Geology of the Himalayan Belt: Deformation, Metamorphism, Stratigraphy

Geology of the Himalayan Belt

Deformation, Metamorphism, Stratigraphy

B.K. Chakrabarti

Director (retd.), Geological Survey of India

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Dedication

Foreword

Acknowledgment

About the Book

Chapter 1. Lithotectonic Subdivisions of the Himalaya

1.1. Lithotectonic Subdivisions

Chapter 2. Pakistan Himalaya

2.1. Regional Geology

2.2. Metamorphic and Granitic Rocks

Chapter 3. Jammu-Kashmir Himalaya

3.1. Regional Geology

3.2. Deformation and Metamorphism

Chapter 4. Himachal Himalaya

4.1. Regional Geology

4.2. Regional Correlation of the Metamorphics

4.3. Section of the Metamorphics in Shimla–Chaur–Rampur–Karcham–Kalpa Area

4.4. Background Geological Picture of Shimla–Rampur Area

Chapter 5. Garhwal–Kumaon Himalaya

5.1. Regional Geology

5.2. Geological Sections

Chapter 6. Nepal Himalaya

6.1. Regional Geology

6.2. Geological Sections

Chapter 7. Darjeeling–Sikkim Himalaya

7.1. Regional Geology

7.2. Structure and Metamorphism of the Crystallines

Chapter 8. Bhutan Himalaya

8.1. Regional Geology

8.2. Deformation and Metamorphism

Chapter 9. Arunachal Himalaya

9.1. Regional Geology

9.2. Deformation and Metamorphism

Chapter 10. Review of Previous Work

10.1. Pakistan Himalaya

10.2. Jammu and Kashmir Himalaya

10.3. Himachal Himalaya

10.4. Garhwal–Kumaon Himalaya

10.5. Nepal Himalaya

10.6. Darjeeling–Sikkim Himalaya

10.7. Bhutan Himalaya

10.8. Arunachal Himalaya

Chapter 11. Deformation, Metamorphism, and Tectonostratigraphy

11.1. High-Pressure and Ultra High-Pressure Assemblages

11.2. Tertiary Metamorphism and the HT–LP Assemblages

11.3. Pre-Tertiary Deformation and Metamorphism

11.4. Tectonostratigraphy of the Lesser Himalayan Belt

References

Index

Copyright

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Dedication

Prof. Dhrubajyoti Mukhopadhyay

Foreword

On the geological structure and relations of the of the southern portion of the Himalayan Range between the rivers Ganges and Ravee by H.B. Medlicott (Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, vol. 3, 1864) was the first attempt to provide a somewhat regional geological account of a part of the Himalaya. A Manual of geology of India, Part II: extra-peninsular area by H.B. Medlicott and W.T. Blandford followed it in 1879. Subsequently, detailed accounts of several sectors of the Himalaya like Spiti, Kashmir, Shimla Hills, Krol Belt, Shali, and Darjeeling appeared. However, a cogent panoramic continuity of various geological elements of the Himalaya was lacking. This task was accomplished in 1964 by the famous book, Geology of the Himalayas by Augusto Gansser. Although it laid the foundation of regional picture of the Himalaya, it was a partial synthesis, as there was little geological information on Sikkim, Bhutan, and Arunachal available at that time, and there were several gray areas pertaining to stratigraphy and structure of the Lesser Himalaya. As an addition, some paradigmatic data poured in, and the need was felt for updating this monumental work.

Towards the end of the 20th century, there were publications on the Western as well as the Eastern Himalaya, but these did little to synthesize conflicting views. Geologists, particularly younger ones, in different and isolated terrain, were like proverbial the four blind men feeling the elephant. Their regional interpretations were locally biased, based on fractured observations.

Thus, there is an urgent need for a book that deals with the Himalaya as one entity and provides a homogenous version of various aspects of geology of the Himalaya. I am happy that Dr. B.K. Chakrabarti, who has been involved with the Himalaya since 1967, has undertaken this marathon job of synthesizing the geology of all the geotectonic units from the north to the south and from the east to the west. In a treatise like this, where several conflicting interpretations and conceptual models exist in the literature, the synthesis by the author is based on his concepts and experience, which at times can be biased. Everyone may not agree with Dr. Chakrabarti’s views; there is no need also for a total acceptance. Descent is essence for the progress of science, which is dynamic and vibrant. Unanimity on all the aspects will spell an end to the progress of geology. What is important is the availability of a book on the Himalaya incorporating all the latest data with a masterly review, which I am sure Dr. Chakrabarti is eminently capable of.

