Green Ports: Inland and Seaside Sustainable Transportation Strategies

Green Ports

Inland and Seaside Sustainable Transportation Strategies

Editors

Rickard Bergqvist

University of Gothenburg

Jason Monios

Kedge Business School and University of Gothenburg

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

List of Figures

List of Tables

List of Boxes

About the Editors

About the Contributors

Chapter 1. Green Ports in Theory and Practice

1.1. Why Green Ports?

1.2. Actions Currently Being Taken by Shipping Lines

1.3. Actions Currently Being Taken by Ports

1.4. Actions Currently Being Taken by Policymakers and Regulators

1.5. The Chapter Contributions

1.6. Identified Challenges and Future Outlook

Chapter 2. Emissions and Fuel Use in the Shipping Sector

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Fuels in International Shipping

2.3. Emissions

2.4. Typical Emission Profiles

2.5. Consequences of Emissions

2.6. Regulations and Policy Instruments

2.7. Abatement of Emissions

2.8. Fuels in the Future

Chapter 3. Policy on Reducing Shipping Emissions: Implications for Green Ports

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Atmospheric Emissions From Shipping

3.3. Approaches to Reducing Emissions From Shipping

3.4. The Regulatory Regime

3.5. Conclusions

Chapter 4. Stakeholder Management for Port Sustainability: Moving From Ad-Hoc to Structural Approaches

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Overview of Stakeholder Management Techniques Applied to Ports

4.3. Structural Approaches Toward Stakeholder Management in Ports: the Underdeveloped Case of the Local Community

4.4. Conclusions and Recommendations

Chapter 5. Ports and the Circular Economy

5.1. Introduction

5.2. The Transition Toward Circularity

5.3. The Impacts of the Transition Toward Circularity on Ports

5.4. Opportunities for Logistics and Industrial Activities in Seaports; Experiences in the Dutch Seaports

5.5. Conclusions

Appendix 5.1. Municipal Waste Production

Appendix 5.2. A High Over Assessment of the Impact of Circularity on Maritime Export Volumes

Chapter 6. Emissions From Ships in Ports

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Ship Emissions

6.3. Ship Activities in the Port Area and the Effects on Emissions

6.4. Emission Calculations

6.5. Measures to Reduce Emissions in Port

6.6. The Potential of the Different Measures

6.7. Responsibilities of Different Actors to Reduce Ship Emissions

Chapter 7. Sustainable Performance and Benchmarking in Container Terminals—The Energy Dimension

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Beyond Traditional Performance Measures and Sustainability Discussions

7.3. Analysis

7.4. Toward a Common Methodology

Chapter 8. Climate Change Adaptation by Ports: The Attitude and Perception of Chinese Port Organizations

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Literature Review

8.3. Research Methodology

8.4. Why Focus on China?

8.5. Research Findings

8.6. Discussion and Conclusion

Chapter 9. Green Port Dues—Indices and Incentive Schemes for Shipping

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Methodology

9.3. Inventory and Selection of Indices

9.4. Conclusion

Chapter 10. Port-Driven Measures for Incentivizing Sustainable Hinterland Transport

10.1. Introduction

10.2. Institutions That Encourage the Environmental Performance of Port Hinterland Transport

10.3. Methodology, Preliminary Analysis, and Case Selection

10.4. Case Examples for Each of the Four Goals

10.5. Stakeholder Evaluation of the Case Studies

10.6. Conclusions

Chapter 11. Green Port Strategies in China

11.1. Introduction

11.2. Environmental Concerns in the Port Sector

11.3. Green Port Strategies Discussed in Previous Research

11.4. Current Status of Green Port Management in China

11.5. Methodology

11.6. Results

11.7. Discussion

11.8. Conclusion

Chapter 12. Socioeconomic Performance Assessment of Port Clusters: More Challenges, Fewer Solutions?

