Regulating Safety of Traditional and Ethnic Foods

Regulating Safety of Traditional and Ethnic Foods

Edited by

Vishweshwaraiah Prakash

Olga Martín-Belloso

Larry Keener

Siân Astley

Susanne Braun

Helena McMahon

Huub Lelieveld

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Prologue

Foreword

Preface

Chapter 1: Introduction: The Importance of Traditional and Ethnic Food in the Context of Food Safety, Harmonization, and Regulations

Abstract

1.1. New approaches for understanding traditional foods

1.2. R&D and understanding traditional foods

1.3. Knowledge platform of traditional foods: leveraging an integrated approach

1.4. Science, regulation, and the global harmonization initiative approach

Acknowledgments

Chapter 2: Safety by Control of Water Activity: Drying, Smoking, and Salt or Sugar Addition

Abstract

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Water activity, stability, and quality of foods

2.3. Water activity and microbial growth

2.4. Drying

2.5. Smoking

2.6. Salting

2.7. The use of sugars

2.8. Combined methods for food preservation based on water activity control

Chapter 3: Typical Traditional Processes: Cooking and Frying

Abstract

3.1. Traditional cooking procedures

3.2. Dry cooking

3.3. Wet cooking traditional procedures

3.4. Traditional frying procedures

3.5. Nutritional impact of cooking and frying

Chapter 4: Safety of Meat and Poultry

Abstract

4.1. Description and origin of meat and poultry

4.2. History of meat and poultry products

4.3. Public health risks

4.4. Traditional methods of meat and poultry preservation

4.5. Epidemiology

4.6. Local and global regulatory status

4.7. Future trends and expectations

4.8. Conclusions

Chapter 5: Safety of Fish Products

Abstract

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Raw seafood

5.3. Cured products

5.4. Marinated (pickled) fish

5.5. Dried fish

5.6. Smoked fish

5.7. Salted fish

5.8. Thermally processed (cooked) products

5.9. Conclusions

Chapter 6: Safety in the Shrimp Supply Chain

Abstract

6.1. Description and origin(s) of the food(s)

6.2. Organization of the farmed shrimp supply chain

6.3. History of use

6.4. Public health risk

6.5. The traditional method of preservation

6.6. Epidemiologic data

6.7. Local and global regulatory status

6.8. Contemporary considerations to ensure safety

6.9. Future trends and expectations

6.10. Conclusions

Chapter 7: Safety of Fermented Meat

Abstract

7.1. Description and origin of traditional and ethnic fermented meat products

7.2. History of fermented meat products

7.3. Public health risks

7.4. The traditional method of preservation: the fermentation process

7.5. Epidemiologic data

7.6. Regulatory status

7.7. Contemporary and innovative aspects to improve safety

7.8. Future trends and expectations

7.9. Conclusions

Chapter 8: Safety of Fermented Fish Products

Abstract

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Fermented fish products across the world

8.3. Europe

8.4. Safety issues of fermented fish products

8.5. Conclusions

Chapter 9: Safety of Milk Processing and Distribution Chain in India

Abstract

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Tradition of milk use in India

9.3. Public health risks from milk

9.4. Traditional methods of preservation

9.5. Regulatory status of milk and milk products

9.6. Contemporary considerations to ensure safety

9.7. Future trends and expectations

9.8. Conclusions

Chapter 10: Safety of Fermented Dairy Products

Abstract

10.1. Origin and history of artisanal cheese in Mexico

10.2. Raw milk cheese: public health risks and preservation principles

10.3. Raw milk cheese: regulatory status and epidemiologic data

10.4. Contemporary considerations to ensure safety, future trends, and expectations

10.5. Conclusions

Chapter 11: Safety of Foods Based on Insects

Abstract

11.1. Description and origin of edible insect foods

11.2. History of use

11.3. Public health risk

11.4. Potential natural hazards of insects

11.5. Potential hazards introduced by feed and environment

11.6. Production methods

11.7. Traditional methods of preservation

11.8. Epidemiologic data

11.9. Global and local regulatory status

11.10. Future trends and expectations

11.11. Conclusions

Chapter 12: Safety of Honey

Abstract

12.1. Description and origins of honey as food

12.2. Quality parameters of honey

12.3. Honey classification

12.4. Nutritional value

12.5. Bioactive compounds and antibacterial properties

12.6. Historical data of beekeeping origin

12.7. Public health: contaminants and toxic compounds

12.8. Phytotoxins in honey

12.9. Residues of veterinary medicinal products and other chemical contaminants

12.10. Heavy metals

12.11. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

12.12. 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF)

12.13. Antibiotic residues in honey

12.14. Adulterated honey

12.15. Shelf life and preservation of quality

12.16. Contemporary considerations to ensure safety

12.17. Conclusions

Chapter 13: Naturally Occurring Toxicants: Presence in Selected Commonly Consumed Fruits

Abstract

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Mamey apple (Mamea americana)

13.3. Tonka bean (Dipteryx odorata)

13.4. Ackee (Blighia sapidia)

13.5. Cassava (Manihot esculenta)

13.6. Conclusions

Chapter 14: Safety of Fermented Cereals and Legumes

Abstract

14.1. Introduction

14.2. History of use

14.3. The technology of fermentation

14.4. Fermented cereal- and legume-based foods around the world

14.5. Nutritional and health benefits

14.6. Safety concerns of fermented foods

14.7. Contemporary considerations to ensure safety

14.8. Future research needs

14.9. Conclusions

Chapter 15: Safety of Fermented Products Based on Soybean

Abstract

15.1. Description and origin(s) of fermented soybean products

15.2. History of use

15.3. Preventing public health risks by traditional methods of preservation

15.4. Epidemiologic data

15.5. Future trends and expectations

15.6. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 16: Safety of Fermented Cassava Products