O.N. Bhargava

Acknowledgment

Interest in geology of the Himalaya was kindled in the late 1960s of the 20th century when I joined an office of the Geological Survey of India, situated close to the Lesser Himalayan Belt. Since then, although my assignments changed a few times, I could work on specially structure and metamorphism of the Lesser Himalayan Sequence. I did field study of a part of the Himachal Himalaya and a little of the Eastern Himalaya. However, I was quite up-to-date with the advancement in study of the entire Himalayan belt. I was looking after the Central Library of the Geological Survey of India along with my other assignments, and every issue of the journals contributed by the Survey reached my table before being catalogued. This helped me a lot not to miss any article on Himalayan geology.

The Survey has a number of specialized divisions, and I had the opportunity to interact with the specialists of these divisions and get their help to generate data on my topics of work. I owe a great deal to my colleagues for enriching me in my studies. It has been a tough job at 73 to write a manuscript on the Himalaya with very restricted facilities available at home. I am indebted to Prof. Bapi Goswami of the Department of Geology, University of Calcutta, for mailing me articles I desired to go through. I thank my well-wishers for encouragement. Thanks are due to my wife, Sabita, and son, Sumon, for cooperation.

B.K. Chakrabarti

About the Book

This publication covers discussion on deformation, metamorphism, and stratigraphy of the Himalayan belt. The first nine chapters deal with a brief description of the geology of the belt and its different sectors from Pakistan Himalaya in the west to Arunachal Himalaya in the east. Chapter "Review of previous work describes the observations of different workers on the topics of this publication and attempts to review these contributions. Chapter Deformation, metamorphism, and tectonostratigraphy" covers a detailed discussion on high- and ultra-high pressure metamorphism, on Tertiary metamorphism (especially the HT-LP phase), on the evidence of Precambrian metamorphism, and on tectonostratigraphy, especially of the Precambrian terrain of the Lesser Himalaya.

Chapter 1

Lithotectonic Subdivisions of the Himalaya

Abstract

The Himalayan belt has been subdivided into a few longitudinal lithotectonic zones bounded by thrusts or faults. From south to north, the zones and associated thrusts or faults are the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT); the Sub-Himalayan Zone, bounded between the MFT and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT); the Lesser Himalayan Zone between the MBT and the Main Central Thrust (MCT); the Higher Himalayan Crystallines (HHC) above the MCT; the Tethyan Zone, separated by the South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) from the HHC; and the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, where the Indian plate is subducted below the Asian plate. There are diverse views on such a lithotectonic subdivision, especially for the Pakistan sector.

The Sub-Himalayan zone is occupied by the Siwaliks with a rich content of vertebrate fossils; the Lesser Himalayan Zone displays the classic reversal of metamorphic grades, and the HHC sequence shows both normal and reversed ordering of metamorphic grades. The position of the MCT, especially in the Garhwal–Kumaon Himalaya, and designation of the Munsiari Thrust, in place of the original MCT, are subjects of debate.

Keywords

Higher Himalayan Crystallines; ITSZ; Lesser Himalaya; Lithotectonic zones of the Himalaya; MCT; Munsiari Thrust; STDS; Sub-Himalaya

1.1. Lithotectonic Subdivisions

The Himalayan belt has been subdivided into a few commonly accepted longitudinal zones bounded by major thrusts or faults. From south to north, these zones and megatectonic features, such as fault and thrust, are the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT), the Sub-Himalaya between the MFT and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), the Lesser Himalaya between the MBT and the Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Higher Himalaya between the MCT and the South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS), the Tethyan Himalaya, and the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (Gansser, 1981) (Fig. 1.1).

Dipietro and Pogue (2004), however, maintain that such a subdivision of the Himalayan belt is valid for India and Nepal sectors. The Pakistan sector has difficulties in maintaining such a division across the syntaxial region and extension of the MCT and the Higher Himalayan Crystallines (HHC) across the Hazara Syntaxis to Western Pakistan is problematic (Fig. 1.1). They refer in support to Hodges (2000), who opined that it is impossible to correlate the metamorphic core of the orogen west of the Nanga Parbat Syntaxis with the Greater Himalayan zone of the Central Himalaya. Gansser (1964) did not extend the MCT across the syntaxial region, although he considered the metamorphics of the Pakistan sector as Central Crystallines (HHC).

