Volcanic and Igneous Plumbing Systems: Understanding Magma Transport, Storage, and Evolution in the Earth's Crust

Volcanic and Igneous Plumbing Systems

Understanding Magma Transport, Storage, and Evolution in the Earth’s Crust

Edited by

Steffi Burchardt

Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Chapter 1: Introduction to Volcanic and Igneous Plumbing Systems—Developing a Discipline and Common Concepts

Abstract

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Developing A Scientific Discipline

1.3. The History of Research on Magmatic Systems

1.4. Conflicting Perspectives: Of Balloons, Blobs and Mush

1.5. Overview of Contributions in This Book

1.6. Concluding Remarks

Chapter 2: Mechanisms of Magma Transport and Storage in the Lower and Middle Crust—Magma Segregation, Ascent and Emplacement

Abstract

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Production and Removal of Magmas from Migmatitic Sources

2.3. Magma Ascent Mechanisms

2.4. Growth and Emplacement of Mid-Crustal Magma Reservoirs

2.5. Concluding Remarks

Chapter 3: Mechanisms of Magma Transport in the Upper Crust—Dyking

Abstract

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Methods to Study Dyke Propagation

3.3. Dyke Geometry

3.4. Host-Rock Deformation

3.5. Impact of Stress and Crustal Heterogeneity

3.6. Magma Flow

3.7. Feeder and Non-Feeder Dykes

3.8. Summary and Future Opportunities

Field Example: The Swartruggens Kimberlite Dyke Swarm, South Africa

Acknowledgements

Chapter 4: Growth of a Volcanic Edifice Through Plumbing System Processes—Volcanic Rift Zones, Magmatic Sheet-Intrusion Swarms and Long-Lived Conduits

Abstract

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Volcanic Rift Zones and Their Intrusion Swarms

4.3. Cone-Sheet Swarms

4.4. Radial Dyke Swarms

4.5. Why Do Different Types of Sheet Intrusions Occur in the Same Volcano?

4.6. Volcanic Conduits

4.7. Summary

Field Example: Intrusive Sheet Swarms in the Canary Islands

Field Example: Exposed Conduits in Central Iceland

Chapter 5: Storage and Transport of Magma in the Layered Crust—Formation of Sills and Related Flat-Lying Intrusions

Abstract

5.1. Introduction

5.2. What are Sills? Definitions and Morphologies

5.3. Where do Sills Occur?

5.4. How do Sills Form?

5.5. Scientific and Economic Relevance of Sills

5.6. Summary

Field Example: The Golden Valley Sill Complex, Karoo Basin, South Africa

Chapter 6: Pascal’s Principle, a Simple Model to Explain the Emplacement of Laccoliths and Some Mid-crustal Plutons

Abstract

6.1. Introduction

6.2. How Do Laccoliths and Other Large Magma Bodies Grow From Sills? Examples From the Henry Mountains

6.3. Conceptual Model for the Growth of Laccoliths From Sills

6.4. Pascal’s Principle Applied to the Emplacement of Mid-Crustal Intrusions

6.5. Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Chapter 7: Tectonics and Volcanic and Igneous Plumbing Systems

Abstract

7.1. Introduction

7.2. How is Magma Transported and Stored in Divergent Geodynamic Settings?

7.3. In Mantle Plumes How is Magma Stored and Transported?

7.4. How is Magma Transported and Stored in Convergent Geodynamic Settings?

7.5. How do Volcanic and Igneous Plumbing Systems Interact with Faults, Crustal Rheology and Topography?

7.6. The Tectonic and Magmatic System

Conclusions

Chapter 8: The Petrogenesis of Magmatic Systems: Using Igneous Textures to Understand Magmatic Processes

Abstract

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Key Magma Chamber and Plumbing System Processes

8.3. Looking Through The Crystal Ball—Understanding The Magmatic Processes From Your Crystal Population Using Textural Analysis

8.4. Linking Texture With Chemistry

8.5. Mapping Chemistry in 3D and Looking Forward to 4D Observations

Acknowledgements

Chapter 9: Destroying a Volcanic Edifice—Interactions Between Edifice Instabilities and the Volcanic Plumbing System

Abstract

9.1. Introduction

9.2. When Volcanic Edifice Instabilities Occur Due to Short-Term Deformation

9.3. When Volcanic Edifice Instabilities Occur as a Result of Long-Term Deformation

9.4. What Triggers Volcano Collapse? How do Edifices Fail?

9.5. How Does Volcano Collapse Affect the VIPS?

9.6. How Fast can Volcanoes Rebuild after Collapse?

9.7. Summary

Field Examples

Chapter 10: Volcanic and Igneous Plumbing Systems of Caldera Volcanoes

Abstract

10.1. Introduction

10.2. What is a Collapse Caldera?

10.3. What Do Eruptive Products Tell Us About The Plumbing Systems of Calderas?

10.4. What Do Volcano Deformation and Seismicity Tell Us About The Plumbing Systems of Calderas?

10.5. The Structure of Caldera Plumbing Systems During The Caldera Cycle

10.6. Conclusions

Field Example: Lake City Caldera

Author Biography

Chapter 11: Magma Movements in Volcanic Plumbing Systems and their Associated Ground Deformation and Seismic Patterns