12.1. Introduction

12.2. The Ins and Outs of a Port Performance Measurement System

12.3. Results From a Stakeholder Consultation: the Port Performance Indicators Selection and Measurement (PPRISM) Project

12.4. Ports Observatory for Port Indicator Analysis, Case 1: Development of a Top-Down Harmonized Methodology for Socioeconomic Impact Measurement

12.5. PORTOPIA Case 2: Development of a Proxy-Based Approach

12.6. Conclusions and Recommendations

Appendices

Chapter 13. Cruise Shipping and Green Ports: A Strategic Challenge

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Going Green: A Strategic Challenge for the Cruise Sector

13.3. How Can Cruise Ports Go Green?

13.4. Concluding Remarks

Index

Copyright

Elsevier

Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-814054-3

For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Joe Hayton

Acquisition Editor: Brain Romer

Editorial Project Manager: Leticia Lima

Production Project Manager: Anusha Sambamoorthy

Cover Designer: Victoria Pearson

Typeset by TNQ Technologies

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 WTI crude oil (USD/barrel), 1986–20182

Figure 2.1 Fuel consumption in 2012 (%) divided by ship type21

Figure 2.2 Emissions of CO2 related to transport work for a large container vessel as a function of speed reduction26

Figure 2.3 Regulation of sulfur content in marine fuels28

Figure 2.4 NOX limits for marine engines28

Figure 3.1 CO2 emissions from shipping compared with global total emissions37

Figure 3.2 CO2 emissions from shipping by ship type38

Figure 3.3 Business-as-usual forecast of CO2 emissions from shipping39

Figure 3.4 The carbon intensity of electricity generation50

Figure 4.1 The value chain of a port managing body68

Figure 5.1 A framework to classify supply chains in geographical scale and circularity90

Figure 5.2 The positioning of some important commodities for ports91

Figure 5.3 Exchange of residual flows through dedicated infrastructure in Zeeland Seaports99

Figure 6.1 Example of particle composition after combustion of marine fuels with different sulfur content114

Figure 7.1 Energy activity clusters in a container terminal133

Figure 7.2 Output differentiation – the multidimensionality of container variables135

Figure 7.3 Evolution of share of energy sources in LAC container terminals, 2012–15140

Figure 7.4 Median liters of diesel equivalent consumed for handling one dry box (excluding reefer consumption), by country, 2012–15141

Figure 7.5 Median liters of diesel equivalent consumed for handling one dry box (excluding reefer consumption), by type and size of terminal, 2012–15142

Figure 7.6 Example of the relationship between the share of transshipment cargo and RTG moves in Terminal B, 2010–16142

Figure 7.7 Median liters of diesel equivalent consumed per activity cluster (excluding reefer cooling), 2012–15143

Figure 7.8 Energy consumption by crane type per move144

Figure 7.9 Moves per hour, by crane type145

Figure 7.10 Evolution of energy costs and emissions per RTG move in reference Terminal A145

Figure 7.11 Average energy consumption per storage day per full reefer container by country in kWh148

Figure 7.12 Correlation between reefer activity and diesel and electricity consumption, percentage change (base month January=100), 2014150

Figure 9.1 World map with location of indices and incentive schemes176

Figure 9.2 Usage of different indices in European ports in 2016182

Figure 10.1 Percentage of modal split of freight transport in the EU28, 2005–15194

Figure 10.2 Location of cases and distribution of identified goals (with inset showing close-up of North Europe)199

Figure 12.1 Employment estimate for Antwerp (Based on 2012 data from the NBB)248

Figure 13.1 Global cruise passenger growth, 1990–2016255

Figure 13.2 Average cruise passengers per call in the Med, 2000–17259

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Emissions (in Mtonne 2012) of SOX, NOX, and PM10 From World Shipping Compared With Emissions From EU28 and Sweden22

Table 2.2 CO2 Emissions (tonne-km) for Some Different Ship Types24

Table 2.3 Typical Emissions for Some Combinations of Fuels and Emission Standards25

Table 2.4 The Most Important Impact From Use of Fossil Fuel and Emissions to Air in Shipping26

Table 2.5 Examples of Emission Limits for NOX for Different Diesel Engines in Europe30

Table 3.1 MARPOL Annex VI NOx Emission Limits52

Table 4.1 Overview of Stakeholder Management Literature Applied to Ports, With a Focus on Stakeholder Identification73

Table 5.1 Waste Volumes in the EU28 in 201489

Table 5.2 An Overview of Efforts to Increase Circularity of Selected Energy Sources93

