CONDITION MONITORING NOTES TOPICS COVERED 1. Maintenance strategies 2. Introduction to Condition Monitoring 3. Criticality Index 4.

Over view of the Analysis adopted in Condition Monitoring 5. Wear Debris Analysis 1) 2) 3) Wear mechanisms and particles Types of wear particles Wear process monitoring techniques a. Direct detection method b. Debris collection method c. Lubricant sample analysis i. ii. 4) Ferrography a. DR Ferrography b. The Analytical Ferrography 6. Thermography 1) Differences between Infrared film and thermography 2) Passive vs Active thermography 3) Advantages 4) Limitations 5) Applications 7. Corrosion Monitoring Emission spectroscopy Atomic Absorption spectroscopy Page no. 02 03 04 04 07 07 08 11 12 13 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 20 20 20 21 21 22

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES CONDITION MONITORING To base maintenance on the perceived condition of operating machines (many of which are required to run continuously for 12 months or more) requires that methods are available to determine their internal condition while they are in operation. The two main ways of getting information from the inside to the outside of operating machines are vibration analysis and lubricant analysis, although a few other techniques are also useful. MAINTENANCE STRATEGIES: The maintenance strategies are broadly: i. Run-to-Break. This is the traditional method where machines were simply run until they broke down. This in principle gives the longest time between shutdowns, but failure when it does occur can be catastrophic and result in severe consequential damage, for example of components other than the ones that failed, and also of connected machines. As a result, the time to repair can be greatly increased, including the time required to obtain replacement parts, some of which might be major items and take some time to produce. In such a case, the major cost in many industries would be production loss, this often being much greater than the cost of individual machines. ii. (Time-Based) Preventive Maintenance. Maintenance is done at regular intervals which are shorter than the expected time between failures. It is common to choose the intervals to be such that no more than 12% of machines will experience failure in that time. This does mean that the vast majority could have run longer by a factor of two or three. The advantage of this method is that most maintenance can be planned well in advance and that catastrophic failure is greatly reduced. The disadvantages, in addition to the fact that a small number of unforeseen failures can still occur, are that too much maintenance is carried out and an excessive number of replacement components consumed. This approach has been known to cause reduced morale in maintenance workers (who are aware that most of the time they are replacing perfectly good parts) so that their work suffers and this can give rise to increased infant mortality of the machines, by introducing faults which otherwise never would have happened. Time-based preventive maintenance is appropriate where the time to failure can be reasonably accurately predicted, such as where it is based on well-defined lifing procedures, which can predict the fatigue life of crucial components on the basis of a given operational regime. Some components do tend to wear or fatigue at a reasonably predictable rate, but with others, such as rolling element bearings, there is a large statistical
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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES spread around the mean, leading to estimates such as the one given above, where the mean time to failure is two to three times the minimum. iii. Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM). This is also called predictive maintenance since the potential breakdown of a machine is predicted through regular condition monitoring and maintenance is carried out at the optimum time. It has obvious advantages compared with either run-to-break or preventive maintenance, but does require having access to reliable condition monitoring techniques, which not only are able to determine current condition, but also give reasonable predictions of remaining useful life. It has been used with some success for 3040 years. However, the range of monitoring techniques was initially quite limited, and not always correctly applied, so it is perhaps only in the last 15 years or so that it has become recognized as the best maintenance strategy in most cases. Initially the greatest successes were attained in industries where machines were required to run for long periods of time without shutting down, such as the power generation and petrochemical industries. The machines in such industries typically run at near constant speed, and with stable load, so the technical problems associated with the condition monitoring were considerably reduced. As more powerful diagnostic techniques have become available, it has been possible to extend condition monitoring to other industries in which the machines have widely varying speed and load, and are perhaps even mobile (such as ore trucks in the mining industry). CONDITION MONITORING Condition monitoring is the process of monitoring a parameter of condition in machinery, such that a significant change is indicative of a developing failure. It is a major component of predictive maintenance. The use of conditional monitoring allows maintenance to be scheduled, or other actions to be taken to avoid the consequences of failure, before the failure occurs. Nevertheless, a deviation from a reference value (e.g. temperature or vibration behavior) must occur to identify impeding damages. Predictive Maintenance does not predict failure. Machines with defects are more at risk of failure than defect free machines. Once a defect has been identified, the failure process has already commenced and CM systems can only measure the deterioration of the condition. Intervention in the early stages of deterioration is usually much more cost effective than allowing the machinery to fail. Condition monitoring has a unique benefit in that the actual load, and subsequent heat dissipation that represents normal service can be seen and conditions that

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES would shorten normal lifespan can be addressed before repeated failures occur. Serviceable machinery includes rotating equipment and stationary plant such as boilers and heat exchangers. THE CRITICALITY INDEX The Criticality Index is often used to determine the degree on condition monitoring on a given machine taking into account the machines purpose, redundancy (i.e. if the machine fails, is there a standby machine which can take over), cost of repair, downtime impacts, health, safety and environment issues and a number of other key factors. The criticality index puts all machines into one of three categories:

1 - Critical machinery - Machines that are vital to the plant or process and without which the plant or process cannot function. Machines in this category include the steam or gas turbines in a power plant, crude oil export pumps on an oil rig or the cracker in an oil refinery. With critical machinery being at the heart of the process it is seen to require full on-line condition monitoring to continually record as much data from the machine as possible regardless of cost and is often specified by the plant insurance. Measurements such as loads, pressures, temperatures, casing vibration and displacement, shaft axial and radial displacement, speed and differential expansion are taken where possible. These values are often fed back into a machinery management software package which is capable of trending the historical data and providing the operators with information such as performance data and even predict faults and provide diagnosis of failures before they happen.