Abstract

16.1. Description and origin(s) of fermented cassava products

16.2. History of use

16.3. Public health risk

16.4. The traditional method of preservation

16.5. Epidemiologic data

16.6. Regulatory status (local and global)

16.7. Current measures to ensure safety

16.8. Future trends and expectations

16.9. Conclusions

Chapter 17: Safety of Traditional Bread Production

Abstract

17.1. Introduction

17.2. Rye flour products

17.3. Wheat flour products

17.4. Precursors for rye

17.5. Wheat precursors

Chapter 18: Safety of Fermented Fruits and Vegetables

Abstract

18.1. Introduction

18.2. Table olives

18.3. Cucumbers

18.4. Sauerkraut

18.5. Fermented onion (sour onion)

18.6. Fermented carrots

18.7. Caperberries

18.8. Pickled garlic

18.9. Potential hazards associated with traditional fermented vegetables: Public health risks

18.10. Epidemiologic data

18.11. Contemporary studies and trends

18.12. Regulatory status

18.13. Conclusions

Chapter 19: Safety of Kimchi

Abstract

19.1. Introduction

19.2. Origin of Kimchi

19.3. General characteristics of making Kimchi

19.4. Kimchi fermentation and related microorganisms

19.5. Kimchi as a natural health food

19.6. Safety of Kimchi

19.7. Conclusions

Chapter 20: Safety of Borsh

Abstract

20.1. Description of borsh

20.2. Origins and history of use

20.3. Public health risk

20.4. Traditional method of making borsh

20.5. Epidemiologic data and health concerns

20.6. Regulatory status (local and global)

20.7. Contemporary considerations to ensure safety

20.8. Trends and expectations

20.9. Conclusions

Chapter 21: Safety of Edible Flowers

Abstract

21.1. Description and origin(s)

21.2. History of use

21.3. Public health risk

21.4. Methods of preservation

21.5. Epidemiologic data

21.6. Regulatory status (local and global)

21.7. Contemporary considerations to ensure safety

21.8. Future trends and expectations

21.9. Conclusions

Chapter 22: Safety of Foods Based on Mushrooms

Abstract

22.1. Description and origin of the mushroom

22.2. History of use

22.3. Nutritional and medicinal value

22.4. Traditional method of preservation

22.5. Public health risks and regulatory status

22.6. Chemical contamination

22.7. Radioactivity in mushrooms

22.8. Microbial contamination

22.9. Misidentification of nonedible or poisonous mushrooms as an edible species

22.10. Contemporary considerations to ensure mushroom safety

22.11. Future trends

22.12. Conclusions

Chapter 23: Food Safety Regulations Applied to Traditional and Ethnic Foods

Abstract

23.1. Introduction

23.2. United States

23.3. Australia and New Zealand

23.4. Brazil

23.5. China

23.6. European Union

23.7. Observation from the perspective of global harmonization

Chapter 24: Validated Methods for the Analysis of Traditional and Ethnic Foods and Use of Analytical Data for Risk Management

Abstract

Chapter 25: Science-Based Harmonization of Regulations for the Safety of Traditional and Ethnic Foods

Abstract

Afterword

Subject Index

Copyright

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List of Contributors

S.M. Nazmul Alam,     Department of Environment and Agriculture, Curtin University, Perth, Australia

Paparella Antonello,     Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo (Italy)

Dimitrios Argyropoulos,     Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Tropics and Subtropics Group, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany

Adelia C. Bovell-Benjamin,     Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, USA

Manuel Brenes,     Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de la Grasa Seville, Spain

Ricardo Carvajal,     Hyman, Phelps & McNamara, WA, USA

Fusheng Chen,     College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China

Henry B. Chin,     Henry Chin and Associates, Moraga, California

Thiago Costa Dias,     Brazilian International Consultant and Scholar

Antonio de Castro,     Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de la Grasa Seville, Spain

Diana Di Gioia,     Department of Agricultural Sciences, Microbiology Section, Alma Mater Studiorum – University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

Angel Esparza-Chavez,     Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo A.C., Coordinación Regional Cuauhtémoc, Fisiología y Tecnología de los Alimentos de la Zona Templada, Av. Rio Conchos S/N, Parque Industrial Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua, Mexico

Alina Ioana Gostin,     Faculty of Food Science and Engineering, Dunarea de Jos, University of Galati, Galati, Romania

Karina Grigoryan,     Faculty of Biology, Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, Yerevan State University (YSU), Yerevan, Armenia

Khalid Gul,     Department of Processing & Food Engineering, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Tibor Janči,     Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

Nilakshi Jayawardena,     National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy, Sri Lanka

Sun Juanjuan,     Law School of Renmin University of China; China Food Safety Law Research Center, China

Jonathon Kite,     Food Standards Australia New Zealand

Anita Klaus,     Department of Industrial Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Zemun-Belgrade, Serbia

Zhihua Li,     Institute of Agro-products Processing Science and Technology, Sichuan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China

Eduardo Medina,     Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de la Grasa Seville, Spain

Anca Ioana Nicolau,     Faculty of Food Science and Engineering, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Galati, Romania

Miomir Niksic,     Department of Industrial Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Zemun-Belgrade, Serbia

Bong-Soo Noh,     Department of Food Science and Technology, Seoul Womens’ University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Sangsuk Oh,     Department of Food Science and Technology, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Paola Pittia,     Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo (Italy)

Wan-Soo Park,     Industrial Technology Research Group, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju Metropolitan City, Republic of Korea

Jamuna Prakash,     Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore, India

Vishweshwaraiah Prakash,     JSSTI; International Union of Nutritional Sciences; Global Harmonization Initiative; International Society for Nutritionals, Nutraceuticals, and Naturals; India Region of European Hygienic Engineering and Design Group, Mysore, India

Eva María Ramírez,     Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de la Grasa Seville, Spain

Divakar Rao,     Advisor to Food, Dairy, Bio-energy & Life Sciences Sectors and Member to Vision Group on Biotechnology, Government of Karnataka, Bangalore, India

Jerry Roberts,     Global Quality and Food Safety Consultants, NJ, USA

Concepción Romero,     Food Biotechnology Department, Instituto de la Grasa Seville, Spain

Hye-Young Seo,     Industrial Technology Research Group, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju Metropolitan City, Republic of Korea

David R. Sepulveda,     Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo A.C., Coordinación Regional Cuauhtémoc, Fisiología y Tecnología de los Alimentos de la Zona Templada, Av. Rio Conchos S/N, Parque Industrial Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua, Mexico

Preeti Singh,     Chair for Food Packaging Technology, Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging, Freising, Germany

Bernd van der Meulen,     Law and Governance Group, Wageningen University, The Netherlands

Marjolein van der Spiegel,     Food Safety Professional, Wageningen, The Netherlands

Sanja Vidaček,     Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

Iuliana Vintila,     Food Science & Engineering Faculty, University Dunarea de Jos Galati, Domneasca, Romania

Alexander Voss,     Dipl.-Ing. food technologie/Project manager, Institut für Lebensmittel- und Umweltforschung e.V., Nuthetal/Bergholz-Rehbrücke

