Gender, Livelihoods and Migration in Africa

Gender, Livelihoods

and Migration

in Africa

Justina Dugbazah

Copyright © 2012 by Justina Dugbazah.

Library of Congress Control Number:           2011919026

ISBN:                        Hardcover                       978-1-4653-8296-2

ISBN:                        Softcover                         978-1-4653-8295-5

ISBN:                        Ebook                              978-1-4653-8294-8

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Contents

Foreword

Book Summary

Dedication

Acknowledgements

Acronyms and Abbreviations

Glossary and Definition of Key Concepts

Chapter 1

Examining the Gender, Livelihoods, and Migration Linkage in Africa

A day in the life of a migrant household

Introduction

Brief overview of the rural-urban phenomenon

Impact of Structural Adjustment Programmes on Migration

The Gender and Migration Linkage

Data Collection and Analysis

Conclusion

Chapter 2

Gender Framework for Analysing Livelihoods and Migration

Introduction

Perspectives on Theories of Women in Development

Women in Development (WID)

Women and Development

Gender and Development

Gender Mainstreaming

Policy Approaches to Development

Welfare Approach

Equity Approach

Anti-poverty Approach

Efficiency Approach

Empowerment Approach

Feminist Perspectives on Migration and Livelihoods

Liberal Feminism

Radical Feminism

Socialist Feminism

Black Feminism

African Feminism

Practical Application of African Feminism to the Local Context

Conclusion

Chapter 3

Historical perspectives on gender relations and factors that impact African women

