspect of developing an equal, collaborative, respectful relationship, and makes this framework well suited for working with clients from different backgrounds and perspectives (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). While therapist bias must always be considered, the Adlerian therapist minimizes bias by viewing the client as an equal, and listening to his or her life story without reaction or judgment (Corey, 2009). It is the clients perception of the world, of self and of others that directs the therapeutic process, not the therapists preconceived notions of what does or does not work (Corey, 2009). Watts (2000) agreed with earlier researchers that the Adlerian perspective is not only still relevant in todays culture, but that it continues to hold great promise in addressing multicultural and gender issues. It must be noted, however, that despite these strengths, this framework will not necessarily work for all clients. Those individuals, whether due to cultural or other factors, that do not agree with or support the basic tenets of the framework (holistic viewpoint, value of encouragement, social interest), may find little value in the process as they may be unable, or unwilling to fulfill their role as a client (Watts, 2000). If a client does not believe that he or she needs to change, is unable to be encouraged that change is possible, or simply does not believe that change occurs through encouragement, they may be better served working with a

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therapist whose theoretical framework is more closely aligned with the clients own beliefs regarding the nature of humans and the nature of change. I work with children and youth in a very multi-cultural community and one of the ways I

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have found to understand and to relate to children from different cultures is to allow the child to be the expert and the one who shares and describes his or her own culture. This allows me to better understand the childs perspective, to foster equality, and to show respect and interest in who they are and where they have come from, which is important in building rapport. While my framework would primarily be used within the context of working one-on-one or in small groups in a community setting, Adlerian therapists have adapted Individual Psychology for work with couples and families, and within educational, residential, jail and healthcare settings (Corsini & Wedding, 2011) Reflection Theory Weaknesses In evaluating my personal counselling framework, I acknowledge that it still contains some weaknesses and gaps. As someone who is committed to the science-practitioner model of educational-psychology, I recognize that this is a theory without a significant amount of empirical support. However, as Corsini shares in his text, it is important to find a theoretical fit based on our own personality, and my view of human nature and the nature of change closely fit with Alders beliefs (Corsini & Wedding, 2011). The APA (2000) defines evidence-based practice in psychology as the integration of the best available research with clinical expertise in the context of patient characteristics, culture and preferences (pg. 273). However, as Mozdzierz, Peluso & Lisiecki (2011) suggest, it may be that the focus on individuals as unique, holistic beings is itself incompatible with certain types of empirical research. If the basic belief is that each person is unique, research designed to understand, to classify, to predict or to predetermine human nature or behaviour may not be possible within this framework (Mozdzierz, Peluso, & Lisiecki, 2011). Kratochwill & Shernoff (2004) also recognized that not all theoretical

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beliefs lend themselves to empirical research, and that many psychologists trust their own

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clinical judgment over research, especially in regards to interventions. These are elements that I have not yet reconciled within my framework. Another weakness of this theory is that is does not support the diagnosis of disorders. While I agree with the Adlerian viewpoint that a disorder does not equal a sickness, I dont agree that there is no value in diagnosis. Rather I believe, both professionally and personally, that a diagnosis may be part of the picture that develops while I am attempting to truly understand an individual. This theory also does not account for neuropsychological factors that may arise for some clients. These elements still need to be considered and fit within my developing framework. Another weakness of this framework is that it is based on a theory that is flexible and broad. While this is a good fit for how I view the counselling process, it leaves open the possibility that in pursuing this framework I may lose focus on the theoretical foundation and put together a practice that allows me to dabble in many techniques, but truly understand and master none. This framework is also very much still founded in theory, and I while I have connected the theory to my own career experiences, I have not had an opportunity to practice using this framework, which most likely means there are numerous holes, inconsistences and gaps that I have not yet realized. Why I am Drawn to This Theory I was drawn to this theory because I agree with Adlers approach to considering people from a holistic viewpoint and focusing on each persons uniqueness. I believe that in order to truly understand someone, you need to consider life from that persons perspective, and that an individuals strengths are far more important than his or her weaknesses. In my work as a manager and educator, I have generally operated from the perspective that it is growth that is important. As long as an individual is giving a task his or her best effort, it is that effort, rather than the results that matter.