Viduranga Waisundara,     National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy, Sri Lanka

Ali Abas Wani,     Department of Food Technology, Islamic University of Science and Technology, Awantipora, J&K, India

Mindani Watawana,     National Institute of Fundamental Studies, Kandy, Sri Lanka

Xiuyan Zhang,     College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China

Prologue

Throughout history and across cultures, food is at the heart of celebration, identity, and community. Traditional and ethnic foods provide meaningful insight into the world’s rich and vast array of peoples of the world and their societies, values, and religions. Some of these foods have become synonomous with a particular culture: sushi and Japan, hot dogs and the United States, pizza and Italy, curry and India, guacamole and Mexico, sauerkraut and Germany, falafel and Israel, kepe in Lebanon, and chop suey and China. The list goes on and on. A traditional or ethnic cuisine helps define people and gives a special identity to those who gather to enjoy food as a community. Perhaps unrivaled by any other activity, the gathering of a group of people who break bread together creates a unique atmosphere of well-being, familiarity, and togetherness, of belonging and comradeship, that makes possible the exchange of experiences and beliefs that is the foundation of any cohesive community. When we celebrate with food, it can be said that ultimately, we are celebrating life itself.

Traditional, ethnic, and religious foods and eating habits have made profound marks on world culture, without which we would have difficulty describing our globalized society. Therefore, it is important to analyze the different contributions of traditional and ethnic foods in the twenty-first century. For example, a guacamole will complement an entrée of grilled fish or add to the hedonistic delight of a hamburger when used as a flavorful spread, contributing nutritional and functional benefits to the food. However, depending on the ingredients in the recipe used to prepare the guacamole and the method of preparation, there is the possibility of introducing biologic, chemical, and even physical hazards to the finished product. This alerts us to the need to consider the food safety aspects of raw materials, processing and preparation, and handling and distribution of foods, including the applicable regulations and standards.

The editors of this book have been given the task of researching the food safety aspects of traditional and ethnic foods, emphasizing procedures that ensure safe food preparation and exploring the role of regulation in the production and marketing of these products. Readers who like delving into the history of world cultures and the wide variety of ethnic and religious foods that have and are making their way across borders will find an invaluable source of knowledge in this text. Thank you to all the editors and authors for their dedicated and professional work in sharing such valuable and interesting information.

Prof. Marco A. Leon Felix

General Manager, Lefix y asociados

Professor, Faculty of Chemistry, National Autonomous University of Mexico

Chairman of the Board and Former National President of SOMEICCA, AC

GHI Ambassador, Mexico, and EHEDG Representative, Mexico

IFT member and former Chair of the IFT Quality Assurance Division

Foreword

It is a great honor for me to write this foreword. I find this book to be unique and important and to be published and read. It describes the safety of traditional and ethnic foods coming from different regions and countries. This topic sounds exclusive, because it is related to a certain culture or nation, but we all face the same issues on food safety during food handling, production, distribution, and consumption. In the area of globalization, traditional and ethnic foods have been part of our daily diet. They have been promoted and distributed globally. Hence, regulatory and contemporary considerations to ensure the safety of these foods locally and globally become critical.

Food, consumer, and culture are a complex integration that cannot be separated and ignored. Traditional and ethnic foods have already existed for a long time and have cultural and traditional values. Their nutritional benefits have been proven for a number of centuries. Unfortunately, there have been incidences of foodborne illness that make consumers doubful about the safety of these foods and ultimately gives them a bad image. In addition to food safety issues, some of these foods have been forgotten and eaten less often because of limited resources and changes in consumer perception and preferences. Nowadays, people can afford to broaden their selection and choice of foods and shift their purchase and consumption behaviors away from traditional foods.

The authors of this book have discussed their traditional and ethnic foods in different contexts, situations, and point of views. If we can improve their food safety, we will certainly protect consumers from foodborne illnesses and at the same time, indirectly, maintain the presence of these foods in our current modern diets try to preserve the cultural and traditional national values. In addition, in my opinion, we should also broaden our horizons and research scope to revisit the nutritional and health benefits of traditional and ethnic foods and compare them with our modern diets.

I have enjoyed reading the publications from the Global Harmonization Initiative members. It gives me different thoughts and perspectives on ensuring global food safety. This book resonates well with their first book, Ensuring Global Food Safety – Exploring Global Harmonization. I recommend this book to you and hope you enjoy the book as much as I have.

Indrawati Oey Professor Dr.

Professor of Food Science

Head of Food Science Department

University of Otago, New Zealand

Preface

This book was proposed when the editors observed that there is a paucity of information concerning the safety of traditional and ethnic foods, especially with respect to public health. This knowledge deficit has caused many people and governments to react negatively toward such foods and, in many cases, led to the outright ban of traditional and ethnic foods from global and local marketplaces. The pretext for this action is food safety, which begs the question of what is food safety if foods consumed globally for generations are not now regarded as safe. It is clear that the Codex Alimentarius, European Union (EU) General Food Law (178/2002), and United States (US) Food Drug and Cosmetic Act – some of the most widely recognized food regulatory laws and standards – do not provide a cogent definition of food safety but rather a precautionary concept of safe food. A better definition might be as follows: "biological, chemical or physical status of a food that will permit its consumption without incurring excess risk of injury, morbidity or mortality". This is verifiable with modern scientific tools and would assure consumers of a greater degree of food safety. Currently, food safety is judged on acceptability of risk, which is not based solely on sound scientific information but also on political interests and is susceptible to media hysteria.

Humankind has survived on traditional and ethnic foods for hundreds of generations, long before we understood the scientific basis of well-accepted practices (e.g., fermentation). Hence, it is reasonable to suggest that most of these foods are safe and nutritious, provided they are prepared correctly – that is, by following traditional processes passed on from one generation to the next, underpinned with a modern understanding of hygienic practices. Both European and US food safety laws have provisions predicated on the concept of history of safe use within the community. This concept is an element of EU food regulations (EU Regulation 258/97) and US generally recognized as safe (GRAS) regulations (21CFR182, 184,186). Traditional and ethnic foods have a very long history of safe use, which is not to say that these foods are without any risk; nothing could be further from the truth. However, commercially prepared meat, fruits, vegetables, and other food ingredients in contemporary society are also not without risk. Examples include recent outbreaks of foodborne illness associated with Salmonella and Listeria spp. and pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli.