Abstract

11.1. Introduction

11.2. Volcanic Unrest

11.3. Measurements of Ground Deformation

11.4. Models of Volcano Deformation

11.5. Lessons Learned in Iceland

11.6. Discussion

11.7. Summary

Field Example: 2010 Eyjafjallajökull Eruptions and Preceding 18 Years of Unrest

Field Example: Lateral Dyking, Gradual Caldera Collapse of Bárðarbunga and the Holuhraun Eruption, 2014–2015

Acknowledgements

Chapter 12: Synthesis on the State-of-the-Art and Future Directions in the Research on Volcanic and Igneous Plumbing Systems

Abstract

12.1. Introduction

12.2. State-of-the-Art and Future Challenges—Where do We Go from Here?

12.3. Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgements

Index

Copyright

Elsevier

Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands

The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices

Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-0-12-809749-6

For information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Candice Janco

Acquisition Editor: Marisa LaFleur

Editorial Project Manager: Katerina Zaliva

Production Project Manager: Omer Mukthar

Designer: Victoria Pearson

Typeset by Thomson Digital

List of Contributors

Talfan Barnie

Nordic Volcanological Center, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland

Icelandic Meteorological Office, Reykjavik, Iceland

H.S. Bertelsen,     Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Steffi Burchardt,     Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

Jim W. Cole,     University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

A.R. Cruden,     Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Jonathan R.J. Davidson,     University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Audray Delcamp,     Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

M. Detienne,     Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium

Katherine J. Dobson,     Volcanology, Earth Sciences, Durham University, UK

Vincent Drouin,     Nordic Volcanological Center, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland

Stéphanie Dumont,     Instituto Dom Luiz – University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal

C.H. Eide,     University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

Páll Einarsson,     Nordic Volcanological Center, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland

O. Galland,     Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Halldór Geirsson,     Nordic Volcanological Center, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland

Ronni Grapenthin,     New Mexico Tech, Department of Earth and Environmental Science, Socorro, NM, United States

Darren M. Gravley,     University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Magnús Guðmundsson,     Nordic Volcanological Center, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland

F. Guldstrand,     Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Þórdís Högnadóttir,     Nordic Volcanological Center, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland

Ø.T. Haug,     Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Elías Rafn Heimisson,     Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States

Ásta Rut Hjartardóttir,     Nordic Volcanological Center, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland

Eoghan P. Holohan,     UCD School of Earth Sciences, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Andy Hooper,     COMET, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom

Sigrún Hreinsdóttir,     GNS Science, Lower Hutt, New Zealand

Kristín Jónsdóttir,     Icelandic Meteorological Office, Reykjavik, Iceland

Dougal A. Jerram

Centre for Earth Evolution and Dynamics (CEED), University of Oslo, Norway

DougalEARTH Ltd., Solihull, UK

Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

Janine L. Kavanagh,     University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK

Ben M. Kennedy,     University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Héctor A. Leanza,     CONICET, Argentinian Museum of Natural Sciences, Buenos Aires, Argentina

K. Mair,     Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Dan J. Morgan,     Institute of Geophysics and Tectonics, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Sven Morgan,     Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States

Benedikt G. Ófeigsson,     Icelandic Meteorological Office, Reykjavik, Iceland

E.M.R. Paguican

University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, United States

Earth System Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

O. Palma,     CONICET Y-TEC and Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina

Matthew J. Pankhurst

University of Manchester, Manchester

Rutherford Appleton Laboratories, Didcot

Institute of Geophysics and Tectonics, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

Instituto Tecnológico y de Energías Renovables, Tenerife, Spain

Michelle Parks,     Icelandic Meteorological Office, Reykjavik, Iceland

Rikke Pedersen,     Nordic Volcanological Center, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland

S. Planke,     Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

S. Poppe,     Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium

O. Rabbel,     Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Matthew J. Roberts,     Icelandic Meteorological Office, Reykjavik, Iceland

B. Rogers,     Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

T. Schmiedel,     Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Freysteinn Sigmundsson,     Nordic Volcanological Center, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland

A. Souche,     Physics of Geological Processes, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

J.B. Spacapan,     YPF, Buenos Aires, Argentina

John Stix,     McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada

Erik Sturkell,     University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden