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I also like the flexibility of this theory. While I appreciate, as discussed, how this could be a weakness if I am not intentional in my focus, I agree with the notion that different strategies and techniques can, and should, be used with different clients. Throughout the course, as we studied the different theories, I found that there were elements of each one that I agreed with, and I was initially uncertain how to integrate my thoughts on the different theories. What stood out to me, however, was that regardless of what techniques and strategies I could see myself using, I needed to have a strong theoretical foundation to start with. As I re-visited the different theories, I returned to Adler again and again, and found not only a fit between Adlers view of humans and my own, but in his view that there is no one right strategy to use. Finally, I like the preventive potential of this theory. As Ansbacher (1992) writes, the goal of the therapist should not be simple to treat discouraged children, but to protect healthy children from discouragement. Much of my career has been devoted to supporting and helping children and youth to succeed and to become healthy, well-functioning adults and while I have worked with a good number of children who were indeed discouraged, I also hope I have helped to prevent others from becoming so. Concluding Remarks Developing a personal counseling framework, especially as novice in the field, has been a challenging and eye-opening endeavor. It has required me to truly examine and articulate my perspective on human nature and the nature of change, which has in turn helped me to better understand the Adlerian perspective which encourages individuals to understand their own life story. While I recognize that my framework is very much a work in progress, I am in solid agreement with how Sherman & Dinkmeyer (1987) described Adlers viewpoint: People are indivisible, social, creative, decision-making beings whose beliefs and behaviour have a purpose (pg. 4).

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References American Psychological Association. Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice. (2006). Evidence-based practice in psychology. American Psychologist, 61, 271-285. Ansbacher, H.L. (1992). Alfred Adler, Pioneer in prevention of mental disorders. Individual Psychology, 48(1), 3-34. Barclay, S.R. & Wolff, L.A. (2011). When lifestyles collide: An Adlerian-based approach to workplace conflict. Journal of Individual Psychology, 67(2), 122-235. Corsini, R. J. & Wedding, D. (2011). Current psychotherapies (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. Corey, G. (2009). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. DeRobertis, E.M. (2011). Deriving a third force approach to child development from the works of Alfred Adler. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 51(4), 492-515. doi: 10.1177/00022167810386960 Kratochwill, T.R., & Shernoff, E.S. (2004). Evidence-based practice: Promoting evidence-based interventions in school psychology. School Psychology Review, 33(1), 34-48. Lambert, M.J., & Barley, D.E. (2002). Research summary on the therapeutic relationship and psychotherapy outcomes. In J. C. Norcross (Ed.), Psychotherapy relationships that work: Therapist contributions and responsiveness to patient needs (pp. 17-32). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Leak, G.K. (2006). Development and validation of a revised measure of Adlerian social interest. Social Behavior and Personality, 34(4), 443-450. Mozdzierz, G.J., Peluso, P.R., & Lisiecki, J. (2011). Evidence-based psychological practices and therapist training: At the crossroads. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 51(4), 439-464. doi: 10.1177/002216780385959

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Osborn, C.J. (2001). A visual encapsulation of Adlerian theory: A tool for teaching and learning. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 40, 243-249. Rareside, M., & Kern, R. (1991). Social interest: The haves and the have nots. Individual Psychology, 47(4), 464-476. Rotter, J.C., Horak, R.A., & Heidt, H.M. (1999). Incorporating childrens drawings as early recollections in Adlerian psychotherapy. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 55(3), 316327. Sherman, R., & Dinkmeyer, D.C. (1987). Systems of family therapy: an Adlerian integration. New York, NY: Brunner-Routledge. Stone, M.H. (2011) The meaning of life and Adlers use of fictions. Journal of Individual Psychology, 67(1), 13-30. Taber, B.J. & Briddick, W.C. (2011). Adlerian-based career counseling in an age of protean careers. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 67(2), 107-121. Watts, R. E. (1996). Social interest and the core conditions: Could it be that Adler influenced Rogers? Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 34(4), 65-70. Watts, R.E. (2000). Entering the new millennium: Is individual psychology still relevant? The The Journal of Individual Psychology, 56(1), 21-30. Watts, R.E., & Pietrzak, D. (2000). Adlerian encouragement and the therapeutic process of solution-focused brief therapy. Journal of Counseling and Development, 78(4), 442-447. White, J., Flynt, M., & Draper, K. (1997). Kinder therapy: Teachers as therapeutic agents. International Journal of Play Therapy, 6(2), 33-49.

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