2 - Essential Machinery - Units that are a key part of the process, but if there is a failure, the process still continues. Redundant units (if available) fall into this realm. Testing and control of these units is also essential to maintain alternative plans should Critical Machinery fail.

3 - General purpose or balance of plant machines - These are the machines that make up the remainder of the plant and normally monitored using a handheld data collector as mentioned previously to periodically create a picture of the health of the machine.

OVER VIEW OF THE ANALYSIS ADOPTED IN CONDITION MONITORING

The most commonly used method for rotating machines is called VIBRATION ANALYSIS. Measurements can be taken on machine bearing casings with seismic or piezo-electric transducers to measure the casing vibrations, and on the vast majority of critical machines, with eddy-current transducers that directly observe the rotating shafts to measure the radial

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES (and axial) vibration of the shaft. The level of vibration can be compared with historical baseline values such as former startups and shutdowns, and in some cases established standards such as load changes, to assess the severity. Interpreting the vibration signal obtained is a complex process that requires specialized training and experience. One commonly employed technique is to examine the individual frequencies present in the signal. These frequencies correspond to certain mechanical components (for example, the various pieces that make up a rolling-element bearing) or certain malfunctions (such as shaft unbalance or misalignment). By examining these frequencies and their harmonics, the analyst can often identify the location and type of problem, and sometimes the root cause as well. Example: (1) High vibration at the frequency corresponding to the speed of rotation is most often due to residual imbalance and is corrected by balancing the machine. Example: (2) As another example, a degrading rolling-element bearing will usually exhibit increasing vibration signals at specific frequencies as it wears. Most vibration analysis instruments today utilize a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) which is a special case of the generalized Discrete Fourier Transform and converts the vibration signal from its time domain representation to its equivalent frequency domain representation. However, frequency analysis (sometimes called Spectral Analysis or Vibration Signature Analysis) is only one aspect of interpreting the information contained in a vibration signal. Frequency analysis tends to be most useful on machines that employ rolling element bearings and whose main failure modes tend to be the degradation of those bearings, which typically exhibit an increase in characteristic frequencies associated with the bearing geometries and constructions.

The most rudimentary form of condition monitoring is VISUAL INSPECTION by experienced operators and maintainers. Failure modes such as cracking, leaking, corrosion, etc. can often be detected by visual inspection before failure is likely. This form of condition monitoring is generally the cheapest and is a vital part of workplace culture to give ownership of the equipment to the people that work with it. Consequently, other forms of condition monitoring should generally augment, rather than replace, visual inspection.

Slight temperature variations across a surface can be discovered with visual inspection and nondestructive testing with THERMOGRAPHY. Heat is indicative of failing components, especially

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES degrading electrical contacts and terminations. Thermography can also be successfully applied to high-speed bearings, fluid couplings, conveyor rollers, and storage tank internal build-up.

Using a SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE of a carefully taken sample of debris suspended in lubricating oil (taken from filters or magnetic chip detectors). Instruments then reveal the elements contained their proportions, size and morphology. Using this method, the site, the mechanical failure mechanism and the time to eventual failure may be determined. This is called WDA - Wear Debris Analysis. Wear Debris Detection Sensors are capable of detecting ferrous and non-ferrous wear particles within the lubrication oil giving considerable information about the condition of the measured machinery. By creating and monitoring a trend of what debris is being generated it is possible to detect faults prior to catastrophic failure of rotating equipment such as gearbox's, turbines, etc.

SPECTROGRAPHIC OIL ANALYSIS that tests the chemical composition of the oil can be used to predict failure modes. For example a high silicon content indicates contamination of grit etc, and high iron levels indicate wearing components. Individually, elements give fair indications, but when used together they can very accurately determine failure modes e.g. for internal combustion engines, the presence of iron/alloy, and carbon would indicate worn piston rings.

ULTRASOUND can be used for high-speed and slow-speed mechanical applications and for highpressure fluid situations. Digital ultrasonic meters measure high frequency signals from bearings and display the result as a dBuV (decibels per microvolt) value. This value is trended over time and used to predict increases in friction, rubbing, impacting, and other bearing defects. The dBuV value is also used to predict proper intervals for re-lubrication. Ultrasound monitoring, if done properly, proves out to be a great companion technology for vibration analysis. Headphones allow humans to listen to ultrasound as well. A high pitched 'buzzing sound' in bearings indicates flaws in the contact surfaces, and when partial blockages occur in high pressure fluids the orifice will cause a large amount of ultrasonic noise. Ultrasound is used in the Shock Pulse Method of condition monitoring.