Table 5.3 Circularity Analysis of Important Producer Generated Waste Streams94

Table 5.4 Circularity Analysis of Important Consumer-Generated Waste Streams95

Table 5.5 CE Activities of Dutch Ports102

Table 5.6 Municipal Waste Production in the United States (2014)103

Table 5.7 US Maritime Exports (2016) and Impact of Transition to Circularity on These Flows104

Table 6.1 Estimated Power Utilization (as Share of Installed Engine Power) at Different Operational Modes in the Port Area118

Table 7.1 Container Handling Equipment Energy Consumption Values130

Table 7.2 Comparison of GHG Protocol With EN 16258132

Table 7.3 Classification of Relevant Categories for Energy Efficiency and Consumption Indicators136

Table 7.4 Periodicity of Energy Demand149

Table 9.1 Selected Indices and Incentives177

Table 9.2 Environmental Impacts of Selected Indices179

Table 10.1 Summary of Case Studies Based on Goals and Measure Types198

Table 10.2 Summary of All Different Case Studies by Location and Incentives199

Table 10.3 Summary of Four Case Study Examples201

Table 10.4 Minimum Desired Modal Split204

Table 10.5 Summary of the Workshop Results for Each Case207

Table 11.1 Key Data on the Two Case Ports219

Table 11.2 List of Application of Green Port Strategies in the Two Ports220

Table 12.1 Extensive List of Socioeconomic Indicators for Ports236

Table 12.2 Assessment of Socioeconomic Indicators in the Design Phase238

Table 12.3 Aggregated Survey Results240

Table 12.4 Comparison Result Eurostat Data (NUTS 2 and NACE Two-Digit) With Results From Dutch and Belgium Monitors245

Table 13.1 Environmental Priorities for European Port Authorities, 2004–17259

List of Boxes

Box 7.1 GRI Indicators—Energy Consumption Within the Organization127

About the Editors

Rickard Bergqvist is a Professor in Logistics and Transport Economics at the School of Business, Economics, and Law at the University of Gothenburg. His key research areas are maritime logistics, regional logistics, intermodal transportation, dry ports, and public–private collaboration. He currently teaches Intermodal Transport, Operations Management, and Supply Chain Management. His major works include over 40 refereed journal articles, conference papers, and book chapters related to supply chain management, intermodal transport, dry ports, economic modeling, maritime economics, and public–private collaboration.

Jason Monios is an Associate Professor in Maritime Logistics at Kedge Business School, Marseille, France. His research areas include intermodal transport and logistics, port system evolution, collaboration and integration in port hinterlands, port governance and policy, institutional and regulatory settings, port sustainability, and climate change adaptation. He has led numerous research projects on these topics with a total budget of over €1m. He has over 70 peer-reviewed academic publications in addition to numerous research and consultancy reports, covering Europe, North and South America, Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. He has worked with national and regional transport authorities and co-authored technical reports with United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UN-ECLAC). Jason is a chartered member of the Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport and co-chair of the Intermodal Freight Transport SIG of the World Conference on Transportation Research Society, as well as a member of the International Association of Maritime Economists, the Port Performance Research Network, and the Port Economics online initiative. He currently holds visiting positions at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, and the University of Manitoba, Canada. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4916-9718.

About the Contributors

Prof. Kevin Cullinane is a Professor of International Logistics and Transport Economics at the University of Gothenburg. Kevin has been a logistics adviser to the World Bank and transport adviser to the governments of Scotland, Ireland, Hong Kong, Egypt, Chile, and the United Kingdom. He holds an Honorary Professorship at the University of Hong Kong and is a Visiting Professor at the VTI (the Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute), Liverpool John Moores University, Dalian Maritime University, and Shanghai Maritime University. Prior to joining the University of Gothenburg on a permanent basis, he was appointed to the lifetime position of Honorary Visiting Professor at the University. Kevin has personally won research and consultancy projects to the value of $US 6.5  m, many of which have informed the policies of national and/or regional governments. He has held other positions as the Director of the TRI at Edinburgh Napier University, Chair in Marine Transport & Management at Newcastle University, Professor and Head of the Department of Shipping & Transport Logistics at Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Head of the Centre for International Shipping & Transport at Plymouth University, Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the University of Oxford Transport Studies Unit, and as Senior Partner in his own transport consultancy company, based in Cairo, Rennes, Hong Kong, Edinburgh, and now Gothenburg, In terms of academic outputs, Kevin has published 12 books and over 200 journal articles and is an Associate Editor of Transportation Research A, Transportation Research D, and the International Journal of Applied Logistics. He is also a member of numerous Editorial Boards. Kevin has been a Chartered Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Logistics & Transport since 1997. His expertise has been recognized at UK national level with his appointment to the Civil and Construction Engineering sub-panel for REF 2014 and the Engineering subpanel for REF2021, the UK's national research evaluation exercise. ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4031-3453.