Introduction

Gender Relations in Pre-colonial Africa

Impact of Colonialism on Gender Relations

Gender relations in Africa during Contemporary Times

Factors that Influence the Position of African Women

Access to Health Services and Facilities

Women and the Legal System

The Rights of Women in Marriage

Women and Accessibility to Credit

The Susu Savings Networks

Women’s Access to Formal Employment

Women’s Role in the Informal Sector

Women’s Land Tenure Rights in Africa

Women’s Land Tenure Rights in Africa: The Case of Ghana

Women and Agriculture

Invisible Roles of Women in the Rural Economy

Conclusion

Chapter 4

Exploring the Livelihoods Discourse in Africa

An Introduction to the Livelihoods Approach

The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework

Migration as a Livelihoods Strategy

Conclusion

Chapter 5

Conceptualising Global Patterns and Theories of Migration

Reflections of Grandpapa

Introduction

Relevant Insights from the Migration Literature

Broad Patterns of Internal Migration

Rural-Urban Migration

Rural-Rural Migration

Urban-Urban Migration

Urban-Rural Migration

Theories of Migration Revisited

Dual Economy Models of Rural-Urban Migration

Neoclassical Economist Model

New Economies Model

Network Model of Migration

Life Course Perspective on Migration

Political Economy Approach on Migration

Identifying the Gender Gap in Traditional Migration Theories

Proposing a Gender-inclusive Migration Model

Gender and Migration (GAM) Theory for a Changing World

Chapter 6

Historical Patterns of Migration in sub-Saharan Africa

Introduction

Migration in the West African Region

Colonial Interferences in West Africa

Migration Patterns in Southern Africa

Gendered Impact of Migration in Southern Africa

History of Migration in East African Countries

The Historical Trend of Migration: Case of Ghana Migration in

Ghana during the pre-colonial era

Migration in Ghana during the Colonial Era

Implications of Colonialism

Migration in Ghana after Independence

Migration in Ghana in the Contemporary Period

The Migratory History of the Abutia People of Ghana

Chapter 7

History and Profile of the Volta Region and the Abutia Villages

Introduction

A Profile of the Volta Region

The Political History of Eweland

Socio-cultural Overview of Volta Region

Geography and Relief of the Ho District

Climate and Vegetation

Population of the Ho District

Ho—the Regional and District Capital

The Indigenous Abutia Villages

Physical Location of the Abutia Villages

Abutia Settler Villages

Climate and Vegetation of Abutia

Livelihood Activities in Abutia—Agriculture

Livestock and Hunting in Abutia

Infrastructure of the Abutia Communities

Water Supply

Sanitation Issues

Access to Health Services

Educational Amenities in Abutia

Transportation

Energy Supply in Abutia Communities

Access to Telecommunications Services

Access to Markets

Availability of other Rural Infrastructure

Chapter 8

Political and Social Organisation in the Study Communities

Introduction

Local Government and Decision-making

Nexus of Traditional and Politico-social Organisation

Gender Ideology and Socialisation

Male-headed Households

Female-headed Households

Social Functions in Abutia

Household Income and Assets

Household Budgetary Obligations

Division of Labour in the Domestic Sphere

Crossroads of Productive and Reproductive Roles

Division of Labour between Husband and Wife

Division of Labour on Farms

Time Spent by Women on Household Reproductive Activities

Girl-child Assistance with Household Responsibilities

Chapter 9

Characteristics of Migrant Households and Migrants

Introduction

Household Participation in Study

Educational Level of Participants

Religion of Participants

Types of Migration from Abutia

Determinants of Migration from Abutia Villages

Socio-cultural Determinants of Migration from Abutia Villages

Negotiations Surrounding Household Migration Decision-making

Demographic Characteristics of Migrants

Age of Migrants

Sex of Migrants

Education and Skills Characteristic of Migrants

Position of Migrants in Household

The Job-seeking Experience of Migrants

Migrants Who Move for Educational Purposes

Migrants Moving for Family Reasons

Occupation of Migrants Prior to Migration

Occupation of Migrants at Destination

Preferred Destinations of Migrants

Migrant Contact with Household

Abutia Migrants in Accra

Chapter 10

Impact of Migration on Rural Livelihoods

Introduction

Agriculture as a Primary Source of Rural Livelihood

Effect of Migration on Agriculture

Trading as a Secondary Source of Livelihoods

Effect of Migration on Secondary Livelihoods

Chapter 11

Impact of Migration in the Public and Private Spheres

Effect of Migration on Household Division of Labour

Effect of Migration on Household Decision-making

Effect of Migration on Marital Relationships

Effect of Migration on Parenting

Migration and Popular Culture and Assimilation

Effect of Migration on Family Support Systems

Gendered Effect of Migration on Education

Effect of Migration on Food Security and Nutrition

Effect of Migration on Social Status of Migrant Households

Perceptions of Migration and Implications for Community Development

Impact of Remittances on the Rural Economy

Chapter 12

Summary and Conclusion

Policy Implications of Understanding Rural-Urban Migration

Bibliography

Endnotes

Foreword

In the days of the quick fix and the superficial sound-bite, it is a rare treat to have a book that is based on serious and in-depth empirical research and put together in both a theoretically-informed and sensitive way. It is even rarer that such a book smoothly links together three of the most pertinent themes in current studies on sub-Saharan Africa: gender, livelihoods and migration. I am very happy to write the foreword for this book written by Justina Dugbazah.

Justina’s book produces a wealth of important findings that thoroughly demonstrate that migration is a profoundly gendered process, which has huge consequences for rural households in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly with regard to economic livelihoods, food security, women’s reproductive responsibilities and political participation.

The main thesis of the book, and that which is most salient to broader work on Africa, is that most African women confront significant socio-cultural and economic constraints (lack of access to resources, limited decision-making opportunities, and relatively lower socio-economic status within the household and community, for example). Justina takes the empirical discoveries from 30 years ago (Bukh, 1979, for example) about the adverse effects of male-outmigration from Ghana’s central Volta Region, and develops them to show that still, and even more so in some cases, in the 21st century, this already vulnerable position of women continues to be worsened by male out-migration, which has gendered consequences for women’s lives and their statuses in their communities and households, resulting in an increase in women’s productive and reproductive responsibilities.

