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Geophysical Exploration Technology: Applications in Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs
Geophysical Exploration Technology: Applications in Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs
Geophysical Exploration Technology: Applications in Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs
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Geophysical Exploration Technology: Applications in Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

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Authored by one of the world’s hydrocarbon exploration experts, Geophysical Exploration Technology: Applications in Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs presents the latest technological advancements and cutting edge techniques in reservoir theory, research and exploration.

Stratigraphic and lithological reservoirs play a critical role in increasing the production from oil reserves and new hydrocarbon sources. Recent resource evaluations indicate that onshore stratigraphic and subtle reservoirs account for as much as 40% of the total remaining hydrocarbon sources globally. As a result, these reservoirs will be the most practical, potential and prevalent fields for long-lasting onshore exploration.

Intended as an aid in developing an understanding of the techniques of reservoir exploration, this book presents the latest and most practical methods and technology in oil and gas exploration. It can be used as a training book for lithological stratigraphic exploration and a reference for scientific and technological personnel in the oil and gas industry.

  • Authored by one of the world’s foremost experts in stratigraphic and lithological reservoir exploration who has more than 30 years of experience in research and instruction
  • Features more than 200 figures, illustrations, and working examples to aid the reader in retaining key concepts
  • Presents the latest technological developments in reservoir exploration techniques
  • Integrates theory and application, arming readers with a rigorous yet practical approach to hydrocarbon exploration in stratigraphic and lithological reservoirs
LanguageEnglish
Release dateFeb 6, 2014
ISBN9780124104747
Geophysical Exploration Technology: Applications in Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs
Author

Ming Li

Ming Li is a Professor of Engineering Mechanics at the Northwestern Polytechnical University since 2021. He received his Ph.D in Mechanical Engineering in 2018 at the National University of Ireland, Galway, followed by a research fellow at University of Nottingham (2019-2021) in United Kingdom. During his Ph.D, he studied at University of Limerick as a visiting scholar in Ireland (2017-2018). Prof. Ming’s research interests focus on the multi-scale modelling method of high temperature superalloys. He has developed a high temperature fatigue test method by using a miniature thin-plate specimen for a supperalloy at high temperature. The miniaturized test method developed has exhibited a clear possibility to produce comparable low cycle fatigue behavior and creep-fatigue behavior with those which are normally obtained by conventional standard specimen tests.

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    Geophysical Exploration Technology - Ming Li

    Geophysical Exploration Technology

    Applications in Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    Ming Li

    Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, Petrochina, China

    Yimin Zhao

    Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, Petrochina, China

    Table of Contents

    Cover image

    Title page

    Copyright

    About the Author

    Acknowledgments

    Preface

    Introduction

    Chapter 1. Introduction to Geophysical Exploration Technologies for Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    1.1 Review and Prospect for Exploration of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    1.2 Research Progress of Accumulation Theory of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    1.3 Exploration Status and Resource Potential of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    1.4 Exploration Methods and Technologies for Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    1.5 Four Main Exploration Domains of PetroChina Company Limited