Sharon Cullinane is a Professor in Sustainable Logistics at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden. Having gained her PhD in logistics from Plymouth University in 1987, she has lectured, researched, and published in the field of transport policy and the environment around the world. She has been employed at Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh, the University of Hong Kong, Oxford University, the Egyptian National Institute of Transport, the Ecole Supérieur de Rennes, and Plymouth University. Her current research interest lies in the area of e-commerce and its impacts on logistics, passenger transport, and the wider society.

Dr. Peter de Langen is the owner and principal consultant of Ports & Logistics Advisory (PLA). PLA aims to contribute to a better ports industry by providing advice, analysis, and executive education. PLA works for leading organizations in the ports industry, such as Port of Rotterdam, Port of Barcelona, Maersk Line, the Panama Canal Authority, The European Sea Ports Organisation, and the World Bank. Peter is a visiting professor at Copenhagen Business School, where he aims to develop cutting-edge research in ports and logistics. Peter is a thought leader in the port industry; his publications are widely read and cited, he publishes opinion pieces in Port Strategy and regularly speaks at industry conferences. From 2007 to 2013, Peter was a corporate strategist at Port of Rotterdam Authority; from 2008 to 2016, he was a part-time professor at Eindhoven University of Technology. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7703-5370.

Onno de Jong studied Economics & Business at Utrecht University (BSc) and Erasmus University Rotterdam (MSc). During his master program, he focused on Urban, Port, and Transport Economics, combining studying with working as a research assistant for the Dutch Port Monitor. From 2013 to 2017, he worked as a researcher with Erasmus Centre for Urban, Port, and Transport Economics (Erasmus UPT) working on among others the Dutch Port Monitor and the Ports Observatory for Performance Indicator Analysis (PORTOPIA) project. Since November 2017, he works as a consultant at Transport and Infrastructure with Ecorys, a Rotterdam-based research and consultancy firm.

Dr. Steven De Schepper is Manager at EY Real Estate Advisory Services in Belgium since July 2017. He obtained a PhD and Master in Business Engineering at the Solvay Business School. Previously, he advised Maritime & Transport Business Solutions (Rotterdam, the Netherlands) for both public and private parties in setting up public–private partnerships (PPPs) for various long-term infrastructure projects worldwide. Prior to that, he held the role of (postdoctoral) researcher and project manager at the Solvay Business School Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB). Here, he conducted research into the strategic and financial management of complex long-term (infrastructure) projects, with a strong focus on PPP projects. In addition, to the research, he advised on various projects for different institutions, such as the European Commission. Steven has experience in infrastructure development, transaction management of complex procurement processes, stakeholder management, feasibility studies, strategic partnerships and business strategy development, and economic impact studies.

Prof. Dr. Michaël Dooms (MSc & PhD, Applied Economics: Business and Technology, Solvay Business School, University of Brussels) is an Associate Professor Management and Strategy at the Solvay Business School at the University of Brussels (VUB). His PhD Thesis won the 2011 Palgrave MacMillan MEL PhD Competition (fourth edition). It treats the spatial and dynamic aspects of stakeholder management, with an application to large-scale infrastructure projects, including port projects, master plans, and vision cases. He is a member of PortEconomics.eu, council member of the International Association of Maritime Economists (IAME), and a member of the Port Performance Research Network (PPRN). He is currently a guest professor of port management and strategy at universities in the Netherlands (MEL-Erasmus University Rotterdam) and Greece (AUEB), and formerly in Belgium (Antwerp, ITMMA). Between 2013 and 2017, he has led the PORTOPIA project (www.portopia.eu), a large EU-FP7 collaborative research project on port performance measurement.