Hugh Tuffen,     Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom

Benjamin van Wyk de Vries,     Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, Université Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France

Maximillian van Wyk de Vries,     Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, Université Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, France

Kristín Vogfjörð,     Icelandic Meteorological Office, Reykjavik, Iceland

Thomas R. Walter,     Physics of Earthquakes and Volcanoes, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Telegrafenberg, Potsdam, Germany

R.F. Weinberg,     Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Chapter 1

Introduction to Volcanic and Igneous Plumbing Systems—Developing a Discipline and Common Concepts

Steffi Burchardt    Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

Abstract

The study of volcanic and igneous plumbing systems (VIPS) is a field of research situated between volcanology, igneous petrology and geochemistry, structural geology, geophysics, and volcano geodesy. The position of VIPS studies among these other disciplines reflects the historical development of the Earth sciences, in general. Today, VIPS studies emerge as a distinct field that unites research on magma transport and storage using a vast repertoire of methods and approaches to characterise the complex physical and chemical processes associated with the ascent and storage of magma. This book attempts to provide a common platform for holistic research on VIPSs by summarising our current collective understanding. This introduction gives an overview of the history of research and common concepts and summarises the chapters in this book that follow the way of magma from the upper mantle and lower Earth’s crust to the surface.

Keywords

igneous petrology

magma chambers

plutons

science history

volcanic and igneous plumbing systems

volcanology

Contents

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Developing A Scientific Discipline

1.3 The History of Research on Magmatic Systems

1.4 Conflicting Perspectives: Of Balloons, Blobs and Mush

1.5 Overview of Contributions in This Book

1.6 Concluding Remarks

 References

1.1. Introduction

Volcanoes are, in every respect, fascinating: they form breathtaking landscapes and provide billions of people with living space, fertile ground, energy and mineral resources. Volcanoes were most certainly a cradle for the development and evolution of life on Earth, but their vigorous nature has also brought countless species close to or beyond extinction. To understand the inner workings of volcanoes in order to ultimately be able to interpret their behaviour and mitigate volcanic hazards is a motivation that unites all volcanologists. Volcanology is traditionally the study of volcanic eruptions, eruptive products (rocks) and landforms with the ultimate goal to understand volcanic phenomena and predict volcanic eruptions.

However, an essential puzzle piece in understanding volcano behaviour is hidden beneath the volcanic edifice: the volcanic and igneous plumbing system (VIPS; also known as magma plumbing system). The VIPS comprises the network of magma production, storage and transport channels and chambers underlying volcanic regions in all tectonic settings (Fig. 1.1). Where magma is produced, and how it rises and stalls on its way to the Earth’s surface controls, to a large extent, when, how, where and for how long a volcano will erupt. Studying VIPS is therefore key to interpret volcano behaviour.

Figure 1.1   Schematic sketch of the VIPS, the network of magma transport channels and storage chambers from the Earth’s mantle to the surface.

Different types of magma bodies exist, and their formation and shape depend on, for example, the tectonic setting, the amount of magma available and the properties of the magma and the surrounding rocks.

Many active volcanoes are currently studied and monitored with a variety of geological, geochemical, geophysical and geodetic techniques. However, none of these techniques delivers a direct or complete picture of the VIPS, but each sheds light on some particular characteristics of magma transport and storage beneath volcanoes. In combination, these techniques help to interpret what is going on in the subsurface prior to, during and after a volcanic eruption (Burchardt and Galland, 2016).

This book summarises what we currently know about magma transport and storage in VIPSs, building on various methods from the fields of, for example, structural geology, igneous petrology, geodesy and geophysics. By combining results from multiple disciplines, common concepts emerge and reveal the processes that occur while magma makes its way through the crust. In this chapter, I outline how the study of VIPS relates to other scientific disciplines (Section 1.2) and how it developed historically (Section 1.3). I also summarise how our knowledge on VIPS has evolved (Section 1.4) and give an overview of the chapters of this book (Section 1.5).

1.2. Developing A Scientific Discipline

The study of VIPSs has traditionally not been its own, defined scientific discipline, which is directly tied to the historical development of the Earth sciences as a whole (Burchardt and Galland, 2016). Instead, VIPS studies remained undefined in the scientific landscape in the grey zone between the fields of volcanology, igneous petrology and geochemistry and pluton studies, all of which focus on magmatism from different perspectives. While volcanology targets near-surface and surface magmatic phenomena in both active and extinct volcanoes, pluton studies look at the structure, timing and development of magmatic intrusions that are now exposed at the Earth’s surface but were formed at depth in the geological past. Igneous petrology and geochemistry are closely tied to both volcanology and pluton studies and focus on the formation and evolution of magmatic rocks through detailed analyses and models of their composition. All three of these research fields benefited from methodological advances, such as high-precision seismometry, microscopy and geochronology, and developed in parallel their specific classifications and terminology, sometimes even for the same features (Burchardt and Galland, 2016).