More broadly, however, Justina takes up the key question: what are the challenges that confront women, especially rural women in Africa? How does internal migration impact on households in communities that are affected by outmigration? Recognising the agency of women as well as men, and taking into account the gendered nature of structures and processes, Justina uses a range of concepts and methodologies that tease out the complexities of the overall project of understanding the social realities of rural women and men, and the implications of internal migration for an already vulnerable population.

Justina collected her data from village studies in Ghana and archival sources/grey literature, and she combines ethnography, in its fullest sense, with a nuanced understanding of gender concepts. The argument starts from the premise that men and women are socially constructed in different ways within any given context; and it recognizes inequalities and the operations of power in social relations. The book follows themes and debates in the gender, rural livelihoods and migration literatures, highlighting diverse theoretical models and methodological approaches in addition to conceptual dialogues and comparisons. This is a book that takes the reader along a broad historical journey exploring the nexus and networks of the literature on women and migration trends in sub-Saharan Africa.

A key argument is that while ‘gender and development’ might be a significant focus in the policy literature there is relatively little literature that records women and men’s gendered experiences of development, and even more limited literature that brings together ideas about gender, and how it shapes and is inflected by development issues such as livelihoods, women’s access to resources and the impact of migration on the productive and reproductive roles within rural households in African contexts.

Justina suggests that recent years have witnessed a growing research into migration as a factor in development. However, in spite of the increase in migration literature, there is a tendency to ignore gender as a critical issue. Hence the gender dimension and women’s experiences are identified as a gap in migration studies. In order to address fully these longstanding gender disparities, it is necessary to recognize that the supply side of the market plays a critical role in contributing to rural-urban migration, with different outcomes for men and women. The book supports the contention made by other scholars that gender must be treated as a fundamental axis of differentiation, and not simply a control variable in the analysis of development concepts.

Migration has varying impacts on women’s and men’s power, status and roles. Justina demonstrates the usefulness of applying insights gained from gender analysis of domestic policymaking to the realm of migration and rural livelihoods. In the process she manages to make a complex story understandable to those who are not experts in livelihoods, rural development, or gender and migration.

Overall, this book demonstrates a thorough fingertip command and application of several literatures, indeed an impressive command of ideas and debates from a wide range of disciplines: politics, public policy, development sociology and several cognate fields such as rural development and planning. The book’s empirical analysis is expertly crafted and executed, and the work exemplifies an impressive state-of-the-art qualitative research analysis and presentation. This is a well-written, clear, and engaging book that both discusses major relevant areas of the gender and development and migration discourses, and presents the author’s own view that has been carefully researched and thought through over a long period of time.

The book provides insights and lessons for academics, researchers, students, policy makers and development practitioners alike. I strongly recommend this book to anyone interested in gender and development issues, conceived at their most broad, both in Ghana and elsewhere.

Foreword by Lynne Brydon

Head of School of History and Cultures

University of Birmingham

Edgbaston, Birmingham

United Kingdom, B15 2TT

Book Summary

The last decade has witnessed the emergence of a reconfiguring of the social sciences in response to demands from public and private sectors for evidence-based research that translates more effectively for use by policy-makers and practitioners. Of specific significance has been the development of interdisciplinary research that enables new developments in problem-solving to address contemporary social issues. In response, this book provides theoretically-led empirical work on gender, livelihoods, and migration in Africa, where migratory movement of rural people in response to wage labour opportunities is a major phenomenon.

Rural-urban migration is currently a key element of rapid economic and socio-

cultural transformation in Africa. The process of globalisation means old polarities between rural and urban areas are less relevant, and have been replaced with increased movements of people and capital. Nowhere in the world are these changes more evident than in sub-Saharan African countries, where cities such as Accra, Lagos, Nairobi, and Johannesburg are poised to become some of the fastest-growing cities on the continent.