When we structured the contents of this book originally, it became clear that the page count would be too large for publication, and discussing the safety of traditional and ethnic foods was more urgent than some aspects of their nutrition. Thus, we have here focused on safety. A book on the nutritional aspects of traditional and ethnic foods may follow in the future.

The Editors

Chapter 1

Introduction: The Importance of Traditional and Ethnic Food in the Context of Food Safety, Harmonization, and Regulations

Vishweshwaraiah Prakash    JSSTI; International Union of Nutritional Sciences; Global Harmonization Initiative; International Society for Nutritionals, Nutraceuticals, and Naturals; India Region of European Hygienic Engineering and Design Group, Mysore, India

Abstract

The role of traditional and ethnic foods will increase in their consumption pattern with increasing demand from population. These are considered as healthy foods and the anchor they hold makes further demand by many folds. Thus, there is a wide scope for the manufacturing sector to move ahead in designing new equipments and also to increase the speed of manufacture of these foods. The global merging of many traditional and ethnic foods has brought about many combinatorial foods. These foods add a new dimension altogether and bring forth challenges to both ingredient manufacturers and regulators. Thus, functional ingredients of these foods lead to improvement in health in a holistic way. The population has realized that healthy aging or enhancement of the quality of life as one ages is also an area in which the nutritional value of food can strengthen the body’s cells and thus prevent or delay the disease’s setting earlier. Today, the integration of biotechnology and bioinformatics helps the maintenance of the large databases on traditional foods and understanding them from the point of view of molecular gastronomy and the microbiome fingerprints. Thus, the knowledge platform of traditional and ethnic foods would rise higher with integrated science-based approach for safety and hygiene. Thus, the articles in this book under various chapters address many issues pertaining to traditional and ethnic foods by using the knowledge of approximately 5000 years and beyond, and ensure that the modern science and technology will aim at delivering the authentic food that the consumer wants but is built with safety and carries responsibility to ensure that the nutritional and health components of these foods are preserved and fostered as it reaches the public.

Keywords

quality and hygiene of traditional and ethnic foods

innovative processing

value addition

shelf life increase

health and benefits and claims

reverse epidemiology of traditional foods

health boosting

nutraceuticals and nutritionals

cognitive development

molecular gastronomy

food interactions

biotechnology and bio informatics

bioavailability

analysis of complex foods and standards

It is predicted that the global population will reach nearly 10 billion by 2050, catapulting the need for food from many different sources and making the conservation and sustainability of food crops and feeds more critical than ever before. Today, however, an adequate food supply is limited to existing resources. In addition, the food that we expect to need by 2050 is being discussed only in terms of the quantity required, rather than the quality and varieties that such a greater demand will necessitate. This will place a tremendous amount of pressure on global economic systems, especially when one considers the economic shift on consumption patterns that are slowly but surely moving toward mass market convenience. The fact is that global requirements for food quality and hygiene, as well as advances in technology, have aided in the capacity to distribute a larger variety of foods – from basic staples to refined meat, fish, and poultry, to convenience food snacks and beverages – across borders. The burgeoning movement toward healthy, functional, and/or organic foods by consumers in many countries, and a rising demand for traditional and ethnic foods outside of their originating region, may be a catalyst for innovating new approaches to feed a growing world population in the future. It is in this context that governments, research institutions, and global food industries, especially those focused on ethnic and traditional food sourcing and manufacturing, will likely develop strategies that take a more people-centric approach.

What is a traditional food? Simply put, these are foods that are typically whole, naturally grown or raised, and used in their original form or have undergone only basic processing (drying, cooking, and natural fermentation). Traditional foods are nutrient-rich and have a long history of supporting health and wellness. Indeed, these foods have been consumed for thousands of years. Traditional foods are simply prepared and basic – from vegetables and fruits, to meat, poultry, and fish, to dairy, eggs, legumes, nuts, and seeds. Ethnic foods are defined as those edibles that are eaten and prepared by groups of people who share a common religion, language, culture, or heritage. Of course, many ethnic foods are prepared using traditional foods, and vice versa.

Today, traditional knowledge and practices from Asia and the Mediterranean have been integrated with modern science to form a new food model. A typical Indian traditional food concept or a Chinese traditional food concept is more than 5000 years old, with each representing the biodiversity of many traditional and ethnic foods. When combined, Asian, Mediterranean, African, Central and Latin American, and many other traditional and ethnic foods have the potential to create a type of combinatorial food equation whereby a significant number of new food ingredients are created. In combination, each of the health properties and nutrients provided by individual traditional foods are multiplied and thus may lead to the creation of new tradition-based foods that offer increased health and wellness benefits. Also, traditional ingredients and raw materials actually can boost the health, medicinal, and nutraceutical values of traditional foods, which has been well documented in many countries. A short list of these types of ingredients includes oats, mint, oregano, cucumber, rosemary, sage, potato, thyme, chives, basil, tarragon, barley, and berries, together with onions, tea, turmeric, whole wheat, flax seed, brown rice, tomato, eggplant, peppers, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, garlic, cabbage, licorice, soybean, ginger, carrots, and celery. The use of ingredients with well-documented health benefits has increased significantly, so much so that today the value of food often is defined by how much of these raw materials are in the final products. Of course, the complexity of combining foods and their actual positive effect on health is debatable and depends on epidemiologic data and how well modern science can dissect that data to get meaningful results. However, by adding these traditional ingredients and foods to one another, there is a great potential for the emergence of a new plethora of health-boosting foods that simultaneously remain in the traditional milieu.

1.1. New approaches for understanding traditional foods

Ascertaining the health and wellness aspects of foods and food products, inclusive of traditional and ethnic foods, will require applied science, including consumer and sensory research. Ultimately, food has to be safe as well, especially when it comes to applying food production processes and novel technologies while at the same time retaining the tried and true grandmother touch associated with traditional and ethnic foods.

In many ancient civilizations, the differentiation between a traditional system of medicine and traditional foods does not have a very sharp demarcation. For example, the herb Tinospora cordifolia, used in biliary surgery and as a chemotherapy adjuvant, immunostimulant, and anticancer agent, is a traditional food with powerful medicinal properties. As we move toward distinguishing nutrigenomics from nutrition research, especially in the area of traditional foods, one can observe that responses to diet or the phenotype is generally analyzed, compared, and documented for different individuals or genotypes. However, when one looks at phenotypes, the model that emerges will be rather different. It is helpful to address a major genetically identical system to characterize the molecular epidemiology of specific degenerative diseases, so that even during the aging process, one might determine whether a disease can be delayed and whether the emerging genetic changes can be quantified.