    Chapter 2. Sequence Stratigraphic Research Technology

    2.1 Basic Concepts and Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy

    2.2 Sequence Order and Geological Significance

    2.3 Sequence Boundary Signatures

    2.4 Sequence Stratigraphic Research Program

    2.5 A Case Study: Lower Tertiary in Nanpu Sag

    Chapter 3. Seismic Coherence Technique

    3.1 The Coherence Concept

    3.2 Basic Principles of Coherence Calculation

    3.3 Technical Processes and Procedures of Coherence

    3.4 Practical Examples

    Chapter 4. Visualization and Spectral Decomposition

    4.1 Concepts and Principles of Visualization

    4.2 Visualization Techniques

    4.3 Full 3D Visual Interpretation

    4.4 Virtual Reality Technique

    4.5 Spectral Decomposition Technique

    4.6 Examples

    Chapter 5. Seismic Attribute Analysis

    5.1 Seismic Attribute Classification

    5.2 Methods and Analytical Methods of Seismic Attribute Extraction

    5.3 Key Issues of Seismic Attribute Analysis

    5.4 Development of Seismic Attribute Technique

    Chapter 6. Seismic Inversion Techniques

    6.1 Concepts of Seismic Inversion and Its Classification

    6.2 Basic Principles of Seismic Inversion and Application Conditions

    6.3 Comparing Different Seismic Inversion Methods

    6.4 Reservoir Characteristic Reconstruction Methods

    6.5 Examples

    Chapter 7. Prestack Seismic Inversion and Seismic Attribute Analysis

    7.1 Basic Concepts of Prestack Seismic Inversion and Seismic Attributes

    7.2 Basic Principles

    7.3 Processing and Interpretation Techniques

    7.4 Workflow and Key Steps of Seismic Inversion and Attribute Analysis

    7.5 Examples

    Chapter 8. Hydrocarbon Detection Technology

    8.1 Seismic Anomaly Characteristics of Oil-Bearing Reservoirs

    8.2 Prestack AVO Hydrocarbon Detection

    8.3 Pattern Recognition Technology

    8.4 Spectral Attenuation for Hydrocarbon Detection

    Chapter 9. Hydrocarbon Reservoir Logging Evaluation Methods and Technologies

    9.1 Oil and Gas Reservoir Evaluation, Technology, and Application

    9.2 Low-Resistivity Reservoir Evaluation

    9.3 Evaluating Thin Sandstone–Shale Interbedded Reservoirs

    9.4 Carbonate Hydrocarbon Reservoir Evaluation

    9.5 Evaluating Igneous Rock Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

    Chapter 10. Applicable Scope, Advantages, and Disadvantages of Major Software Packages

    10.1 Coherent Body, Frequency Decomposition, and 3D Visualization

    10.2 Seismic Attribute Analysis

    10.3 Seismic Inversion

    10.4 Prestack Seismic Inversion and Attribute Analysis

    10.5 Hydrocarbon Detection

    10.6 Oil and Gas Reservoir Logging Evaluation

    Chapter 11. Exploration Examples of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    11.1 Exploration Examples of Structural and Lithological Composite Reservoirs in the Southern Songliao Basin

    11.2 Petroleum Exploration of Carbonate Reservoirs in Lunnan Area, Tarim Basin

    11.3 Igneous Gas Reservoir Exploration Technology in Songliao Basin

    References

    Index

    Copyright

    Elsevier

    225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA 02451, USA

    The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK

    Copyright © 2014 Petroleum Industry Press. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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    Notice

    No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein

    Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Control Number: 2013046426

    A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

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    A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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    For information on all Elsevier publications visit our web site at store.elsevier.com

    Printed and bound in China

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    About the Author

    Ming Li is the director of the Tarim Basin Branch Institute of the Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, PetroChina. He joined the research institute in 1996, and for the past 17 years he has been active in petroleum geology, seismic inversion, seismic modeling, and reservoir prediction research. He has been instrumental in developing new techniques in the areas of lithological reservoir prediction and well location optimization. His research interests focus on interpretation of integrated geophysics. He has played a key role in the exploration and breakthrough discoveries of dense sandstone and carbonate natural gas reservoirs of Tarim Basin, and volcanic natural gas reservoirs in Eastern China. He was awarded a national scientific and technological progress first prize, was a six-time winner of a provincial-level prize, and has published more than 10 books and 30 papers as the first author or coauthor.

    Ming Li received his PhD degree in mathematical geology from the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences in 1994. After completing his degree, he became a visiting scholar at Stanford University and completed his postdoctoral research in tectonic geology in 1996. As a doctoral supervisor, he has supervised 24 graduate students. Li Ming is a member of the American Association of Petroleum Geology (AAPG) and the Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG). He is a committee member of the Petroleum Geology Professional Committee (CPS) and the Continental Dynamics Professional Committee (CGS). He is also a standing committee member of the Tectonic Geology and Geodynamics Professional Committee (GSC).

    Yimin Zhao is a senior engineer in RIPED. For the past 20 years, she has developed considerable expertise in the research and application of geophysical technologies. She is particularly skilled in the application of seismic attributes and seismic inversion. Yimin has played a key role in predicting the application scope of thin interbedded reservoirs and volcanic reservoirs in Songliao Basin by seismic inversion technology.