Even though rural-urban migration is known to be triggered by land degradation, lack of jobs and unemployment, poverty, and lack of infrastructure, most of the literature tends to focus on the area of destination rather than from the point of view of origin, thereby viewing migration as a process of urbanisation.

Most important to the dialogue is the fact that although there is an increased focus on rural-urban migration, policy-making on migration and livelihoods tends to ignore gender as a critical issue in development policy and planning. Specifically in Africa, shifting mobilisations and policies continue to focus on urban centres, ignoring the impact of migration on households, especially women in the predominantly agricultural rural areas. These stereotypes have concealed both the gender dimensions of migration as well as the rural-urban continuum, which can have significant repercussions on farming systems, the productive and reproductive roles of women, land tenure, agricultural production and food security.

Effective development policy interventions must take into consideration the dynamics of gender relations, because men and women experience migration differently. By understanding the conditions of rural households and the impact of migration on rural livelihoods, academics, researchers, policy-makers, and development practitioners are in a better position to design gender-appropriate development policies and projects.

The above ‘stakeholders’ (e.g. academics, researchers, and development practitioners) have already begun to make a contribution to the understanding of the nexus of gender and migration in modern African society. Authors such as Byerlee (1974), Brydon, (1979), Chant, S. (1992, 1998), Murray (1981), Palmer (1985), Crummet (1987), Brydon and Chant (1989), Lipton (1990), Achanfuo-Yeboah (1993), and many others have investigated aspects of the phenomenon in various countries, with a limited focus on examining the determinants and impact of rural-urban migration and changing gender roles and gender ideology of select communities.

The book starts by providing an in-depth analysis of gender in Africa. Building on the work of earlier scholars, the book draws attention to the differential impacts of rural-urban migration on men and women. The analytical nature of discussions in this area has deepened and moved on to discussions of social construction of migration. The book critiques the flawed assumptions associated with gender and rural-urban migration in sub-Saharan Africa, specifically, how rural-urban migration affects the livelihoods of women and men in ways that raise concerns about the development planning process.

In an effort to gain a fuller understanding of migration and its gendered implications for rural livelihoods, a six-month empirical study was conducted in three rural communities in the Ho district, in the Volta region of Ghana, namely, Abutia Teti, Abutia Agorve, and Abutia Kloe.

The empirical data reveal that outmigration is seen by most households as a survival strategy. Wide disparities in terms of job and income opportunities and access to perceived job opportunities and superior infrastructure and services in urban areas are the factors explaining rural-urban migration in Ghana. Furthermore, the data show that migrants in Ghana are predominantly able-bodied males, with a relatively smaller but increasing number of women. Most of the empirical data from the study can be generalised to the broader context of Africa.

Migration is having a significant impact on rural areas in Africa. However, the effects of migration are highly contextual, as a wide range of variables interact and influence the cross-effects of agricultural labour loss, other demographic changes, the productive and reproductive roles of men and women in rural households, remittances, asset acquisitions, and community development. For those migrating, the process can result in either empowerment or increased vulnerability. And for agricultural households in the sending areas, rural-urban migration causes a drain of skills, creating a form of ‘brain drain’. The loss of innovative community members deprives these rural areas of critical agricultural labour during farming seasons, and affects women’s livelihoods and household division of labour.

Women in migrant households in Africa are filling the roles of absent males, both within the households and in the communities. Women engage in day-to-day household chores and child-rearing in addition to supplementing household income by farming and other post-harvest activities, trading, and the production of crafts. Most women are confronted with and tend to adapt to the increased workload. Such adaptations, although initiated by periods of male absence, nevertheless reflect significant, pervasive, and oftentimes irrevocable transformations in gender roles, relations, and economic livelihoods of women and rural households.