Food not only contributes to physical and mental health, but in many cases also provides the benefit of disease prevention. Today, it is well known that diabetes, cardiovascular disease (CVD), hypertension, stroke, and other noncommunicable diseases are rapidly emerging as the major causes of death in many nations in which obesity and overweight are rampant. Therefore, the role of functional ingredients in the development of healthy traditional foods is more important and is one of the reasons that a growing number of nutraceutical companies offer ingredients that add health and value to finished food products. In addition to providing enhanced immunity to disease, nutrient-dense traditional food ingredients may also aid in weight management, heart health, bone health, and mental health. Healthy aging, or enhancing the quality of life as one ages, is also an area in which the nutritional value of food can strengthen the body’s cells and thus prevent or delay disease from taking hold.

1.2. R&D and understanding traditional foods

The marriage of traditional food knowledge and wisdom with modern science can help us understand the health benefits of such foods, as well as provide a catalyst for innovative food and ingredient combinations and advances in technology that do not exist today. This integrated approach, which takes millennia-tested traditional food knowledge and wisdom from around the globe and combines it with existing epidemiologic data, is key to producing higher value foods with powerful health-promoting characteristics. To achieve this, research and development has to be continuous and dynamic. Formulation of traditional food products combined with additional nutritionals and/or nutraceuticals will certainly boost the health benefits along with the traditional wisdom in a particular food sector. For example, our ability to formulate products for a greater health benefit to a group of defined individuals, such as anemic individuals or pregnant women, who require higher levels of nutrients such as iron and folic acid, would be an excellent outcome.

Traditional foods and genomics are inexorably linked. It is important to understand how the gene–food interaction occurs in the entire genomic cycle and the effect of processes or treatments on that interaction to gain a better understanding of the health benefits of traditional foods. Deconstructing molecular gastronomy (i.e., the subdiscipline of food science that seeks to investigate the physical and chemical transformations of ingredients that occur in cooking) becomes an essential piece of the puzzle when looking to develop a holistic approach to food safety as well. Nutrigenomics is a new area of science that uses the conceptual approach of genomics but concentrates analysis on the genetic makeup of an individual by looking at the fingerprint of the ingredients consumed as food to gain a greater understanding of the gene–food interaction. Again, this area of science could lead to the development of personalized foods that reduce the risk of certain diseases for individuals, such as diabetes or CVD, or that increase the bioavailability of critical essential nutrients, vitamins, antioxidants, polyphenols, probiotics, or other bioactive agents for groups of people who suffer from nutrient deficiencies that adversely affect their health.

The integration of biotechnology and bioinformatics helps ensure reproducibility of a traditional food because one can control the bioactive organisms, not only in terms of population but also with the mix of the organism(s) and their fingerprints. Linking molecular medicine and pharmacogenomics with the nutritional sciences will enable researchers to leverage the entire proteomics area and metabolic outcomes in traditional food therapy and the bioavailability of the ingredients. A combination of these two is what needs to be studied today in the scientific world, especially if one wants to understand the traditional food wisdom and the practice of processing and eating these foods. It is this bioavailability of ingredients that will likely serve as a hallmark in global science due to the highly promising outcome of a food-based bioactive that is preventive more than curative.

1.3. Knowledge platform of traditional foods: leveraging an integrated approach

What is the business model one can develop using traditional knowledge and wisdom about food, and how does modern science support that development? An integrated approach, as noted earlier, is the key to success. Evidence-based traditional medicine, to a large extent, is based on consumption data, even though the quantity of bioactives might vary incrementally. This means that we need to take an entirely different approach to solving many of the problems of processing or enhancing traditional foods, especially when looking at contaminants. The biodiversity of traditional and ethnic foods and their positive impact on health, along with using the combinatorial theory of food ingredients and combining traditional foods to produce higher health values, will result in complexities at the point of food processing. There are many traditional foods that by fermentation or by processing can produce some foods that are, for example, gluten-free, caffeine-free, lactose-free, and/or antibiotic-free. Therefore, when one addresses the nutraceutical pathway, especially the nutraepidemiology and experimental documentation of phytochemistry and nutritional biochemistry, the life cycle approach of nutrition becomes very evident, important to human health and well-being.

1.4. Science, regulation, and the global harmonization initiative approach

This book describes the many facets of traditional foods, highlighting different practices, customs, and social systems, as well as processing, packaging, and labeling protocols. The focus on food safety in each chapter is inherently important because food hazards do not distinguish between traditional and nontraditional foods. Therefore, whatever a food’s origin, it must comply with the regulatory framework for food safety and with standards such as those proffered by the Codex Alimentarius, and those frameworks must be based on sound science. At the same time, health claims can be tricky in that a marketing label based on a traditional health benefit accepted by society is not necessarily based on science. How does one build that scientific confidence with the consumer? Many traditional foods may claim that they are healthy or preventive in terms of disease, but this cannot be true if the food does not comply with food safety standards and regulations. Simply put, an unsafe food is not, by definition, a healthy food.

Overall, the articles in this book cover various processes of making traditional foods, such as cooking, frying, and fermentation, and discusses the raw materials used in traditional foods, including milk, fruits and vegetables, meat and poultry, fish, cereals, rice, legumes, pulses, oil seeds, and honey. Insects and flowers, ancient food sources that might be considered megatraditional are also reviewed. All these traditional foods are discussed within the framework of food safety regulations and the need to ensure that such regulations are not only based on science but are globally harmonized. The authors make the case that harmonized standards should emerge for analyzing and evaluating traditional foods as we move toward achieving sustainability, adequate supply, and health and nutrition goals on the global agenda.

The focus of the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI), founded in 2004 as a joint activity of the US-based Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) and the European Federation of Food Science and Technology (EFFoST), is a global organization with a clear mission to provide the foundation for sound, sensible, science-based food safety regulations that are harmonized globally to ensure that consumers have access to safe and wholesome foods. GHI focuses on consensus-building activities among its network of scientist members through a working group structure. GHI working groups cover a range of scientific topics that underpin food safety regulations, including microbiology, chemicals, toxicity testing, high-pressure processing, food contact materials, nutrition, and religious dietary laws. The authors here, all GHI members, aim to provide a unique look at traditional and ethnic foods in the context of regulation, validated methods of analysis, and applied food safety systems, as well as potential global approaches for harmonization. Harmonization, however, is not the work of the moment, especially when one considers that regulating traditional food systems, some of which have been around for more than 5000 years, to ensure food safety also carries with it a responsibility to ensure that the nutritional and health components of these foods are preserved and fostered.