Volcanology and igneous petrology developed into established research fields with dedicated university programs and departments, organizations (e.g. International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior [IAVCEI]), scientific journals (e.g. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, Journal of Petrology), conferences (e.g. the annual assembly of the Volcanic and Magmatic Studies Group (VMSG), the Goldschmidt conference), and textbooks. Pluton studies, on the other hand, became an established field of research mainly in the discipline of structural geology, represented by a large community of researchers that use, for example, microstructural analysis, field mapping, petrophysical, geophysical and petrological methods. Pluton studies are a common theme at scientific conferences and are frequently published in specialised journals (e.g. Journal of Structural Geology).

VIPS studies draw on methods within all three disciplines and beyond (e.g. geophysics and geodesy) and look at systems between the deep crust and volcanic eruptions. VIPS studies are, to a large degree, rooted in the mapping of eroded volcanic complexes in the late 19th to early 20th century, in particular, in Scotland and Ireland (e.g. Clough et al., 1909; Bailey et al., 1924; Richey and Thomas, 1930) (see Section 1.3). Next to plutonic bodies of various shapes, these complexes hosted numerous magmatic sheet intrusions, as well as volcanic rock assemblages that are closely related with the intrusions. The classification of different intrusion types in subvolcanic complexes and their emplacement mechanisms from then on co-existed with research on plutons, magma and volcanoes, but without being defined as its own field in the past. Unlike volcanology, igneous petrology and pluton studies, researchers working on VIPS did not fund their own organizations, establish their own dedicated scientific journals, or write their own textbooks, nor did VIPS studies become subjects taught as university courses until recently.

Nowadays, VIPS studies are emerging as their own field at the interface between volcanology, igneous petrology and geochemistry and pluton studies. This development is a natural expression of our development of knowledge on VIPSs. In particular, the link between volcanoes and their intrusive roots has become apparent in field studies of extinct volcanoes and volcanic regions that are eroded down to their underlying solidified magma chambers. Moreover, the development and combination of new and precise measurement techniques in active volcanic areas have revealed magma movements and accumulations that fit with the geological record from eroded volcanoes and plutons. Conferences, such as the LASI conference series, as well as conference sessions and workshops on VIPSs are organised. The VIPS commission of the IAVCEI is the first formal association of plumbing system researchers, and this book is the first comprehensive textbook on VIPS for students and researchers.

1.3. The History of Research on Magmatic Systems

The study of our planet has been interwoven with the development of human society since humans had to learn how to adjust to natural forces and phenomena and to use natural resources. Magmatic activity has played a key role in building civilisation, for example, by providing raw materials such as copper, on the one hand, but also by bringing humanity on the verge of extinction, on the other hand. Survivors of volcanic eruptions have expressed their experiences in art, literature, mythology and religion throughout human history.

The modern scientific discipline of the Earth sciences started to take shape during the Age of Enlightenment in the late 18th century. During that time, philosophers who studied natural phenomena, the so-called naturalists, engaged in a debate on how the rocks they could see at the Earth’s surface formed. When it came to basalt and granite, two schools of thought emerged, whose views were in stark contrast to each other: The Neptunists around the German professor Abraham Gottlob Werner proclaimed that rocks, such as basalt, formed by precipitation from water, pointing to basaltic lava layers that conformably overlie sedimentary rocks. The Plutonists, on the other hand, declared that basalt was composed of originally molten magma. The most prominent advocate of plutonism was James Hutton, a self-taught geologist and a meticulous observer of nature. Hutton proposed that ‘subterraneous lava’ intruded other rocks to form dykes and sills, as well as granitic rocks (Hutton, 1785). Even other field studies revealed that precipitation of what we today know as igneous rocks was not able to explain the relationship between sedimentary rocks and dyke intrusions. Sir James Hall, a colleague of Hutton’s, who melted and cooled volcanic glass and basalt samples to produce rocks with variable crystallinity (Hall, 1800), provided further evidence for a magmatic origin.

The early 19th century was also the era of large expeditions. Alexander von Humboldt and Leopold von Buch, two of Werner’s students and initial neptunists, changed their minds when they themselves observed volcanic eruptions and volcanoes in, for example, Italy, the Canary Islands and South America. In the face of increasing evidence that supported plutonism, a magmatic origin of basalt and granite started to become the accepted theory from the 1820s.