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS, where the physical efficiency, performance, or condition is found by comparing actual parameters against an ideal model. Deterioration is typically the cause of difference in the readings. After motors, centrifugal pumps are arguably the most common machines. Condition monitoring by a simple head-flow test near duty point using repeatable

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES measurements has long been used but could be more widely adopted. An extension of this method can be used to calculate the best time to overhaul a pump based on balancing the cost of overhaul against the increasing energy consumption that occurs as a pump wears. Aviation gas turbines are also commonly monitored using performance analysis techniques with the original equipment manufacturers such as Rolls-Royce plc routinely monitoring whole fleets of aircraft engines under Long Term Service Agreements (LTSAs) or Total Care packages.

WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS

Fault detection using vibration analysis is difficult in very low speed high load noisy machines. In the case of slow speed bearing, the vibration generated by damaged components is very low, usually close to the floor noise and difficult to identify. In these situations, Wear Debris Analysis has proven useful in providing supporting evidence on the bearing or gear status. It also provides information on the wear mechanism, which is involved.
WEAR MECHANISMS AND PARTICLES

Sliding adhesive wear particles are found in most lubricating oils. They are an indication of normal wear. They are produced in large numbers when one metal surface moves across another. The particles are seen as thin asymmetrical flakes of metals with highly polished surfaces.

Cutting abrasive wear produces another particle type. These particles resemble most of all shavings from a metal shop. E.g.: Spiral, loops and threads. The presence of a few of these particles is not significant, but if there are several hundred, it is an indication of serious cutting wear. A sudden dramatic increase in the quantity of cutting particles indicates that the break down is imminent.
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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES SURFACE FATIGUE: A consequence of periodic stresses with very high local tension in the surface, which occurs, with the meshing of years. These wear mechanisms give plate particles a rough surface and an irregular perimeter. Small particles often develop in connection with roller bearings.
TYPE OF COMPONENT TYPICAL EXAMPLE NATURE OF WEAR DEBRIS ASSOCOATED WITH FAILURE

Loaded, moving components in which load is concentrated in a non confirmed contact Loaded, moving components in which load is concentrated in a small area Loaded, moving components with the load spread over a large area

Rolling bearings, gear teeth, cams & tappets

Ferrous particles of various size and shapes Ferrous flakes less than 150 m across, and fine iron or iron oxide particles Usually very small & ferrous & nonferrous flakes & particles, bearing fatigue can give rise to larger flakes

Piston rings & cylinders splines, gear couplings

Plain bearings, pistons and cylinders

The size and shape of wear material will differentiate between the following wear mechanisms. 1. Rubbing 2. Surface Fatigue 3. Corrosion 4. Sliding 5. Cutting

The particle material will pin point to the source and therefore deteriorating componentwearing race, rolling element or cage, rubbing scales, gear teeth etc. For systems, which operate are

normally,

wear

metals

produces at constant rate. This rate is the same for all normally operating systems of the same type. The theoretical curve

showing the concentration of wear metals as a function of time for a close system without oil consumption is shown in figure. TYPES OF WEAR PARTICLES There are six basic particles type generated through the wear process. These include ferrous and non-ferrous particles and comprise of:

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES Normal Rubbing Wear: Rubbing wear particles are generated because of normal sliding wear in a machine & result from exploitation of particles of the shear mixed layer. Rubbing wear particles consists of flat platelets, generally 5 or smaller, although they might range up to 15 depending upon equipment associations. There should be little or no visible texturing of the surface & thickness should be 1 or less. Cutting Wear Particles: Cutting wear particles are generated as result of one surface penetrating another. There are two ways of generating this effect. A relatively hard component can become misaligned or fractured resulting in hard, sharp edge penetrating a soft surface. The particle generated this way is coarse and large, averaging 2-5 wide and 25-100 long. Hard abrasive particles in the lubrication, either as contaminants such as sand or wear debris from another part of this system, may become embedded in soft wear surface (two body abrasion) such as Lead/Tin alloy bearing. The abrasive particles protrude from the soft wear surface & penetrating the opposing wear surface. The maximum size of cutting wear particles generated in this way is proportional to the size of abrasive particles in the lubricant. Very fine wire-like particles can be generated with thickness as low as 25 . Cutting wear particles are abnormal. Their presence and quantity should be carefully monitored. If the majority of the cutting particles in a system are a few micrometers long and a fraction of a micrometer wide the presence of particulate contaminants should be suspected. If a system shows increased quantity of large (50 long) cutting wear particles, a component failure is potentially imminent. Spherical Particles: These particles are generated in the bearing cracks and also because of heat treatment. If generates their presence, gives an improved warning of impending trouble as they are detectable before any spalling occurs. Rolling fatigue generates few spheres over 5 in diameter while the sphere generated by welding, grinding & corrosion are frequently over 10 in diameter. Severe Sliding: Severe sliding wear particles are identified by parallel on their surfaces. They are
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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES generally larger than 15 microns, with the length-to-width thickness ratio falling between 530 microns. Severe sliding wear particles sometimes show evidence of temper colors, which may change the appearance of the particle after heat treatment. Dark Metallo-Oxides: These particles are also heat generated and may indicate lubricant darkened, starvation. rough They appear in as