Acknowledgments

In thanking all the authors for their wonderful contributions, it is very important to also thank the Editorial Board, which has worked day in and day out to make the dream of publication of this book possible and would not have been possible if not for Elsevier, which has very closely coordinated the work in a short time.

Chapter 2

Safety by Control of Water Activity: Drying, Smoking, and Salt or Sugar Addition

Paola Pittia

Paparella Antonello    Faculty of Bioscience and Technology for Food Agriculture and Environment, University of Teramo (Italy)

Abstract

Salting, drying, smoking are traditional preservation techniques. The water activity (aw) concept and its role on the inhibition of the main degradation biochemical and chemical reactions and microbial growth in foods have defined the change from traditional, empirically developed to science-based processes. The understanding of the water–food matrix interactions, the role of humectants and the effect of the water freedom in the control of microbial growth, the inhibition of enzymatic activity and the modulation of the chemical reaction rates have given the scientific sound to the ancient use of salt, sugars, and the natural water removal by drying and smoking for preservation purposes.

In this chapter, salting, smoking, drying will be presented as referred to their impact on the aw of the traditional food products, their quality and safety. The more recent approach in using the aw parameter in combination with other technological actions or hurdles (hurdle technology) will be also presented.

Keywords

water activity (aw)

salting

drying

smoking

quality

safety

hurdle technology

2.1. Introduction

It is generally recognized that humans are a product of what they eat and the amount of time required to provide food for nutritional purposes. The history of populations and cultures around the world is strictly bound to the use of raw materials found in nature and ways in which these were processed to preserve against spoilage. Details of how and when humans learned to use empirically natural resources to maintain meat, fish, and vegetables over time are unknown, but there are many historical and archaeologic artefacts that have globally witnessed the use of salt and sugar, drying, and smoking. Examples of dried meat, fish, and vegetables, salted and ripened meat, smoked products, and fruit preserves can be found among most ancient, ethnic, and traditional food products and the history of culture and population diets.

Salting, drying, and smoking are considered traditional preservation techniques, and tracing their progress includes the origins of food processing, development of the modern technologies, and the contribution of research on food science. The most important contribution to the evolution from traditional, empirically developed to science-based processes has been the introduction of the concept termed water activity (aw) and its role in the inhibition of biochemical and chemical reactions and microbial growth. Understanding water–food matrix interactions, the role of humectants, and the effects of water freedom in the control and/or inhibition of the microbial growth of pathogenic and other microorganisms, as well as spoilage enzymes and modulation of chemical reaction rates, has provided the scientific knowledge underpinning the use of salt, sugars, and water removal by drying and smoking for preservation.

In modern times, products processed differently to achieve a reduction in aw have been defined as intermediate-moisture foods (Karel, 1976). They are characterized by higher moisture contents than dry foods, but are edible without rehydration. Despite relative high water content, they are designed to be shelf-stable without refrigeration during storage and distribution (Taoukis & Richardson, 2007). New knowledge about water–food interactions has, therefore, contributed to a systematic optimization of old preservation techniques, such as salting and drying, and improved the quality of food products with a reduced aw.

The microbial safety, stability, and overall quality of traditional foods is based not only on a decrease in water availability, but also has been achieved by the application of combined preservative factors (hurdles), each of them contributing at different levels (Leistner, 1995).

Broadly speaking, food safety can be defined as a combination of procedures aimed at preventing foods from causing harm to the consumer. This goal can be achieved by protecting raw materials from contamination, preventing the development of contamination during manufacturing, and removing contaminants. Food safety is sometimes confused with issues that have nothing to do with consumer health, such as food security, food quality, and shelf life. Modern food regulations contribute to food safety by coupling official control procedures and control by the manufacturer.

In Table 2.1, there are some examples of traditional foods representative of the many foods available worldwide, aw values, and compositional properties.

Table 2.1

Some traditional food products: their main stabilizing actions and factors, water activity, and compositional characteristics

a Aguilera, Chirife, Tapia de Daza, and Welti-Chanes (1990).

b Sanchez Zapata, Fuentes Zaragoza, and Perez Alvarez (2007).

c Lerici (1985).

d Taormina and Sofos (2014).

2.2. Water activity, stability, and quality of foods

Extensive studies on properties and reactions in foods have demonstrated the limits of the water content to predict food stability. In the 1950s, the concept of aw was introduced by William James Scott to show how microorganisms have a limiting aw value (threshold) for growth.

This parameter describes the degree of boundness of water within a food (Chirife & Fontana, 2007) and is a measure of its availability to act as a solvent and to contribute to chemical and biochemical reactions in foods and cellular and biologic matrices. The theory of aw has been described in many reviews and books, and is beyond the scope of this chapter.

Briefly, aw is defined as:

where p = partial pressure of water over the food at equilibrium and pθ is the equilibrium vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

Water activity, aw, is a measure of the free energy of water in the food because at equilibrium it must be equal to that of the water in the vapor phase. This concept could be expressed in terms of equilibrium of the chemical potential (μ) according to the following equation (Brady, 2013):

in which aw is an adimensional parameter ranging from 0 (no water, water completely bound) to 1 (pure water, totally free water). Its value in a food is affected by chemical, physicochemical, and structural properties, as well as temperature, as a main environmental factor. The presence and concentration of hydrophilic solutes (e.g., salts, sugars, polyols) able to bind water (humectants) is important due to their contribution to reduce water availability and decrease aw, which can also be achieved by partial or total removal of water (e.g., drying).

The aw concept has made it possible to develop generalized rules or limits for the stability of foods and thus explain the development of preservation processes based on control or reduction of water. In a specific food, moisture content and aw have a unique relationship that can be represented graphically by the sorption isotherm, which in the same matrix may have different trends, depending on the method of preparation (adsorption, desorption) (Bell & Labuza, 2000). At very low moisture content, water is tightly bound to surface polar sites and molecules and thus is unavailable. With increasing moisture content, water becomes progressively less associated with the matrix and is free to participate in degradation processes. The effect of aw on the rate at which chemical and biochemical reactions and microbial growth occur in food was first presented graphically in an aw stability map developed by Labuza, Tennenbaum, and Karel (1970) (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1   Schematic Illustration of How Water Activity Affects Various Degradative Processes (Stability Map). Adapted from Labuza et al., 1970.