In 1841, Giuseppe Mercally established the first volcano observatory, the Vesuvius Observatory, and later became the founding father of seismology. Several large volcanic eruptions subsequently caught the attention of researchers, and their studies shaped modern volcanology. These events include, for example, the eruptions of Tambora in 1815 and of Mount Pelee in 1902. In 1919, the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (IAVCEI) was founded, and from 1922 reports on volcanic eruptions and scientific articles were published in IAVCEI’s journal Bullentin Volcanologique (today Bulletin of Volcanology).

The 19th century also saw the rapid development of optical microscopy and its introduction to the study of rocks and minerals (Chisholm, 1911), as well as a number of classifications of igneous rocks and more petrological experiments. Hence, during the second half of the 19th century, igneous petrology had emerged as a scientific discipline.

While early petrologists had started to focus their attention on studying small-scale microscopic features of igneous rock, field geologists were instead concerned with larger-scale phenomena, such as the shape of igneous intrusions and the associated structural features (Young, 2003). Extensive mapping of intrusive rocks revealed that several distinct types of intrusive bodies exist, among them laccoliths (Gilbert, 1877) and batholiths (Suess, 1885). The different shapes and features inspired researchers, such as Gilbert and Daly, to propose mechanisms of magma emplacement (e.g. Gilbert, 1877; Daly, 1903; 1914).

However, the discovery of large granitic intrusions sparked a new controversy, the so-called ‘space problem’ (e.g. Daly, 1903; Bowen, 1948; Read, 1957; Buddington, 1959). The assumption that enormous volumes of granitic magma intruded into the Earth’s crust required equally enormous amounts of space. The space problem has been a rather long-lived controversy that received new fuel from a better understanding of tectonic forces and the beginning quantification of stresses and strains in the field of structural geology (e.g. Roberts, 1970; Hutton, 1988; Paterson and Fowler, 1993). Recently, high-resolution geochronology revealed that granitic plutons formed through addition of small batches of magma (e.g. Glazner et al., 2004), a discovery that partly resolved the space problem. However, some aspects of the controversy, such as the role and efficiency of magmatic stoping, are still discussed (e.g. Glazner and Bartley, 2006; Burchardt et al., 2012; 2016).

During the late 19th and early 20th century, geological mapping of eroded volcanoes provided additional insights into the volcanic plumbing system. Maps of volcanic complexes in the British and Irish Paleogene Igneous Province (BIPIP) revealed circular outlines of ring dykes and cone sheets, adding cone-sheet emplacement and cauldron subsidence to the list of magma emplacement mechanisms (e.g. Clough et al., 1909; Bailey et al., 1924; Richey and Thomas, 1930). The study of subvolcanic structures reached a first peak during the 1960s with the work of George Patrick Leonard Walker and his students in Eastern Iceland and the BIPIP. George Walker was a thorough observer of nature and systematically mapped the eroded volcanoes and surrounding lavas of Eastern Iceland (e.g. Walker, 1960). His legacy is our basic understanding of VIPSs (Sparks, 2009).

Following Hall’s (1800) melting experiments, the approach to model processes was introduced even in other fields. For the study of VIPS, the technique of analogue experiments, also called laboratory models, is of particular importance (Galland et al., 2015). While originally invented by, for example, Hall (1815) to qualitatively reproduce natural phenomena in the laboratory, it became increasingly useful when Hubbert (1937) and later Ramberg (1970, 1981) introduced the concept of scaling. Scaling of model dimensions, material properties and process rates allowed us to compare the model with nature. Other modelling techniques that are frequently used to study VIPS are analytical (mathematical) and numerical models. These approaches originate often from fields outside of the Earth sciences, such as fluid mechanics and materials science, and have become increasingly advanced with the development of computational power (Burchardt and Galland, 2016).

During the second half of the 20th century, the scientific discipline of geophysics started to develop a large number of techniques to measure the properties of the Earth’s crust, techniques that are nowadays routinely applied to both active volcanoes and eroded plutons and volcanic complexes. Similarly, the discipline of geodesy that maps and measured the Earth surface has contributed to the study of VIPSs, in particular, with techniques that are satellite based (Burchardt and Galland, 2016).

The historical development of the Earth sciences, as a whole, and VIPS studies, in particular, is thus a story of specialisation and diversification, where a deepened understanding of geological concepts went hand in hand with technical developments. The level of understanding of the Earth, in general, and of magma transport and storage, in particular, we have today spans from the scale of atoms to that of our entire planet. We study aspects of the processes and features of VIPS within volcanology, igneous petrology, geochemistry, geodesy, geophysics, structural geology and economic geology. Diversification and specialisation have produced a wealth of data on magma transport and storage, but no individual field or method can deliver a complete picture (cf. Burchardt and Galland, 2016). To grasp the complexity of VIPS, we need to combine our knowledge and perspectives.