particles

varying

degrees of oxidation, in contrast to rubbing wear platelets which appear in silver/grey shades. Bearing Wear Particles: These distinct particle types have been associated with rolling bearing fatigues. Fatigue spall particles constitute actual removal from the metal surface with a pit or a crack is propagated. These particles reach a maximum size of 100 during the microspalling process. Fatigues spalls are generally flat with a major dimension-tothickness ratio of 10 to 1. They have a smooth surface & a random, irregularity shape circumference. Laminar particles are very thin free metal particles with frequent occurrence of holes. They range between 20 to 50 in major diameter with a thickness ratio of 30:1. These particles are formed by the passage of wear particles through a rolling contact. Laminar particles may be generated throughout the life of a bearing. Gear Wear: Two types of wear have been associated with gear wear: Pitch line fatigue particles from a gear pitch line have much in common with rolling-element bearing fatigue particles. They generally have a smooth surface and frequently irregularly shaped. Depending upon the gear design, the particles usually have a major dimension-to thickness ration between 4:1 and 10:1. The chunkier particles results from tensile stresses on the gear surfaces causing the fatigue cracks to propagate deeper into the gear tooth prior to spalling. Scuffing or scoring particles are caused by too high a load and / or speed. These particles tend to have a rough surface & jagged circumference. Even small particles may be discerned from rubbing wear by their characteristics. Some of the large particles have striations on their surface indicating a sliding contact. Because of the

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES thermal nature of scuffing, quantities of oxides are usually present and some of particles may show evidence of partial oxidation that is tan or blue temper colors. Contaminant particles are generally considered the single most significant cause of abnormal component wear. The wear initiated by contaminants generally induces the formation of larger particles, with the formation rate being dependent on the filtration efficiency of the system. In fact, once a particle is generated and moves with the lubricant, it is technically a contaminant. WEAR PROCESS MONITORING TECHNIQUES The method of wear process can be classified into three main types, which are shown in fig.

i. Direct detection method: Wear debris in the lubricant is detected in the machine by arranging for the oil flow through a device, which is sensitive to the presence of debris. ii. Debris collection methods: Wear debris is collected in a device, fitted to the machine which is convenient to remove, so that the debris can be extracted for examination. iii. Lubricant Sample Analysis: A sample of lubricant is extracted from the machine and analyzed for wear debris contamination. These methods are normally used to monitor the conditions of components lubricated by a circulatory oil system. When applying wear debris monitoring method to any machine, it is necessary to establish the inspection and sampling intervals for intermittent monitoring methods such as debris collection
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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES and lubricant sampling. This time interval will depend on the application but fortnightly or monthly is probably a reasonable choice for an industrial application in the absence of more precise guidance. Debris collection and lubricant sampling can also indicate the nature of the wear problem and engineers carrying out monitoring need to be given a regular feedback of information on the accuracy of their diagnosis. They must therefore either see the components of thin machines when they are stripped for overhaul, or at least be given precise data on their condition. Significant Oil Contaminants CONTAMINANT Aluminium Boron Copper Iron Lead SOURCES Pistons, bearings Coolant leak Bearings, bushings, washers etc. Piston rings, ball and roller bearings Bearings, bushings

i.

Direct Debris Collection Method:

Wear debris is collected in a device, fitted to the

machine, which is convenient to remove so that the debris can be extracted. Existing Filter system: Filtration is widely used to remove harmful particles from oil. The simplest method of debris monitoring is to extend such an approach by carefully collecting and checking the contents of machines oil filtration system at regular intervals Special Filters: These collect all particles down to the mesh size of the filter. The complete filter unit can usually be extracted from its housing without breaking any pipe connections and the machine need not be stopped. If a bi-pass- valve is fitted. To collect all particles the filter should be fitted in the oil system immediately downstream of the components being monitored. These are mainly used for detecting non-ferrous debris not collected by magnetic plugs often they are used in conjunction with these. Direct debris collection methods Optical oil turbidity monitor Electrically conducting filters Inductive detection methods Capacitive detection methods

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES ii. Debris Collection Method