Ke Du graduated from Ningbo University, China, in 2015 with a BEng in Marine Technology. In 2016, she moved to the United Kingdom and completed her MSc in Marine Engineering with Merit at the University of Southampton. Her master's project focused on the marine environment, and she then continued this interest to commence a PhD in green port policy research at Edinburgh Napier University in 2017. Her research topic is intermodal transport green port benchmarking—an application to Chinese ports. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9335-1122.

Dr. Erik Fridell obtained a PhD in physics in 1993 and is an Assistant Director and team leader for the Emission and Transport group at Swedish Environmental Research Institute (IVL) and Adjunct Professor in Maritime Environment at Chalmers University of Technology. He has long experience on research about emissions to air from traffic, including emission modelling and research on emission abatement strategies. Recent research interest also includes scenario development, policy instruments, and assessing impact on environment and health with a focus on new fuels and shipping. He has a wide experience regarding development and application of various methodologies for calculating and streamlining fuel consumption and air emissions for the transport sector. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6801-4914.

Marta Gonzalez-Aregall holds a PhD in Economics (University of Barcelona). She is a postdoc researcher at the University of Gothenburg. She has conducted research stays at the Universities of British Columbia (Vancouver), Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Spain), and United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UN-ECLAC; Chile). She has focused her research on evaluation of maritime transportation, competition and efficiency of port infrastructure, privatization, and regulation of transport infrastructures and the spatial effects of transportation. She has presented her work in many international conferences, and she has published her articles in journals such as Transport Policy and the International Journal of Shipping and Transport Logistics. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9272-0416.

Yile He is a Master student of Supply Chain Management working under the supervision of Dr. Adolf K.Y. Ng. Her research interests lie in the areas of climate change and adaptation, and logistics and supply chain management. She aims to develop expertise in academic projects and gain advanced and specialized knowledge.

Adolf K. Y. Ng is a Professor of Transport and Supply Chain Management at the Asper School of Business of the University of Manitoba (Canada). Also, he is the Director of the Transport Institute at the same university. He obtained DPhil from the University of Oxford (the United Kingdom) and excels in the research of port management, transport geography, climate change adaptation planning, transport infrastructure planning and management, institutional and organizational change, global supply chains, and maritime education. His scholarly outputs include four books, more than 60 articles in leading journals, and other forms of publication. He is a Senior Editor of European Journal of International Management, an Associate Editor of Maritime Policy & Management, Co-Editor of Journal of Transport Literature, and an editorial board member of reputable scholarly journals. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7869-8328.

Athanasios A. Pallis is an Associate Professor at the Department of Shipping, Trade, and Transport, University of the Aegean, Greece, where he directs the Jean Monnet program European Port Policy (since 2003; due to conclude August 2018). A founding member and co-director of PortEconomics, he was a Fulbright Scholar at Columbia University, New York, USA (Centre for Energy, Marine Transportation, & Public Policy). He won twice the Maritime Economics & Logistics Best Paper Award of the International Maritime Economist Association: in 2017, leading research on private entry in cruise terminal operations; and in 2008, leading research on container port concessions. He served as Secretary of the State for Ports & Port Policy of the Hellenic Republic, and for 5  years (2013–17) was the Secretary General of MedCruise, the association representing more than 100 cruise ports in 20 countries in the Med and its adjoining seas. His books examine the European Port Policy (published in English, Japanese, and Greek), the Common EU Maritime Transport Policy (published in English and Greek), and the Maritime Transport: The Greek Paradigm (in English).

Sara Sköld works as a project manager at IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute. She has been working in the transport industry with focus on environmental issues the last 12  years. For six of those years, she was the CEO and project manager of Clean Shipping Index, an independent benchmarking system of the environmental performance of ships. She has a master's degree in environmental science and a master's degree in physical geography with focus on climate change. IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute is an independent, nonprofit research organization owned by a foundation established by the Swedish government and industry. IVL was established in 1966 and has since then been involved in the development of solutions to environmental problems at national and international levels. The institute comprises Sweden's largest groups of environmental experts and employs around 240 people, which makes IVL a leading institute for applied environmental research and consultancy services.