1.4. Conflicting Perspectives: Of Balloons, Blobs and Mush

Our current knowledge on how magma is transported and stored in the Earth’s crust is a product of more than two centuries of research and a combination of observations, measurements, experiments and models. Numerous hypotheses and concepts have been proposed and tested; some of them have survived, but many have been discarded (see also Chapter 12).

A common concept in the study of VIPS is that magma resides in some sort of chamber or reservoir. When asked to draw a volcano with a magma chamber, most people sketch a cone-shaped mountain (plus optional eruption cloud) with a red, balloon-like circle underneath (cf. Fig. 1.2). In movies and computer games, magma chambers are cavities in the crust, filled with sloshing magma. And even science journalists visualise magma chambers as red-glowing blobs or bulbous bodies beneath supervolcanoes. So how do magma chambers actually look like? Do they resemble balloons, blobs or bulbs? How do they form? Are they full of sloshing, red-glowing magma?

Figure 1.2   (A) Wikipedia’s illustration of a magma chamber. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (B) Drawing of the VIPS by my 6-year-old niece, C. L. Schmidt.

Unfortunately, not even researchers agree on the answers to these questions (cf. Glazner et al., 2016). Volcanologists may see a magma chamber as a shapeless body that produced a certain type of volcanic eruption or deposit. Geodesists think of magma chambers as deformation sources, volume-less points in a homogeneous elastic half-space (see, e.g. Chapter 11). Geophysicists see areas in the subsurface that deviate from the surrounding rock, for example, because of the presence of some amount of liquid (see, e.g. Chapter 10). Seismologists see the fractures produced by moving magma and large areas with high temperatures and melt content through the type and location of earthquakes (see, e.g. Chapter 11). Structural geologists see crystallised intrusions of different shapes and sizes (see, e.g. Chapter 6). Igneous petrologists and geochemists, who prefer the term magma reservoir, see big tanks of melt, crystals and volatiles or diffuse regions filled with a crystal mush (see, e.g. Chapter 8; Lowenstern and Hurvitz, 2008).

While not all of these researchers may actually look at exactly the same thing, most of the fundamental differences in their view of magma chambers reflect the insight they gain using their specific methods (Burchardt and Galland, 2016). Since individual methods do only cover limited aspects of magma transport or storage, we need to accept that we do not see the whole picture when using only one or a few methods. We need to combine the strengths of our approaches and be aware of their weaknesses to eliminate our blind spots. To be able to do this, we need to learn about other disciplines and methods and develop a common terminology to be able to communicate across disciplinary boundaries. This book attempts to provide the base for a holistic study of magma transport and storage in the Earth’s crust by summarising our current collective understanding. While all the authors have a background in one of the above-mentioned disciplines, they all base their chapters on insights from multiple fields and methods.

1.5. Overview of Contributions in This Book

This book follows the way magma takes from the lower and middle crust (Chapter 2) through different types of magma transport channels (Chapters 3 and 4) into different types of magma reservoirs (Chapters 5 and 6). We also take a look at how tectonic forces influence the development and evolution of VIPSs (Chapter 7) and what the magma itself reveals about the processes occurring in VIPSs (Chapter 8). We then explore the destruction and rebuilding of volcanoes and their plumbing systems through edifice collapse (Chapter 9) and caldera collapse (Chapter 10). Finally, we examine how magma transport and storage is expressed through volcanic unrest and eruptions (Chapter 11).

In Chapter 2, we start our journey by examining how magma is segregated and extracted from its source in continental settings. Melt segregation and extraction give rise to a self-organised network of magma transport channels, whereby the volume flux of magma from the source controls the viability of different melt transport mechanisms, such as diapirism, magmatic stoping, and channelised ascent in, for example, dykes. Chapter 2 discussed how the interplay between magma production, extraction, ascent rates and mechanisms, cooling, tectonic stresses, as well as the properties of the surrounding crust influence the formation of magma chambers in the lower and middle crust.

Dykes are the principal magma pathways in the middle and upper Earth’s crust and an essential component of VIPSs. They transport magma from its source region into magma reservoirs, and from magma reservoirs to the Earth’s surface. Dykes are magma-filled fractures that propagate driven by an internal magma pressure, while interacting with the surrounding rocks. Chapter 3 explores what we can learn from the features of solidified dykes exposed at the surface and the propagation of dykes in numerical and analogue models. Insights from the field and models help to unravel how dykes initiate, propagate and transport magma.

As a volcanic plumbing system evolves, countless dykes and other magmatic sheet intrusions transport magma into the volcanic edifice and to the Earth’s surface. Depending on the arrangement of magmatic sheets, we can distinguish different sheet types and sheet-intrusion swarms, which are the focus of Chapter 4. Volcanic rift zones consist of swarms of vertical dykes arranged in the same direction, radial dykes are arranged around a volcano like the spokes of a wheel, and cone sheets form concentric swarms with the shape of an inverted cone. When a magmatic sheet breaches the surface, the eruption can subsequently focus at a conduit, a roughly cylindrical pathway for magma discharge, host-rock erosion, fracturing and eventually intrusion.