To an extent, remittances can compensate for the negative impact of outmigration by allowing hired labour to replace the agricultural labour force lost from these households. Oftentimes, however, the remittances from rural-urban migration are inadequate for the household. It is important to recognise the potential and actual contribution of migrants and their networks to supporting agricultural activities and opening up new non-farm employment opportunities in these rural communities. Through home-town associations, migrants often provide collective financial support, skills, and knowledge to local development projects.

The book contributes to an understanding of gender, livelihoods, and migration within the historical, socio-economic, and political context of sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, it contributes to the current debate in anthropology, which addresses the nexus between politico-socio-economic forces and gender by exploring whether or not women benefit from rural-urban migration or whether it promotes the subordination of women. Lastly, the book contributes to the presently small but growing research area of gender, rural livelihoods, and migration by providing further insight into the interconnection between the three phenomena.

This book is a valuable tool which provides an invaluable and up to date and refreshing discussion of key development issues for academics, students, policy makers, and practitioners working in the field of gender and development, with a particular focus on the sub-Saharan African region. The book will also be of particular interest to those working in disciplines, and interdisciplinary fields such as development studies, agricultural studies, rural development, migration studies, gender studies, African studies, anthropology, political science, political economy, social work, economics, geography, and sociology.

Dedication

I dedicate this book to Lydia-Elim and Lynden Edem who have travelled thus far with me with faith and encouragement.

Acknowledgements

This book is the culmination of the encouragement, goodwill, and shared knowledge of friends and colleagues, especially during my years at the University of Birmingham, UK, where I learnt valuable lessons about development policy and practice. I am grateful to Dr Lynne Brydon and Dr Insa Nolte, of the University of Birmingham, whose scholarly insights helped me to develop a better understanding of the issues involved in this book. I am equally thankful to Dr Reginald Cline-Cole for his inspiration and guidance. My gratitude also goes to those associated with the International Development Department and the Centre of West African Studies (CWAS) of the University of Birmingham who have supported me in various ways.

The data for this book were collected between 2005 and 2006 in the three villages of Abutia Teti, Abutia Agorve, and Abutia Kloe, in the Volta region of Ghana, and also in Accra, where Abutia migrants reside. I am very grateful to all the women and men (both non-migrants and migrants) of the three villages for their tolerance and generosity and wish to thank them for the willingness with which they answered my questions and commented on the findings of the study. They taught me so much. I say, ‘Akpe na mi kata! Mawu ne yra mi.’

I am equally thankful to the paramount chief, Togbe Abutia Kordzo XIV, of the Abutia traditional area, Togbe Ayikpe IV of Abutia Kloe, the regent of Abutia Agorve, and the queen mothers and elders of the three villages for their kindness and support. My special thanks go to Mr Charles Dake, Mr Ernest Nyagbe, and Mr Jonas Ohene for helping me gain entry into the Abutia communities. I am also grateful to Mr Worlanyo Amoah and Mr Michael Gold for providing accommodation for the research team in Abutia Kloe and Ho respectively.

The multidisciplinary focus of this work was greatly enriched by the research support provided by Dr Dan-Bright Dzorgbo of the University of Ghana, Legon, and my research assistants, Rosemond Hiadzi and Richard Senna. I also wish to express my gratitude to the trio for their interest and invaluable support during the data collection.

I acknowledge with deep appreciation the support of the World Health Organization (WHO) country office in Accra, Ghana, for providing me with office space and other logistical support during the research. I owe much to Mr Selassi Amah D’Almeida and Mr Samuel Hagan, both of whom have remained friends.

I extend my heartfelt thanks and appreciation to Dr. Ibrahim Assane Mayaki, Chief Executive Officer of the NEPAD Planning and Coordinating Agency, for his inspiration and support, and also wish to thank all my colleagues for their continued friendship and encouragement.