Heim and Gansser (1939) recognized the presence of a thrust in Central Himalaya (the original MCT) at the base of the gneissic rocks of the HHC. Valdiya (1980), however, considers this original MCT of Heim and Gansser (1939) as the Munsiari Thrust; the MCT (his Vaikrita Thrust) lies higher up. In the Garhwal–Kumaon sector of Central Himalaya, the Munsiari Thrust (original MCT) and the higher level Vaikrita Thrust of Valdiya (1980) divide the original HHC zone into a lower MCT zone (the Munsiari Group) and a higher level Vaikrita Group. Arita (1983) designated the Munsiari and the Vaikrita Thrusts of Valdiya (1980) as MCT1 and MCT2, respectively, in central Nepal (Fig. 1.2). The HHC sequence overlying MCT2 is named the Himalayan Gneiss zone by Arita (1983).

Figure 1.1  Lithotectonic zones in the Himalaya and the adjacent peninsula. MFT , Main Frontal Thrust; MBT , Main Boundary Thrust; MCT , Main Central Thrust; STDS , South Tibetan Detachment System; ITSZ , Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone; LHS , Lesser Himalayan Sedimentaries; HHC , Higher Himalayan Crystallines (with granitoid bodies); THBV , Trans-Himalayan Batholiths and Volcanics; GD and SD , Gandak and Sarda Depressions; SR, FR, MS , Sargodha, Faizabad, and Monghyr-Saharsa ridges; B , Bundelkhand granite; GBF , Great Boundary Fault. Source: Chakrabarti, 2009. (copyright permission for reproduction from Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.)

Thakur (1977) observed the phenomenon of divergent isograds in the HHC. He, however, supported the position of the MCT as that of Heim and Gansser (1939) (Fig. 1.2). While the lesser Himalayan sequence so commonly displays a reversed order of metamorphic grades, Thakur (1977) observed both normal and reversed metamorphic grades in the HHC (his divergent isograd picture). Thakur reported a general decrease in metamorphic intensity on either side of a core of high grade metamorphism in the HHC zone of the Himachal Pradesh covering areas like Kullu, Manali, Rohtang, and Khoksar to the border of the Tethyan sequence (Baralacha). In the Darma Valley of Kumaon Himalaya, Thakur (1977) described a divergent picture of isograds in the Darchula-Bidang sector: metamorphic grade decreasing on either side of a core of high-grade rock. Near the MCT (the original MCT of Heim and Gansser, 1939), he observed the appearance of staurolite, which is followed up northwards by kyanite, sillimanite, and sillimanite-bearing migmatite gneiss. Higher up, there is a gradual fall in metamorphic grade through kyanite, garnet, and biotite to chlorite grade against the Garbyang Formation. In the cases of Darjeeling and Shimla Himalaya, where the lesser Himalayan Crystallines continue to the Central Crystallines (HHC), a reversal picture of regional metamorphism is observed in the lesser Himalayan domain; however, both normal and reversed metamorphic ordering is reported from the HHC further north. The age of this regional metamorphism is generally considered Tertiary, although Pretertiary deformative and metamorphic signatures are reported from many places.

Figure 1.2  The Vaikrita and the Munsiari Thrusts. M , Munsiari Group and the Lesser Himalayan Crystallines; MT , Munsiari Thrust; V , Vaikrita Group; LHS , Lesser Himalayan Sedimentaries; MCT 1 , Main Central Thrust of Arita (1983) ; MCT 2 , Vaikrita Thrust/Main Central Thrust ( Arita, 1983 ); X and T , Tertiary granite. Source: Chakrabarti, 2009 (copyright permission for reproduction from Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi.)

1.1.1. The Sub-Himalaya

Situated between the alluvial plains and the lesser Himalayan sequence, the Sub-Himalayan zone is bounded by the MFT to its south and the northern MBT. The Siwalik Group of rocks is bounded to the south by the MFT and forms the Sub-Himalaya. It is continuous from Pakistan in the west to Arunachal Pradesh with a gap in Bhutan. Active sedimentation in the Siwalik basin continued from Miocene to Lower Pleistocene. The Siwalik sequence exhibits simple faulted folds with intensity increasing toward the overriding MBT (Gansser, 1981).