While propagating, magmatic sheets may get diverted to intrude along the layering in the host rock, forming sills. Chapter 5 describes the features of sills and the associated host-rock structures as observed in the field and in 3D seismic surveys. Based on these observations, Chapter 5 discusses what we know about how sills initiate and grow as a consequence of the interaction between propagating magma and its host rock. Sills are a significant part of volcanic plumbing system as sites for both transport and storage of magma, but they also play an important role in the maturation of hydrocarbons and the release of greenhouse gases and associated climate change.

In the upper and middle crust, larger magma bodies can grow from the stacking of sheet intrusions and subsequent inflation. Chapter 6 describes the features of a series of multiple sills, laccoliths, and larger magma bodies to derive a conceptual model of magma-chamber emplacement. According to this model, larger magma bodies grow in two stages: (1) lateral growth of an initial magmatic sheet (sill in the upper crust and dyke in the middle crust) and (2) inflation into a laccolith or larger pluton. Both these stages are controlled by Pascal’s principle that describes the distribution of magma pressure in relation to external forces, such as the lithostatic load.

On a global scale, magma transport and storage are tightly connected with plate tectonics, whereas on a more local scale, gravitational forces and lithology come into play. Chapter 7 outlines the structure of VIPSs in different tectonic settings, including mid-ocean ridges, continental rift zones, hot spots, oceanic subduction zones, continental collision and transform zones. Although tectonics significantly influences magma storage and transport, magma is a major ingredient in many tectonic processes. Chapter 7 therefore proposes a unified paradigm that explains the interaction of tectonics and VIPSs.

Chapter 8 takes a closer look at magma itself and the processes it experiences during its journey through the VIPS. These processes include crystallisation and the associated separation of crystals from the surrounding melt, magma mixing and mingling, magmatic stoping and contamination and assimilation of the host rock. Since these processes usually occur invisibly hidden within the VIPS, igneous rocks in exposed intrusions or erupted at the Earth’s surface contain a record of their history in the form of their crystal cargo. Chapter 8 gives an overview of the information stored in the crystal record and how to retrieve it with state-of-the-art textural and chemical analyses.

During their lifetime, volcanic edifices may collapse in volcanic landslides as a result of instabilities. Chapter 9 gives an overview of the interplay between volcano instability and processes within the VIPS. Volcano instability can be caused by processes in the VIPS, such as shallow magma emplacement in sills or laccoliths, which can lead to edifice collapse and trigger simultaneous eruptions. On the other hand, volcano collapse has a profound effect on magma transport and storage, such as increased melting due to the associated pressure release and affecting the structure of magma transport due to changes in the stress field.

Caldera collapse, and associated eruptions, are among the largest volcanic hazards and can destroy both the volcanic edifice and the underlying plumbing system. Chapter 10 explores the complex VIPS of caldera volcanoes with insights from igneous petrology, geophysics, geodesy and structural geology. Caldera formation requires large amounts of eruptible magma within the VIPS prior to eruption. During caldera collapse, magma can intrude and extrude along ring faults/dykes, which control caldera subsidence. These collapse structures can have a large influence on the re-establishing plumbing system after caldera collapse, as well as on the location and formation of geothermal fields and ore deposits.

In active volcanoes, processes within the VIPS that precede a potential eruption are inaccessibly hidden beneath the Earth’s surface, but expressed as volcanic unrest. Chapter 11 summarises the signals of volcanic unrest, how they are measured and how they relate to magma migration. The monitoring of ground deformation in active volcanic areas is a standard method to infer magma movement at depth. Chapter 11 focusses on the different geodetic techniques used to quantify volcano deformation, how the data from these measurements is interpreted employing different types of models and what geodetic monitoring and modelling have contributed to understanding the VIPS of active volcanoes.

In summary, each chapter of this book outlines what we currently know about different aspects of magma transport and storage in the Earth’s crust. However, as indicated above, different disciplines and methods have sometimes very different views on this topic, all of them based on actual data. This discrepancy lets us sometimes struggle to unravel what is really happening within the plumbing system of active volcanoes. It is thus important to distinguish between common and accepted understanding and the uncertainties in plumbing system research. Chapter 12 concludes this book with a short overview of some future challenges and directions in VIPS research.