Henrik Sornn-Friese is an Associate Professor at Copenhagen Business School, where he is Director of CBS Maritime and Academic Director of the MSc program in Economics and Business Administration. He is a member of the Board of Directors of Maritime Development Centre, a Copenhagen-based cluster organization aiming to build and promote the maritime cluster in Denmark. He is a codirector of an international research program on Governance and Innovation for a Sustainable Maritime Supply Chain supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and involving more than 35 universities and companies in East Asia, Europe, and North America. He is also cofounder of Maritime Research Alliance, bringing together five Danish universities in collaborative research on three main themes: Decarbonization, Automation, and Data-driven Innovation in shipping, ports, and maritime industry. He has published extensively on shipping and ports in leading international journals in business and management, business history, economic geography, maritime history, and transportation, and he is also author or co-author of several books and book chapters about shipping and maritime clusters. ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3255-3200.

Thomas Spengler holds a degree as Industrial Engineer for Maritime Transportation. Currently, Thomas is a Research Associate at the City University of Applied Sciences in Bremen, Germany, with a strong focus on quantitative research in the area of ports, sustainability, and data science. Previously, he was a consultant for the UN-ECLAC and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.

Dr Linda Styhre is a researcher at IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute. Linda received her doctoral degree in Technology Management and Economics in 2010 at Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden. Linda was a visiting research fellow at Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology in 2008 to study capacity utilization of Japanese shipping services and at the Department of Environmental Studies at University of New South Wales in Australia in 2014 to study emission reduction measures for ships in ports. Linda has been involved in many projects and has been a project manager for more than 15 research projects. Her research interests include energy efficient shipping, sustainable shipping, alternative maritime fuels, port infrastructure and design, logistics, and transport procurement.

George K. Vaggelas is a Research and Teaching Fellow on European Ports Policy at the Department of Shipping, Trade, and Transport of the University of the Aegean. He has served as a member of the Greek Regulatory Authority for Ports, and for 4  years was the chief advisor of Thessaloniki Port Authority S.A. He has been extensively engaged in several research projects, analyzing port and shipping strategies, including the EU flagship PORTOPIA project that was implemented in cooperation with the European Sea Ports Organization. George has (co-)authored several studies examining seaport economics, management, and policy. A founding member of PortEconomics, he is active at the PPRN, the IAME, and serves as a BoD member of the Hellenic Association of Maritime Economists (ENOE). He is a partner at Ports & Shipping (P&S) Advisory, an innovative company aiming at delivering consultancy services of high quality in the port and shipping industries.

Larissa van der Lugt is a senior port and transport economist and Director of Erasmus UPT. This centre is an independent research institute of the Erasmus University, Rotterdam. In her actual research and educational work, Larissa van der Lugt applies a deep knowledge of the port and maritime industry to academic knowledge development and to practical problem analyses and policy issues. She programs and executes research projects for a broad range of national and international customers and with national and international partners. She specializes in port strategy, port management, port performance, and port governance. In 2015, she completed a PhD on the strategic development of Port Development Companies and published a series of academic papers on related subjects. Larissa van der Lugt is the Academic Director of the MSc program Maritime Economics and Logistics (MEL), responsible for the curriculum of the program. In addition, as an academic teacher and course coordinator, she is experienced in the development of and teaching in higher educational programs, both regular as executive education. Before joining the Erasmus University Rotterdam in 2001, Larissa van der Lugt has worked with the Dutch Ministry of Transport (1  year) and with a consulting and engineering company Fredric Harris Inc. (4  years).

Yuhong Wang is a Professor in Maritime Transport at the Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, China. He obtained his doctoral degree from University of Newcastle and won the second best prize of the 4th Palgrave Macmillan PhD Competition in MEL (2008–11). Prior to joining Ningbo University, he worked 6  years at TRI, Edinburgh Napier University, UK, with particular research interests in liner shipping transportation and container supply chains.