Magnetic Plugs: As it is an on-line control method, magnetic plugs are used in oil-lubricated machines. The monitoring equipment is mounted directly in the lubricating system of the machine. The underlining principle is that the Ferro-magnetic particles in the oil are attracted by the magnetic plugs. The magnetic plugs or chip detectors are usually of the self-closing type which prevents oil loss during removal. This method only detects ferrous

material. The quantity of particles collected depends upon the path of the oil flow and the placement of the plugs. Plugs are therefore placed so that they provide a maximum amount of information about wear (particle production) of the critical parts. Regular examination & evaluation of the coating of the plug allows one to eliminate the quantity & size of the particles, as it often follows a typical bath-tub curve. By means of such a graph it is possible to identify appropriate times for the performance of preventive maintenance. This technique supplements the two other oil monitoring methods. The magnetic plugs captures particles from about 100mm and upwards, ie, a large number of particles are detected which would not normally be recorded by means of ferrography. The magnetic plug is thus in a position to capture the large flakes which are formed due to the breakdown of the surfaces by fatigue. The magnetic plug is therefore, used particularly in connection with the monitoring of the gear boxes and bearings. A scattering of black particle fragments (whiskers) is seen. An unacceptable coating is visible. This indicates abnormal wear. An unacceptable coating can be characterized by the following conditions. a. Large individual fragments c. Flat fragments b. Pieces which can be identified as flakes from a bearing e. Particularly long whiskers

d. A large number of whiskers

Magnetic plugs are used in the modern aircraft engines where particle sizes are in the order of 0.2-1 m are found. iii. Lubricant Sample Analysis A sample of lubricant is extracted from a machine & analyzed for wear debris contamination. There are two most widely used methods. They are:
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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES 1. Spectrometric oil analysis program (SOAP) 2. Ferrography These methods are normally used to monitor the conditions of components lubricated by a circulating oil system. Two main lubricating sample analysis methods are: 1. Analysis of the sample to determine the concentration of the chemical elements it contains. 2. Analysis of the sample to determine the amount, size and shape of contaminant particles contained in it. SOAP: It is a maintenance tool which is used to check the condition of the oil lubricated mechanical systems (Examples: Motors, Gear boxes, Hydraulic systems). The systems can be kept under surveillance without dismantling them. Abnormally worn compounds can be localized and replaced before a catastrophic failure occurs. The quantity and type of wear metals in sample of lubricating oil is determined. The quantity can indicate something about the magnitude of the wear and the type of wear metals can reveal which component is wearing out. a. Emission Spectroscopy: An emission spectrometer is an optical instrument where the sample is burned is in a spark between two electrodes. The energy is absorbed by the metal in the sample, and they emit light with wavelengths, which are characteristic for each element in the sample. The intensity of light is proportional to the concentration of the metal in the sample. b. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy: In this, the sample is burned in a gas flame, where the metal compounds are transferred into atoms that can absorb light at wavelengths, which can characteristic for each metal. If one wishes e.g. to determine the quantity of fuel copper, then light with a wavelength characteristic for copper is send through the flame, where the copper atoms absorb a part of light . The quantity of absorbed light is proportional with the quantity of copper in the sample. Only particle under certain size can be measured, which is of the order of 0-10m. With emission spectroscopy somewhat larger particles can be measured.

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES

Limitations:Users of the SOAP claim that they find that a large proportion of the defects which would lead to the breakdown. This method provides no indication of: Large particles (E.g. bearings can breakdown due to few large particles) Defects which occurs quickly (E.g. due to the lack of lubricating oil or due to bearings which burn up) Defects where no wear metals are formed.(E.g. breakdown due to metal fatigue). Applications:1. It is used in situation s where breakdowns are catastrophic or expensive. 2. It is widely used in the military services. 3. In US, it is used by the Air force, Navy and the Army. 4. It is used for many civil aviation companies. FERROGRAPHY It is a technique which is based upon the systematic collection of oil samples from an oil lubricated machines. The method identifies, isolate and classify wear particles from machine parts. A magnetic field is used to sort the wear particles in the flowing oil. This technique was used successfully to monitor the condition of military aircraft engines, gear boxes and transmissions. Three of the major type of equipments used in wear particle analysis are the Direct Reading (DR) ferrography, the analytical ferrograph system and ferrogram scanner. Registration of the quantity of large and small wear particles is used to monitor the development of process between checks. Abnormal wear is revealed when there is a change in distribution of the particles called wear index of the oil. FERROGRAPH ANALYSIS APPARATUS:Here the particles are separated on a treated object glass where due to its displacement in a special magnetic field (with a very high field gradiation) causes the particle should be sorted
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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES according to size. The largest particles are deposited first while smaller ones travel farther with the flowing oil. The density i.e. the concentration of particles at a single location on the ferrogram is measured with an optical densitometer by allowing light to pass through it. The wear index SA = AL2-AS2 is obtained by the comparison of the density AL of the large particles and the density AS of the small particles. 1. DR Ferrography This is a quick method for which direct reading of the index S D can be achieved in about 5 minutes.

In this apparatus, a controlled flow of oil passes through a calibrated glass tube which is mounted in a specially designed magnetic field. The separation causes the particles to be sorted by the size of the bottom of the tube. The apparatus uses photocells to convert the measured light intensities attained by passing light to the tube to electric signals. The measured region of the apparatus is 0 -190 DR units, where maximum value is 190 DR corresponding to the cases where the bottom of the tube is completely covered with metal particles.