1.6. Concluding Remarks

VIPS studies are an exciting field of research, emerging as a scientific discipline during a time when the diversification and specialisation of the Earth sciences are transitioning towards integrated and multi-disciplinary approaches. In this time, researchers and students need to have an overview of existing knowledge on magma transport and storage in all the disciplines involved and understand the potential and blind spots of a wide variety of methods. This book is intended to provide such an overview and to inspire students and curious early- and later-career researchers to study magma on its way through the Earth’s crust.

References

Bailey, E.B., Clough, C.T., Wright, W.B., Richey, J.E., Wilson, G.V., 1924. Tertiary and post-tertiary geology of Mull, Loch Aline, and Oban. Geological Survey of Scotland Memoir. Edinburgh.

Bowen NL. The granite problem and the method of multiple prejudices. Geol. Soc. Am. Mem.. 1948;28:79–90.

Buddington A. Granite emplacement with special reference to North America. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.. 1959;70:671.

Burchardt S, Galland O. Studying Volcanic Plumbing Systems – Multidisciplinary Approaches to a Multifaceted Problem. In: Nemeth K, ed. Updates in Volcanology – From Volcano Modelling to Volcano Geology. InTech.; 2016doi: 10.5772/63959.

Burchardt S, Tanner D, Krumbholz M. The Slaufrudalur pluton, southeast Iceland—an example of shallow magma emplacement by coupled cauldron subsidence and magmatic stoping. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.. 2012;124(1–2):213–227.

Burchardt S, Troll VR, Schmeling H, Koyi H, Blythe L. Erupted frothy xenoliths may explain lack of country-rock fragments in plutons. Sci. Rep.. 2016;6:34566. doi: 10.1038/srep34566.

Clough CT, Maufe HB, Bailey EB. The cauldron subsidence of Glen Coe, and associated igneous phenomena. Q. J. Geol. Soc. London. 1909;65:611–678.

Petrology. In: Chisholm H, ed. Encyclopædia Britannica. 11th ed. Cambridge University Press; Chisholm, H., 1911.

Daly RA. The mechanics of igneous intrusion. Am. J. Sci.. 1903: 269–298.

Daly RA. Igneous Rocks and Their Origin. McGraw-Hill; 1914.

Gilbert GK. Report on the Geology of the Henry Mountains. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office; 1877.

Glazner AF, Bartley JM. Is stoping a volumetrically significant pluton emplacement process?. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.. 2006;118:1185–1195.

Glazner, A.F., Bartley, J.M., Coleman, D.S., 2016. We need a new definition for magma. Eos 97. https://doi.org/10.1029/2016EO059741.

Glazner AF, Bartley JM, Coleman DS, Gray W, Taylor RZ. Are plutons assembled over millions of years by amalgamation from small magma chambers?. GSA Today. 2004;14(4/5):4–12.

Hall J. Experiments on whinstone and lava. J. Natural Philos. Chem. Arts. 1800;4(8–18):56–65.

Hubbert MK. Theory of scale models as applied to the study of geologic structures. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.. 1937;48:1459–1520.

Hutton DHW. Granite emplacement mechanisms and tectonic controls: inferences from deformation studies. Trans. R. Soc. Edinburgh. 1988;79:245–255.

Hutton J., 1785. Abstract of a dissertation read in the Royal Society of Edinburgh, upon the Seventh of March, and Fourth of April, MDCCLXXXV, concerning the system of the earth, its duration, and stability.

Lowenstern JB, Hurvitz S. Monitoring a supervolcano in repose: heat and volatile flux at the Yellowstone Caldera. Elements. 2008;4:35–40.

Paterson SR, Fowler TK. Re-examining pluton emplacement processes. J. Struct. Geol.. 1993;15:191–206.

Ramberg, H. (Ed.), 1970. Model Studies in Relation to Intrusion of Plutonic Bodies. Mechanism of Igneous Intrusion. Geol. J. Spec. Iss. 2.

Ramberg H. Gravity, deformation and the Earth’s crust. Academic Press; 1981.

Read H. The Granite Controversy. New York: Interscience; 1957: 430 pp.

Richey, J.E., Thomas, H.H., 1930. The geology of Ardnamurchan, northwest Mull and Coll. Geological Survey of Scotland Memoirs HMSO, 393 pp.

Roberts, J.L., 1970. The intrusion of magma into brittle rocks. In: Newall, G., Rast, N. (Eds.), Mechanism of Igneous Intrusion. Geol. J. Spec. Iss. 2, 287–338.

Sparks RSJ. The legacy of George Walker to volcanology. In: Thordarson T, Self S, Larsen G, Rowland SK, Höskuldsson A, eds. Studies in Volcanology. The Legacy of George Walker. London: Special Publications of IAVCEI; 2009:1–15.

Suess, E., 1885. Das Antlitz der Erde. 3 v., Vienna, n. p.

Walker GPL. Zeolite zones and dyke distribution in relation to the