The Siwalik Group is subdivided on the basis of lithological characters and fossil content into three subgroups: Lower, Middle, and Upper Siwaliks. The Lower Siwaliks contain the Kamlial and Chinji Formations, and the Middle Siwaliks have Nagri and Dhok Pathan Formations, while the Upper Siwaliks consist of Tatrot (3.5  Ma), Pinjore, and Boulder Conglomerate Formations. The Kamlial and Chinji Formations represent a sequence of sandstone and mudstone, with the latter being more dominant. The Nagri and Dhok Pathan Formations are composed of massive sandstone with subordinate clay layers. Mudstone and siltstone layers are also often reported. The Upper Siwaliks are a sequence of sandstone–mudstone and the Boulder Conglomerate (<1  Ma), and indicate uplift of depositional basin due to rise of the Himalaya. There are, of course, variations in lithological characters of the Siwaliks over its 2000  km spread; however, the broad lithological characters mentioned above are present in the type areas in Pakistan and India. The Siwaliks have a rich content of vertebrate fossils.

1.1.2. The Lesser Himalaya

The Lesser Himalayan zone between the MBT and the MCT of Heim and Gansser (1939) or the Munsiari Thrust of Valdiya (1980) consists of a Lesser Himalayan sequence of sedimentaries (LHS) and overlying crystallines (Lesser Himalayan Crystallines, LHC), occurring either as klippe or as bodies continuous for long distances. The rock sequence of this zone displays reversal of metamorphic grades; the higher grade rocks occur in progressively higher tectonic levels.

1.1.2.1. Lesser Himalayan Sedimentaries

According to Valdiya (1986), the sedimentaries have a regular picture of stratigraphic ordering. The argillo-arenaceous sequence has different names in different sectors: Hazara Slate in northern Pakistan, Ramban/Ramsu Formation in Jammu, Sundernagar Formation, in Himachal Pradesh, Damtha or Jaunsar in Kumaon, Kuncha or Lower Nawakot in Nepal, etc. (Valdiya, 1995). The lower division of the LHS is constituted of litharenite, sublitharenite, and arenite interbedded with olive-green, brown, and purple slate with the lowest portion as turbiditic flysch known as Kuncha Formation in Nepal and Chakrata Formation (≡Shimla Slate) in Kumaon and Shimla Himalaya. The upper part of the lower division shows facies variation and contains pebbly arenite, basaltic lava beds, and dolerite intrusives (Valdiya, 1986). The uppermost part of the lower division is quartzarenite, named the Berinag (Jaunsar) Quartzite, Manikaran–Rampur Quartzite, or its equivalents.

The upper division of the LHS is an argillo–calcareous sequence. In Jammu-Kashmir Himalaya, it is named the Jammu or Sirban Limestone; in Himachal Pradesh, it is Shali–Larji–Deoban Limestone; in Garhwal–Kumaon Himalaya, it is Tejam Limestone; in Nepal Himalaya, it is Upper Nawakot; and in Eastern Himalaya, it is Buxa. The lower part of this upper division is dolomitic and contains upper-middle Riphean stromatolites. The upper portion of the division is interlayered with carbonaceous slate-marlite assemblage and is named the Mandhali Formation. In Garhwal Himalaya, the Deoban Formation and the Mandhali Formation make the Tejam Group (Valdiya, 1986).

The oldest LHS member in the inner belt of Himachal Pradesh, according to Jain et al. (1980), is the Sundernagar Formation with orthoquartzite, slate, and interlayered volcanics, which are unconformably overlain by the Larji–Shali carbonate sequence. The Shimla and Jaunsar groups, according to them, unconformably overlie the carbonates.

1.1.2.2. Lesser Himalayan Crystallines

From south and southeast of Nanga Parbat, the crystallines separate out as a lower belt of discontinuous crystalline bodies and klippe into Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and further east. However, in a few places, as in Himachal Pradesh, Nepal, and Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya, the lower belt of crystallines (LHC) continues to the upper belt of crystallines (HHC). The lesser Himalayan sedimentaries is often exposed as windows due to erosion of the overlying LHC. The LHC is exposed as thrust nappes and klippes like the Jutogh Nappe in Himachal Pradesh; the Almora Nappe and klippes of Lansdowne; Askot, etc., of Kumaon Himalaya; the Jajarkot Nappe of Nepal Himalaya, etc. Valdiya reported metamorphic intensity in the Almora Nappe, reaching only lower amphibolite facies; however, later workers could find assemblage of upper amphibolite facies (Joshi and Rai, 2003). Singh et al. (1995) studied the Almora Nappe in detail and could find regional metamorphism (with intensity increasing toward higher tectonic levels), reaching anatectic stages at around 640°C and 7  Kb. Later workers (Tiwari, 2000), however, find the peak temperature reaching 700°C (8  Kb).