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES Density at two fixed measuring points in the tube are used corresponding to the densities of large and small particles. DL and DS respectively.. The sum of DL and DS is termed the total wear and the difference DL DS is termed as abnormality wear. The wear index SD=DL2 DS2 Areas of Application:The ferrographic DR measurement provides a warning of an incipient failure earlier than the standardized spectrometric method. 2. The Analytical Ferrograph Additional information about a wear sample, can be obtained with the Analytical Ferrograph system, instruments that can provide a permanent record of the sample, as well as analytical information. The Analytical Ferrograph is used to prepare a Ferrogram -- a fixed slide of wear particles for microscopic examination and photographic documentation. The Ferrogram is an important predictive tool, since it provides an identification of the characteristic wear pattern of specific pieces of equipment. After the particles have deposited on the Ferrogram, a wash is used to flush away the oil or water-based lubricant. After the wash fluid evaporates, the wear particles remain permanently attached to the glass substrate and are ready for microscopic examination.

Ferrogram Maker Instrument CONCLUSION: The wear debris monitoring method access the nature of the particles generated

when components wear. They can indicate exact nature of the machine problem The methods of wear debris analysis used as an indication of machine conditions are: indication from the amount of debris present indication from the size distribution of debris indication from the physical form of debris application of chemical analysis of debris

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES THERMOGRAPHY Thermographic inspection refers to the nondestructive testing of parts, materials or systems through the imaging of the thermal patterns at the object's surface. Strictly speaking, the term thermography alone refers to all thermographic inspection techniques regardless of the physical phenomena used to monitor the thermal changes. For instance, the application of a temperature sensitive coating to a surface in order to measure its temperature is a thermographic inspection contact technique based on heat conduction where there is no infrared sensor involved. Infrared thermography on the other hand, is a nondestructive, nonintrusive, noncontact mapping of thermal patterns or "thermograms", on the surface of objects through the use of some kind of infrared detector. In addition, there are two approaches in thermographic inspection: (1) passive, in which the features of interest are naturally at a higher or lower temperature than the background, for example: the surveillance of people on a scene; and (2) active, in which an energy source is required to produce a thermal contrast between the feature of interest and the background, for example: an aircraft part with internal flaws. When compared with other classical nondestructive testing techniques such as ultrasonic testing or radiographic testing, thermographic inspection is safe, nonintrusive & noncontact, allowing the detection of relatively shallow subsurface defects (a few millimeters in depth) under large surfaces (typically 30 x 30 cm) at once, although inspection of larger surfaces is possible) & in a fast manner (from a fraction of a second to a few minutes depending in the configuration, see below). Infrared Thermography is the science of measuring and mapping surface temperatures. "Infrared thermography, a nondestructive, remote sensing technique, has proved to be an effective, convenient, and economical method of testing concrete. It can detect internal voids, delaminations, and cracks in concrete structures such as bridge decks, highway pavements, garage floors, parking lot pavements, and building walls. As a testing technique, some of its most important qualities are that (1) it is accurate; (2) it is repeatable; (3) it need not inconvenience the public; and (4) it is economical." An infrared thermographic scanning system can measure and view temperature patterns based upon temperature differences as small as a few hundredths of a degree Celsius. After the thermal data is processed, it can be displayed on a monitor in multiple shades of gray scale or color.

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES The colors displayed on the thermogram are arbitrarily set by the thermographer to best illustrate the infrared data being analyzed. There are many other terms widely used all referring to infrared Thermography, the adoption of one or other term depends on the authors background and preferences. For instance, Video Thermography and Thermal Imaging draw attention to the fact that a sequence of images is acquired and are possible to see it as a movie. Pulse-Echo Thermography and Thermal Wave Imaging are adopted to emphasize the wave nature of heat. Pulsed Video Thermography, Transient Thermography, and Flash Thermography, are used when the specimen is stimulated using a short energy pulse. The spectrum and amount of thermal radiation depend strongly on an object's surface temperature. This makes it possible for a thermal imaging camera to display an object's temperature. However, other factors also influence the radiation, which limits the accuracy of this technique. For example, the radiation depends not only on the temperature of the object, but is also a function of the emissivity of the object. Also, radiation originates from the surroundings and is reflected in the object, and the radiation from the object and the reflected radiation will also be influenced by the absorption of the atmosphere.