A food product is recognized as mostly stable at the monolayer moisture content (aw < 0.1–0.2), which varies with chemical composition and structural properties (Bonazzi & Dumoulin, 2011).

A unique stability factor is provided by aw, whereby equilibrium conditions dominate the process, as in the case of microbial growth. Creation of an osmotic pressure difference between the optimally hydrated microbial cell and the surrounding medium (food) leads to inhibition of microbial growth through several mechanisms, which are now fairly well understood (Karel & Lund, 2003). For most foods, the critical point is 0.6–0.7 aw, below which no microorganisms can grow. In addition to microbial growth, aw affects the rate of chemical (e.g., nonenzymatic Browning reaction, lipid oxidation, protein hydrolysis, vitamin degradation) and biochemical reactions by reducing the availability of water to participate as a reactant and/or solvent.

Water freedom also affects quality properties, such as texture. In general, high-aw foods are characterized by a moist, juicy, and tender texture that is impaired by a decrease in aw, leading to hard, dry, and tough matrices. In contrast, the crisp and crunchy textures of low-aw products (e.g., biscuits, crackers, chips) become soggy or soft when their moisture content is above a critical aw value and water begins to act as plasticizer, impairing sensory acceptability. The effect of aw on texture is, in general, associated with structural and physical changes due to moisture gain that may be related to a transition from a glassy to rubbery state (Roos, 1993).

aw is also a very useful factor in assessing mobility-controlled processes in foods because it controls water content in the various food components. The water content (due to plasticizing actions) has a dominant effect on the mobility of hydrophilic food components (Fennema, 1996).

2.3. Water activity and microbial growth

In general, microorganisms are able to grow within a limited range of aw, which varies depending on the species and even on the strain (Carlin et al., 2013). Table 2.2 shows the minimum aw values for some important foodborne pathogens when salt (NaCl) is used to decrease aw. However, the same microorganism can grow at different minimum aw if different humectants are used (e.g., sugars, glycerol), and osmoregulation depends on the source of osmotic stress (Chang, Coleman, Lee, & Schellenberg-Beaver, 2014). Thus, a decrease in aw can act as a significant stressor, which is decisive for microbial cell survival. It is well known that the microbial cell response to osmotic stress is often related to the accumulation of compatible solutes in the cell, synthesis, or importation. Compatible solutes can be defined as polar and water-soluble compounds able to constrain osmotic stress that can accumulate in the cytoplasm without affecting cell physiology. Another response mechanism to osmotic stress involves cell membrane changes, specifically an increase in the ratio of trans to cis unsaturated fatty acids (Cronan, 2002), and/or anionic phospholipids or glycolipids. Similar membrane changes can be observed with different stressors, such as thermal treatments and essential oils (Serio, Chiarini, Tettamanti, & Paparella, 2010).

Table 2.2

Minimum aw for selected foodborne pathogens

On the other hand, some foodborne pathogens can survival for long periods under low aw conditions. Recently, both scientific literature and public health institutions have paid particular attention to risk assessment for low or reduced aw values. Outbreaks of foodborne illness caused by both low-aw foods and intermediate-moisture foods (Table 2.3) highlight the need to develop new strategies for the safety of low-moisture foods, mainly based on increased analytic speed and sensitivity in raw material selection and control (Beuchat et al., 2013), particularly in foods where aw is decreased by higher fat content (e.g., raw [unroasted] chocolate, cheese spreads, pasta sauces). In fact, in such cases, fat can also protect microorganisms from stomach pH and heat treatment (cooking).

Table 2.3

Recent outbreaks in which a low- or intermediate-aw food was involved

2.4. Drying

2.4.1. Main technologic aspects and quality of foods

Drying is probably the oldest known method of preserving food (Cohen & Yang, 1995). It is the process of removing water from the food by both circulating air and heat. Throughout history, humans have learned that sun, wind, and a smoky fire are able to remove water from fruits, meats, grains, and herbs and to achieve stable products. Many traditional food products are obtained using this treatment. Archaeologic finds testify that the Vikings ate stockfish (cod dried in the air) during their excursions, and they used it in exchange for other essential food. The same applies for dried meats prepared in Africa, such as the Sudanese sharmoot. Throughout the centuries, and still in Northern European countries, codfish has been dried on racks with the help of the sun and dry winds following the same procedures to achieve a high-quality product. In both Greek and Roman times, the ease with which legumes could be dried in sun meant they were an important source of protein during famine (Flint-Hamilton, 1999).

The main objective of this stabilizing treatment is the reduction of water content in otherwise perishable food materials and thus storage at the ambient temperature. When drying is the sole preservation process applied to the food, achievement of aw values less than 0.5 is critical for the suppression of microbial growth and for reduced rates of chemical reactions, including inhibition of enzymatic activities (see Figure 2.1).

Dried products have interesting quality properties in addition to their prolonged shelf-life without refrigeration because drying reduces weight and bulk volume, enabling them to be stored and transported more easily. Dried products can be eaten directly (e.g., dried fruit) or after a rehydration step, which may occur during preparation or as a specific step in a recipe.

Drying has been applied historically to raw materials of different origins and moisture contents, and different approaches and technologies have been developed. Sun and natural, low-moisture air drying was and still is used for low-hydrated agricultural products (e.g., grains – corn, rice, wheat, legumes, oil seeds) to obtain products with few structural changes and viable seeds (Aguilera et al., 2003). Water removal has been applied to highly hydrated agricultural products to reduce weight as well as enhance the seasonal character of some products (e.g., milk and milk byproducts, fruits and vegetables, aromatic and medicinal plants, tea leaves, meat, fish). Advancements in knowledge and progress in technology have determined the development of versatile drying processes that allow the treatment of different foods depending on type, amount of water, quality, and functionality of the dried product. Industrial air drying, introduced in the late nineteenth century, is carried out in equipment of different complexity, such as simple ventilated cabinets used for traditional meat products (e.g., hams, sausages), as well as versatile rotary and drum dryers, tunnel conveyors, and band or belt driers. These have led to many reconstituted products with individualized sensory and quality properties, including powdered milk, potato flakes, and dry pasta (Aguilera et al., 2003). Modern drying techniques are also available, including spray drying, fluidized beds, and freeze drying, which allow extended drying of ingredients and intermediate products for later processing and formulation in the food industry (Bonazzi & Dumoulin, 2011).