Gordon Wilmsmeier holds the Kühne Professorial Chair in Logistics at the Universidad de Los Andes in Bogotá, Colombia. From 2011 to 2017, he worked as Economic Affairs Officer in the Infrastructure Services Unit at the UN-ECLAC. Previously he worked at Edinburgh Napier University's TRI and as a consultant for UN-ECLAC, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), The United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and the Small Island Developing States (UN-OHRLLS), the World Bank, Adelphi Research, The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), IDB, Development Bank of Latin America (CAF), Organization of American States (OAS). He is an internationally recognized expert in maritime transport geography and economics, port economics and inland shipping issues with particular interests in shipping networks, governance, competition, transport costs, sustainability, and energy efficiency. Gordon is an honorary professor for Maritime Geography at the University of Applied Sciences in Bremen and Visiting Lecturer at Göteborg University, Sweden, and Universidad Nacional de San Martín, Argentina. He has published over 100 book chapters, journal articles, institutional publications, and working papers. He is a leader of the global PPRN (https://pprn.network). Gordon is a member of the IAME (council member 2010–16), the Sustainability Working Group of the European Freight & Logistics Leaders Forum, and Associate Member of PortEconomics. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8848-9004.

Dr. Hulda Winnes has a PhD from 2010 in Shipping and Marine Technology with a focus on Maritime Environment, from Chalmers University of Technology. Her thesis, Air Pollution from Ships–Emission Measurements and Impact Assessments, treats air pollution from ships from different perspectives. She has studied and worked with environmental issues relating to ships and shipping since 2001 and is a senior project manager and researcher at IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute. Her field of work contains research on ship emissions to air, emission abatement technology, environmental impact assessments, and energy efficiency of shipping. Furthermore, she has been involved in several projects for estimating effects on emissions of different regulatory scenarios. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7087-6567.

Chapter 1

Green Ports in Theory and Practice

Rickard Bergqvist¹, and Jason Monios²     ¹Logistics and Transport Research Group, Department of Business Administration, School of Business, Economics and Law at the University of Gothenburg, Go¨teborg, Sweden     ²Kedge Business School, Marseille, France

Abstract

This chapter introduces the topic of green ports and establishes the background and motivation for this volume. The chapter provides an overarching view of the key elements of environmental issues in shipping, particularly from the port perspective. This is followed by a discussion of the current, emerging, and potential strategies to introduce more sustainable practices, the different actors involved, and also the importance and changing nature of national and international regulation. The structure of the book is introduced, and a brief outline of each chapter is presented. Finally, the chapter concludes with thoughts on developing trends and the future environmental performance of the port sector.

Keywords

Emissions; Environmental; Green port; Hinterland; Shipping; Sustainability; Vessels

1.1. Why Green Ports?

Ports today play a greater role than simply handling cargo on the quayside. The sources of their competition and the extent of their influence stretch across the sea and also deep into the hinterland. Their management and operational strategies are entwined with stakeholders on several scales and in many spheres, from local to global and from business to government. The port's role in the transport chain has the potential to shape the social and environmental performance of transportation systems extending across the globe. While many ports choose not to act beyond complying with existing environmental regulations in their city, region, or country, in many cases they have exercised their potential for addressing both social and environmental externalities.

While the Kyoto Protocol (adopted in 1997 and entering into force in 2005) introduced legally binding emissions targets, aviation and shipping were not included (Cullinane and Cullinane, 2013). Researchers have in recent years analyzed and quantified the emissions from the maritime sector, which may form a potential baseline for future targets. While the primary focus of this book is on the port perspective, attention to emissions in the maritime sector has focused for the most part on the output of vessels while at sea. These emissions can be divided broadly into greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions affecting climate change and local air pollution, primarily sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM). In 2007–12 shipping accounted for 2.8% of global GHG emissions or double the level produced by air travel (Smith et al., 2014). Local pollutants are a more pressing issue in coastal areas because of their impact on human health. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers air pollution a major environmental risk to health, estimating that it results in three million deaths per year (World Health Organisation, 2016). Shipping contributes a significant amount to this risk, especially in coastal areas. Worldwide, shipping accounts for approximately 15% of NOx and 5%–8% of SOx emissions (Zis et al., 2016) that cause serious harm both to human health and the environment. As discussed in Chapter 2, Brandt et al. (2011) found that emissions from shipping caused about 50,000 premature deaths in Europe alone in 2000.

In the years leading up to the economic crisis, a common view