Infrared thermography, thermal imaging, and thermal video are examples of infrared imaging science. Thermal imaging cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic
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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES spectrum (roughly 900014,000 nanometers or 914 m) and produce images of that radiation, called thermograms. Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects above absolute zero according to the black body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to see one's environment with or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature; therefore, thermography allows one to see variations in temperature. When viewed through a thermal imaging camera, warm objects stand out well against cooler backgrounds; humans and other warm-blooded animals become easily visible against the environment, day or night. As a result, thermography is particularly useful to military and other users of surveillance cameras. Difference between Infrared film and thermography IR film is sensitive to infrared (IR) radiation in the 250C to 500C range, while the range of thermography is approximately -50C to over 2,000C. So, for an IR film to show something, it must be over 250C or be reflecting infrared radiation from something that is at least that hot. Night vision infrared devices image in the near-infrared, just beyond the visual spectrum, and can see emitted or reflected near-infrared in complete visual darkness. Starlight-type night vision devices generally only magnify ambient light. Passive vs Active Thermography All objects above the absolute zero temperature (0 k) emit infrared radiation. Hence, an excellent way to measure thermal variations is to use an infrared vision device, usually a focal plane array (FPA) infrared camera capable of detecting radiation in the mid (3 to 5 m) & long (7 to 14 m) wave infrared bands, denoted as MWIR and LWIR, corresponding to two of the high transmittance infrared windows. Abnormal temperature profiles at the surface of an object are an indication of a potential problem. In passive thermography, the features of interest are naturally at a higher or lower temperature than the background. Passive thermography has many applications such as surveillance of people on a scene and medical diagnosis (specifically thermology). In active thermography, an energy source is required to produce a thermal contrast between the feature of interest and the background. The active approach is necessary in many cases given that the inspected parts are usually in equilibrium with the surroundings. ADVANTAGES

It shows a visual picture so temperatures over a large area can be compared. It is capable of catching moving targets in real time
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It is able to find deteriorating, i.e., higher temperature components prior to their failure It can be used to measure or observe in areas inaccessible or hazardous for other methods It is a non-destructive test method It can be used to find defects in shafts, pipes, and other metal or plastic parts. It can be used to detect objects in dark areas

LIMITATIONS AND DISADVANTAGES

Quality cameras often have a high price range. Images can be difficult to interpret accurately when based upon certain objects, specifically objects with erratic temperatures, although this problem is reduced in active thermal imaging.

Accurate temperature measurements are hindered by differing emissivities and reflections from other surfaces.

Most cameras have 2% accuracy or worse in measurement of temperature and are not as accurate as contact methods.

Only able to directly detect surface temperatures

APPLICATIONS

Condition monitoring Digital infrared thermal imaging in health care Medical imaging Infrared mammography Thermology Veterinary Thermal Imaging Night vision Research Process control Nondestructive testing Surveillance in security, law enforcement and defence Chemical imaging Volcanology Building

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES CORROSION MONITORING Corrosion is the disintegration of an engineered material into its constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen. Formation of an oxide of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms in solid solution is a well-known example of electrochemical corrosion, commonly known as rusting. This type of damage typically produces oxide(s) or salt(s) of the original metal. Corrosion can also occur in materials other than metals, such as ceramics or polymers, although in this context, the term degradation is more common. In other words, corrosion is the wearing away of metals due to a chemical reaction. Many structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in the air, but the process can be strongly affected by exposure to certain substances (see below). Corrosion can be concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend across a wide area more or less uniformly corroding the surface. Because corrosion is a diffusion controlled process, it occurs on exposed surfaces. As a result, methods to reduce the activity of the exposed surface, such as passivation and chromateconversion, can increase a material's corrosion resistance. However, some corrosion mechanisms are less visible and less predictable. The nature of the corrosive agent depends on (i) the material being protected, which are most commonly metal objects, and (ii) on the corrosive agent(s) to be neutralized. The corrosive agents are generally oxygen, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide. METHODS OF PROTECTION FROM CORROSION 1. Applied coatings: Plating, painting, and the application of enamel are the most common anticorrosion treatments. They work by providing a barrier of corrosion-resistant material between the damaging environment and the structural material. Aside from cosmetic and manufacturing issues, there are tradeoffs in mechanical flexibility versus resistance to abrasion and high temperature. Platings usually fail only in small sections, and if the plating is more noble than the substrate (for example, chromium on steel), a galvanic couple will cause any exposed area to corrode much more rapidly than an unplated surface would. For this reason, it is often wise to plate with active metal such as zinc or cadmium. Painting either by roller or brush is more desirable for tight spaces; spray would be better for larger coating areas such as steel decks and waterfront applications. Flexible polyurethane
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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES coatings, like Durabak-M26 for example, can provide an anti-corrosive seal with a highly durable slip resistant membrane. Painted coatings are relatively easy to apply and have fast drying times although temperature and humidity may cause dry times to vary. 2. Reactive coatings If the environment is controlled (especially in recirculating systems), corrosion inhibitors can often be added to it. These form an electrically insulating or chemically impermeable coating on exposed metal surfaces, to suppress electrochemical reactions. Such methods obviously make the system less sensitive to scratches or defects in the coating, since extra inhibitors can be made available wherever metal becomes exposed. Chemicals that inhibit corrosion include some of the salts in hard water (Roman water systems are famous for their mineral deposits), chromates, phosphates, poly-aniline, other conducting polymers and a wide range of specially-designed chemicals that resemble surfactants (i.e. long-chain organic molecules with ionic end groups). 3. Corrosion Inhibitors A corrosion inhibitor is a chemical compound that, when added to a liquid or gas, decreases the corrosion rate of a material, typically a metal or an alloy.[1] The effectiveness of a corrosion inhibitor depends on fluid composition, quantity of water, and flow regime. A common mechanism for inhibiting corrosion involves formation of a coating, often a passivation layer, which prevents access of the corrosive substance to the metal. Permanent treatments such as chrome-plating are not generally considered inhibitors, however. Instead corrosion inhibitors are additives to the fluids that surround the metal or related object. i. Anodic inhibitors as the name implies an anodic inhibitor interferes with the anodic process. Fe Fe++ + 2e- (1) If an anodic inhibitor is not present at a concentration level sufficient to block off all the anodic sites, localised attack such as pitting corrosion can become a serious problem due to the oxidising nature of the inhibitor which raises the metal potential and encourages the anodic reaction (equation 1). Anodic inhibitors are thus classified as dangerous inhibitors. Other examples of anodic inhibitors include orthophosphate, nitrite, ferricyanide and silicates.