The fellowship of a few friends has carried me through the writing of this book. The inspiration of my mentor, Dr Bernice Moreau, is something that I continue to treasure. She has always provided the much-needed spiritual, moral, and intellectual guidance for my life. I am grateful to His Excellency Mr Philemon Yunji Yang, whose valuable gender-balanced perspective and academic rigor contributed to setting the foundation for this book. I also wish to thank Dr. Louise De la Gorgendiere, Dr. Adolphine Aggor, Prof Joseph Atsu Ayee, Prof Mathew Tsamenyi, Prof Dzodzi Tsikata, Dr Elaine Salo, Dr. George Larbi, Dr Lord Mawuko-Yevuga, and Dr. Nida Kirmani for sharing their wealth of knowledge and experience with me. This has been very insightful.

I am appreciative of the unflinching love of my sister and best friend, Constie and her family for their generosity. The wonderful moral support of Mama Africa, Setorme Tsikata, Ngozi Ilukhor, Jacob Bessa Togo, Gemma Saldanha, Kofi De-Souza and Elizabeth Esabu, whose encouragement has assisted me to complete this book, I say thank you for your friendship.

I extend my heartfelt appreciation to my mother, Lovelace Dugbazah, my uncle, Tetteh Dugbaza and his wife Jacinta Dugbaza, and my cousins, Allan Dugbazah, Susie Dzakpasu, John Konu, and his wife, Bernice, for their unwavering love and encouragement; and my siblings, Cephas, Philip, Victor, Charity, and Doreen for their support and confidence in my ability. I am equally thankful to my late father, Victor Kwasi Dugbazah. I wish you had lived to see this day.

My most important debt is owed to my partner and children, Lydia-Elim and Lynden Edem. My heartfelt love and appreciation go to you for your depth of understanding, for making the ultimate sacrifice, and tolerating the disruption in your lives that enabled me to undertake the programme that culminated into this book. Finally, I give the ultimate acknowledgement and thanks to my heavenly Father for His faithfulness.

Acronyms and Abbreviations

AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

CIDA Canadian International Development Agency

CBOs Community-based organisations

CDF Comprehensive Development Framework

CG Consultative Group

CIDA Canadian International Development Agency

CPP Convention People’s Party

CWIG Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire

DA District Assembly

DAC Development Assistance Committee

DAWN Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era

DCE District Chief Executive

DFID Department for International Development

DWM 31st December Women’s Movement

ECG Electricity Corporation of Ghana

ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States

ERP Economic Recovery Program

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

FGDs Focus Group Discussions

FIDA International Recovery Program

GAD Gender and Development

GES Ghana Education Service

GIPC Ghana Investment Promotion Center

GNP Gross National Product

GOG Government of Ghana

GLSS Ghana Living Standard Survey

GPRS Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (Ghana’s PRSP)

GSS Ghana Statistical Service

GWSC Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation

HIPC Highly Indebted Poor Countries

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus

IMCPR Inter-Ministerial Committee on Poverty Reduction

IMF International Monetary Fund

INGO International Non-Governmental Organization

ISSER Institute for Statistical, Social and Economic Research

JSS Junior Secondary School

MDAs Ministries, Departments and Agencies

MoWA Ministry of Women and Children’s Affairs

MOH Ministry of Health

MP Member of Parliament

NCWD National Council on Women and Development

NDC National Democratic Congress

NDPC National Development Planning Commission

NDPF National Development Policy Framework

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NPC National Planning Commission

NPP New Patriotic Party (party in government since December 2000)

NPRP National Poverty Reduction Program

NSSD National Strategies for Sustainable Development

OECD/DAC Development Assistance Committee of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

PAMSCAD Program of Action to Mitigate the Social Costs of Adjustment

PMMD Programme Management and Monitoring Directorate

PMMU Programme Monitoring and Management Unit

PNDC Provisional National Defense Council

PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper

PPA Participation Poverty Assessment

PRU Poverty Reduction Unit

SAPs Structural Adjustment Programs

SSS Senior Secondary School

STD/STI Sexually Transmitted Diseases/Infections

TBAs Traditional Birth Attendants

UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Program

UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

UNESCO United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women

UNFP United Nation’s Population Fund

UNFPA United Nations Fund for Populations Activities

WB World Bank

WAD Women and Development

WID Women in Development

WHO World Health Organization

WFP World Food Program

Glossary and Definition of Key Concepts

Culture:

Culture can be defined as the distinctive pattern of ideas, beliefs, and norms, which characterise the way of life and relations of a society or groups within a society. Culturally determined gender ideologies define rights and responsibilities as well as what is considered an ‘appropriate’ behaviour for women and men. They also influence access to and control over resources and participation in decision-making. These gender ideologies often reinforce male power and the idea of women’s inferiority.

Culture is sometimes interpreted narrowly as ‘custom’ or ‘tradition’ and assumed to be natural and unchangeable. Despite these assumptions, culture is fluid and enduring. Dominant cultures reinforce the position of those with economic, political, and social power and, therefore, tend to reinforce male power. Globalisation also has implications for the diffusion of culture, particularly of Western culture.

Development:

Development refers to human well-being, including individual civil and political liberties, as well as meeting the physical and material needs of human society. Human development is about increasing peoples’ choices and creating an enabling environment in which people can develop their full potential and lead productive and creative lives in accordance with their needs. Holistic human development is about creating an enabling environment that empowers a population to actively participate in making choices affecting their lives and harnessing potential to improve on their livelihoods.

Double/Multiple Burden:

The division of production/reproduction spheres has doubled the burden of women in participating in productive activities, i.e. they bear the burden of paid work (as part of the labour force) and unpaid work (at home). This double/multiple burden makes it difficult for women to get better jobs and better training and to move up the professional ladder.

Empowerment:

Empowerment is about people, that is, both women and men, taking control over their lives, setting their own agendas, gaining skills, building self-confidence, solving problems, and developing self-reliance. Whilst individuals need to empower themselves, institutions, including international cooperation agencies, can support processes that nurture the self-empowerment of individuals or groups.

Financial Capital:

Financial capital refers the stocks of money to which a household has access. These are available to people in the forms of savings, supplies of credit, or regular remittances or pensions which enable people to pursue their livelihoods.

Gender:

Gender refers to the socially constructed roles ascribed to males and females. It is the culturally specific set of characteristics that identifies the social behaviour of women and men and the relationship between them. These roles are learnt. They change over time and vary widely within and across cultures. Whereas biological sexual identity is determined by reference to genetic and anatomical characteristics, socially learnt gender is acquired by identity. Gender, therefore, refers not simply to women or men, but to the relationship between them and the way it is constructed. Because it is a relational term, gender must include women and men. Like the concepts of class, race, and ethnicity, gender is an analytical tool for understanding social processes.

Gender-based Analysis:

Gender-based analysis is a tool to identify the status, roles, and responsibilities of men and women in society, as well as their access to and control of resources, benefits, and opportunities. It is a framework by which to compare the relative advantages/disadvantages faced by men and women in various spheres of life, as in the family, the workplace, the community, and political system. It is also a set of standards against which the potential gender impacts of programmes and policies can be judged. It involves looking at the sexual division of labour, the access and control men and women have over inputs required for their labour, and the outputs (benefits) of their labour. It also refers to a systematic way of looking at the different consequences of development efforts on women and men. Gender analysis takes into account how factors of class, race, ethnicity, or other factors interact with gender to produce discriminatory results.

Pertaining to policy, gender-based analysis is a process that assesses the differential impact of proposed or existing policies, programmes and legislation on women and men. It makes it possible for policy to be undertaken with an appreciation of gender differences, the relationships between women and men, their different social realities, life expectations, and economic circumstances. It is a tool for understanding social processes and for responding with informed and equitable options. It compares how and why women and men are affected by policy issues. Gender-based analysis challenged the assumption that everyone is affected by policies, programmes, and legislation in the same way regardless of gender, a notion