Le Fort et al. (1980) described a longitudinal magma chamber along the lesser Himalayan belt and the Ordovician granites (500  Μa) genetically related to this magma chamber intrude the LHC. Shams (1983), like Chakrabarti (1993), doubted the presence of such a large magma chamber and instead reported that the leucogranite bodies intruded the metamorphics grade to migmatite and gneisses, which are products of syndeformational regional metamorphism (ultrametamorphism). Joshi et al. (1994) carried out study on the Champawat granitoid body in the Almora Nappe and concluded that regional metamorphism predates the contact metamorphism due to intrusion of the Champawat granitoid body. Joshi and Rai (2003) refer the work of Tiwari (2000) in the Almora Nappe where the Almora granitoid overprints the regional schistosity. Guha and Gupta (1988) also held similar view from their study in the Doda area of Kashmir Nappe.

Johnson (2003) carried out a study on the xenoliths in the Simchar and Palung granitoid bodies of Nepal Himalaya and the granitoids in the Almora Nappe. He explored the significance of the presence of xenolith in these Ordovician granitoid bodies.

It is commonly considered that the LHC hosting the granitoid bodies were rooted in the northern HHC belt and, therefore, the granitoid bodies were carried to the south, along with the thrust sheets/nappes of the LHC. According to Johnson (2003), the nappes therefore must carry with them records of unexposed basement beneath the High Himalaya. Further, the Ordovician granitoid bodies and the enclosed xenoliths are both strongly deformed and overprinted by the Tertiary metamorphism.

1.1.3. The Higher Himalayan Crystallines

In the Garhwal–Kumaon Himalaya, the MCT is commonly described between the inner Lesser Himalayan zone and the HHC. However, this MCT of Heim and Gansser (1939) is considered by Valdiya (1980a) not as the original MCT (it is named the Munsiari Thrust); the actual MCT is his Vaikrita Thrust further north and the zone between the Munsiari Thrust and the Vaikrita Thrust is named as the Munsiari Group. Nevertheless, such MCT zone is not present throughout the Himalayan belt, and therefore, the zone above the Lesser Himalaya and above the MCT is considered as the HHC.

The HHC zone in Kumaon and west-central Nepal is quite thin and composed of high-grade schists and gneisses, which continue up to the STDS. In other areas like eastern Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Arunachal, Western Himalaya, and Garhwal Himalaya, the HHC zone is often more than 100  km wide (Pecher and Le Fort, 1986).

Hodges (2000) named the HHC as the Greater Himalayan Zone, and there are other names designated to HHC, such as Central Crystallines, Higher Himalayan Gneisses, Tibetan Slab, etc. It is mainly due to decades of research work by the French workers that the HHC (Tibetan Slab) has been divided into three formations (Hodges, 2000). Formation I predominantly consists of biotite-muscovite gneiss and clastic metasediments, and the metamorphism attained is middle to upper amphibolite facies of regional metamorphism. Formation II is 2–4  km thick in the central Nepalese sector and overlies Formation I. It is conspicuous by the presence of calc-silicate-rich gneisses and marble. Here also the metamorphism attained is middle to upper amphibolite facies. According to Hodges, the Formation III is one of the most enigmatic tectonostratigraphic units in the Himalayan belt. It is a nearly homogeneous augen orthogneiss with a long lateral continuity.

Thakur (1980) reported three major deformative episodes (D1, D2, and D3) in the Central Crystallines (HHC). The D1 episode, according to him, produced isoclinal to recumbent or reclined folds with development of an axial plane schistosity (S1). However, the plunge direction of F1 folds related to D1 varies. The F2 (D2) folds are asymmetric overturned, having NW–SE axial trend and F3 (D3) developed transverse to the Himalayan trend. A mineral lineation (L1) developed on S1 plunges toward NNE to NE.