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES ii. Cathodic inhibitors the major cathodic reaction in cooling systems is the O2 + H2O + 2e- 2OH- (2)b There are other cathodic reactions and additives that suppress these reactions called cathodic inhibitors. They function by reducing the available area for the cathodic reaction. This is often achieved by precipitating an insoluble species onto the cathodic sites. Zinc ions are used as cathodic inhibitors because of the precipitation of Zn(OH)2 at cathodic sites as a consequence of the localised high pH. (See reaction 2(b)). Cathodic inhibitors are classed as safe because they do not cause localised corrosion. iii. Adsorption type corrosion inhibitors many organic inhibitors work by an

reduction of oxygen.

adsorption mechanism. The resultant film of chemisorbed inhibitor is then responsible for protection either by physically blocking the surface from the corrosion environment or by retarding the electrochemical processes. The main functional groups capable of forming chemisorbed bonds with metal surfaces are amino (-NH2), carboxyl (-COOH), and phosphonate (-PO3H2) although other functional groups or atoms can form co-ordinate bonds with metal surfaces. iv. Mixed inhibitors because of the danger of pitting when using anodic

Inhibitors alone, it became common practice to incorporate a cathodic inhibitor into formulated performance was obtained by a combination of inhibitors than from the sum of the individual performances. This observation is generally referred to a synergism and demonstrates the synergistic action which exists between zinc and chromate ions. 4. CATHODIC PROTECTION: Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell.[1] The simplest method to apply CP is by connecting the metal to be protected with another more easily corroded "sacrificial metal" to act as the anode of the electrochemical cell. Cathodic protection systems are used to protect a wide range of metallic structures in various environments. Common applications are

steel water or fuel pipelines and storage tanks;

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CONDITION MONITORING NOTES steel pier piles; ships and boats; offshore oil platforms and onshore oil well casings and metal reinforcement bars in concrete buildings and structures. Cathodic protection can, in some cases, prevent stress corrosion cracking. Cathodic protection can be achieved in two ways: - by the use of galvanic (sacrificial) anodes, or - by impressed current. Galvanic anode systems employ reactive metals as auxiliary anodes that are directly electrically connected to the steel to be protected. The difference in natural potentials between the anode and the steel, as indicated by their relative positions in the electrochemical series, causes a positive current to flow in the electrolyte, from the anode to the steel. Thus, the whole surface of the steel becomes more negatively charged and becomes the cathode. The metals commonly used, as sacrificial anodes are aluminium, zinc and magnesium. These metals are alloyed to improve the long-term performance and dissolution characteristics. Impressed-current systems employ inert (zero or low dissolution) anodes and use an external source of dc power (rectified ac) to impress a current from an external anode onto the cathode surface. The connections are similar for the application of cathodic protection to metallic storage tanks, jetties, offshore structures and reinforced concrete structures. Structures that are commonly protected by cathodic protection are the exterior surfaces of: Pipelines, Ships hulls, Storage tank bases, Jetties and harbour structures, Steel sheet, tubular and foundation pilings, Offshore platforms, floating and sub sea structures Cathodic protection is also used to protect the internal surfaces of: Large diameter pipelines, Ships tanks (product and ballast), Storage tanks (oil and water, Water-circulating systems. Cathodic-protection systems may be monitored effectively by the measurement of structure-to-electrolyte potentials, using a high input impedance voltmeter and suitable half-cell. The standard practical half-cells are copper/copper sulphate, silver/silver chloride/seawater, silver/silver chloride/ potassium chloride and zinc. Adjustments are made to the cathodic-protection current output to ensure that protective potentials are maintained at a sufficiently negative level as defined by the project specification. The level of protection in soils and water is accepted at steel potentials of minus 850 mV (wrt Cu/CuSO4) or minus 800 mV (wrt Ag/AgCl/seawater).
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