Drying can also occur during preparation (e.g., cooking and baking for bread, cookies, bakery products; or roasting coffee, nuts). In these cases, the final moisture and aw are highly dependent on the product and desired properties (aw of 0.1 for roasted coffee to 0.96–0.97 for fresh bread crumbs).

The positive quality attributes and functionality of dried foods associated with the various processes and product versatility, such as reduced costs and minimal environmental impact, mean that drying has and continues to be used in food preservation, particularly for traditional products, in the diet of many populations around the world. However, in modern times, its use has diminished due to a perceived reduction in quality by consumers compared with the use of corresponding fresh ingredients. This applies particularly to products that have undergone a severe drying process, such as those required to achieve aw values less than 0.5 (Bonazzi & Dumoulin, 2011). Conventional drying techniques use relatively high temperatures that although increasing food safety, may cause significant color changes due to thermoinduced chemical reactions (e.g., Maillard, caramelization, oxidation reactions), reduction or losses in aroma and flavor due to evaporation, and undesirable changes in texture (e.g., hardening, structural collapse, crystallization). Nutritional values may also be compromised as thermolabile compounds, including some vitamins (e.g., vitamin C), are degraded, and proteins can have reduced bioavailability due to partial denaturation and the loss of amino acids involved in the Maillard reaction. Optimal drying conditions must therefore be chosen to obtain the desired characteristics and to improve the quality of traditional dried products, meeting consumers’ expectations through increased use of lower temperatures for longer periods (e.g., dried pasta) or vacuum drying.

For some products, such as vegetables, conditions also involve preliminary processing that is carried out to increase dried product stability. For example, blanching is performed with fresh vegetables prior to drying to inactivate enzymes, which cannot be inhibited completely by drying, or to add flavor. This treatment contributes not only to stability but also to safety by reducing the microbial load.

2.4.2. Drying and safety aspects

Dried foods, characterized by aw values limiting microbial growth, have been increasingly associated with foodborne outbreaks. The microbiological safety of dried foods is strictly dependent on the microbiological quality of the raw materials because contamination often occurs during preliminary primary production on farms, and there may be a health risk because of the survival of pathogens at low aw values (e.g., Salmonella spp. and enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli) or presence of toxins. In fact, although drying inactivates some microorganisms, some recover in dried foods, especially if drying is not properly managed. In particular, the most critical microorganisms in dried foods are molds, such as Aspergillus spp., which can grow starting from an aw of 0.70. Because mold growth decreases product shelf-life, and some mold species can produce mycotoxins, a so-called alarm water content has been proposed (Jay, 2012) for some dried or dry foods to inhibit mold growth. It is important to note that the alarm water content concept is used in some regulations (e.g., 20% for honey in European Union regulations and 14.5% for wheat flour in Italy). Moreover, one of the most important actions to prevent fungal growth in dried foods is moisture control during storage, which can be achieved by controlling relative humidity in storage rooms or vacuum-packing food products, where possible.

After food drying, bacterial endospores survive, as well as molds, yeasts, and many bacteria. Exceptional survival performance has been documented in the scientific literature, including the following:

• 30 months at 20–25°C for Cronobacter spp. in dried liquid infant formula (Caubilla-Barron & Forsythe, 2007)

• 550 days in almonds (Uesugi, Danyluk, & Harris, 2006), 19 months in chocolate (Hockin et al., 1989), and 360 days in pasta (Rayman, D’Aoust, Aris, Maishment, & Wasik, 1979) at room temperature, for Salmonella spp.

• 38 weeks at 25°C for E. coli O157:H7 in alfalfa seeds (Taormina & Beuchat, 1999)

Overall, drying food remains one of the most effective food preservation methods because any surviving cells are unable to grow where moisture is controlled. To prevent oxidation and microbiologic growth, high-value dried foods are increasingly packed in barrier packaging materials, under a vacuum or modified atmosphere. However, food ingredients may contain a wide range of osmoprotectants, such as carnitine and proline betaine, which microorganisms can use to counteract osmotic stress. For this reason, a new challenge in pathogen control by dehydration could involve the creation of food environments free from osmoprotectants, although some microorganisms (e.g., Cronobacter spp.) can synthetize osmoprotectants under such conditions (Feeney & Sleator, 2011).

2.5. Smoking

2.5.1. Smoking technologies and quality of foods

Along with salting and drying, smoking is one of the oldest procedures for preserving foodstuffs, particularly meats and fish. Archaeologic findings have revealed the use of smoke in food preparation 90,000 years ago (Möhler, 1978), probably as consequence of the use of fire for drying and food preparation, with a resulting longer shelf-life and improved sensory properties. For thousands of years before refrigeration, this technique was used for food preservation and is still used at all latitudes, especially in northern European countries, and in humid and cold regions, where it is an integral part of the curing process (Cassens, 1994); it is used more rarely in warm regions (Leistner, 1992). The original purpose of smoking was prolongation of preservation achieved by surface drying with a corresponding decrease in aw and deposition or absorption of antimicrobial molecules, inhibiting microbial growth, and a delay of lipid oxidation caused by phenolic antioxidant compounds in the smoke. However, smoking also modifies color, texture, aroma, and flavor and thus improves the overall sensory acceptability of foods.

Smoke is a complex system of vapor continuous dispersing phase containing solid particles and nanosized liquid droplets. More than 200 compounds have been determined, whose presence and concentration depend on the type of wood and various processing parameters (Toth & Potthast, 1984). The most important of these for preservation purposes are guaiacol, eugenol, 4-methyl guaiacol, vanillin, phenol, 2,6-dimethoxyphenol, 4-ethylguaiacol, and o-, p-, and m-cresol. Phenolic compounds adsorbed by the food during processing are mainly responsible for the unique aroma and taste of smoked products (e.g., guaiacol). The formation of color in smoked products is due to the chemical and physical actions that occur during the smoking process. Among them, the most important are adhesion of smoke coloring compounds, polymerization and oxidation of the smoke components (e.g., phenols, aldehydes), and the reaction of compounds in the smoke with proteins, particularly between smoke carbonyl groups and amino groups of proteins on the food surface. The most common traditional smoked foods are meats (e.g., dry-cured ham, bacon, German salami, speck, sausages), fish (e.g., salmon, mackerel, trout), cheeses (e.g., ricotta, Italian caciocavallo), vegetables (e.g., potato, leeks), cereals (e.g., wheat, barley), and ingredients used to make beverages, such as malt (e.g., smoked beer) and tea (e.g., lapsang souchong tea).

The treatment is based on exposure of foods to smoke emitted from the incomplete