Brunel (1983, 1986) and Brunel and Kienast (1986) worked in eastern Nepal and reported, from the HHC south of Mt. Everest and Mt. Makalu, development of a main metamorphic schistosity (S1) related to south-facing tight to isoclinal folds and a pervasive N10°–N35° stretching and mineral lineation (L1) (see Carosi et al., 1999). According to these workers, S1 and L1 are related to a regional metamorphic event (M1) predating the Himalayan stage (high T–low P event). Most of these workers hold that the M1 stamp is better preserved in the LHC. The later phases of folds have NNE–SSW and NW–SE axial trends, and interference of these phases is considered to have produced large elongate domes and basins (like Okhaldhunga, Arun, Tamur, etc.).

Staubli (1989) also described a Barrovian M1 phase in the HHC of Zanskar Himalaya predating MCT movement (may also see Waters et al., 1992). Searle and Rex (1989) described a single prograde phase of regional metamorphism from Zanskar Himalaya and reported that the M1 isograds cut across early folds, and therefore, a phase of folding exists prior to folding events which folded the metamorphic isograds of (NW–SE folding) and which is related to MCT movement. Ghose (2000) also had similar explanation for the folding of isograds in the Zanksar terrain.

Based on U-Pb and Sm-Nd data, Parrish and Hodges (1996) consider the HHC of Langtang area of Nepal Himalaya younger than the tectonically underlying (below MCT) LHS (Mid-Proterozoic  =  Lr. Vindhyan). Further, Whittington et al. (2000) published isotopic data to conclude that the basement of the Nanga Parbat massif does not make a part of the Central Crystallines (HHC) but has close affinity to the LHS. However, a thin cover of metasedimentary rocks on the marginal part of the Nanga Parbat is isotopically identical with the Central Crystallines.

1.1.4. The Tethyan Himalaya

The Tethyan (Tibetan) Himalaya has a bordering detachment zone to its south, separating it from the HHC. This detachment zone is named the STDS, and it represents a major system of north-dipping structural detachments (faults). Metamorphic grade across the STDS drastically decreases in this highly fossiliferous 10–14  km thick Tethyan sequence. The entire sequence comprises Cambrian through Eocene marine platform deposits, which span over 200  km from east to west without much lithofacies change (Gansser, 1981). A number of basins exist in this vast expanse of sedimentation, namely Kashmir Basin, Zanskar Basin, Spiti Basin, Northern Kumaon Basin, etc.; however, these basins are differentiated structurally but not stratigraphically (Gansser, 1981, p. 117). Except Kashmir and Spiti domains, a northward facies change from platform marine to deeper, and more detrital deposits of flysch facies is observed toward the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ).

1.1.5. The Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone

The ITSZ marks the limit of the Indian plate where it collides with the Asian plate and is subducted below the latter. The ITSZ can be traced for more than 200  km, and a wide variety of rock association (mafic to felsic lava, chert, serpentinites, dunites, limestone, red sandstone, etc.) along the ITSZ indicates that the collision at the plate boundary was of very complex nature.

There are significant differences in the nature of the ITSZ along its length. In the Pakistan sector, the Main Mantle Thrust (MMT), a continuation of the ITSZ, occurs as a boundary between the southern high-grade gneissic terrain and the northern amphibolites. The MMT there contains blueschists, high-P garnet granulite (the Jijal Complex). In the Central Himalayan domain, the suture zone contains (1) sediments like shales, turbidites, and deep-water radiolarian chert formed during Triassic to late Cretaceous; and (2) ophiolite mélange up to 150  m thickness and with serpentinized harzburgite and dunite, gabbro, sheared volcanics, blueschists, shale, and chert. Some components of the Ladakh batholith intrude the mélange.

Chapter 2

Pakistan Himalaya

Abstract

The Salt Range sequence dips below the Potwar basin, which is the regime of the Siwaliks with rich vertebrate fossil content. The Lesser Himalayan Sequence (LHS), delimited to the south by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) with the Siwaliks on the underthrust side, is about 20–35  km wide and records low-grade metamorphism, and metamorphic intensity increases to the north and northeast of Peshawar basin. The metamorphic terrain above the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the Hazar-Mansehr-Swat-Besham area displays three phases of deformation and a progressive regional metamorphic episode. A correlation between intensity of deformation and metamorphism is also observed in this high-grade terrain.

Paragneisses and augen orthogneisses make up the bulk of the Nanga Parbat massif. There are observations based on isotopic systematics that the Nanga