    Yimin Zhao graduated from China University of Petroleum as a geophysical exploration major in 1988. She received her M.S. degree in mineral prospecting and geological exploration in 1999, and her Ph.D. degree in 2009. She is also a fellow of the Beijing Petroleum Society.

    Acknowledgments

    The publication and distribution of Geophysical Exploration Technology should be attributed to the substantial support of the Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development (RIPED). I extend my sincere gratitude to our staff in related departments who gave their support and help. This book is the culmination of 10 years' work by the authors and their collaborators. Special thanks are given to Caineng Zhou, vice president of RIPED, who provided many valuable suggestions for the book's content, and offered help and support for its successful completion. Many research achievements in this book were accomplished through the cooperation of Zhou and his coworkers.

    Daqing Field, Tarim Field, and other oil fields in north China are summarized in this book. When the authors were working in these oil fields, we consulted with researchers there and benefited from a free exchange of scientific information and opinion. We state here our deep gratitude to all researchers. We are particularly grateful to Dr Youliang Feng, who shared his research experience in other fields with the authors, in particular in the area of geophysical research methods of sequence stratigraphy. When determining the geological meaning of seismic attribution, Dr Jifeng Yin provided the basic data and introduced the geologic aspects of the research area. In researching the effect and frequency division technology of 3D visualization, Professor Jun Li offered his own experience that greatly benefited the authors. When summarizing the characteristics and limitations of seismic inversion techniques, Dr Xiao Liu consulted many technical reports and documents to aid the authors in their classification. Dr Lianhua Hou assisted the authors in evaluating and troubleshooting various logging techniques.

    Finally, many thanks to Dr Xin Li, Ms. Yuwen Cai, Mr. Debo Ma, Mr. Feng Lan, and Mr. Han Tian for their contributions to the English translation draft.

    Preface

    The exploration of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs began from the 1950s. The proportion of the proven reserves in lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs to China's total reserves has increased year by year and especially in recent years, the proportion accounted for more than 60%. The lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs play an important role in domestic petroleum industry.

    Compared to conventional structural reservoirs, the accumulation conditions of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs are more complex and the corresponding exploration techniques need to be more advanced. So far, there is still not a book, which systematically introduces the geophysical techniques and methods for the exploration of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs. In this book, the authors summarized a series of geophysical exploration methods and technologies in specific conditions by using practical exploration experience over many years.

    The purpose of this book is to briefly introduce new geological analysis, geophysical methods and techniques, which are especially practical and useful in the lithological and stratigraphic exploration. And this textbook attempts to teach by application, using geological, geophysical, and logging techniques applied to different kinds of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs in China.

    This textbook is organized with an introduction of theory research progress, exploration techniques, and resource potential of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs. Next, special geophysical techniques are described, including sequence stratigraphy, coherence technique, visualization and frequency decomposition, seismic attribute analysis, seismic inversion, prestack seismic inversion and attribute analysis technique, hydrocarbon detection, and logging evaluation techniques. Then, the application range and the advantages and disadvantages of some mainstream software are described. Finally, specialty applications are described, including three different types of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, namely, the structural and lithological reservoirs in the southern Songliao Basin, the stratigraphic carbonate reservoirs in Lunnan Region, and the deep-buried volcanic gas reservoirs in Songliao basin.

    The authors expect this book to become a useful reference for readers including researchers, management staff, and students in petroleum exploration and development by carefully arranging the architecture, text, and graphics. If so, it will be of greatest comfort for the authors.

    Introduction

    Based on theories and exploration technologies of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, this book systematically summarized a series of geophysical exploration methods and techniques corresponding to different types of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs by analyzing more than 30 successful cases.

    From the applying aspect, this book also briefly introduced the main geophysical principles and methods related to the exploration of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, discussed optimal analyzing procedures and some key issues, and evaluated the applying conditions, the advantages and disadvantages of some mainstream software.

    Finally, in order to discuss different geophysical exploration methods used for the identifications of different types of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs in different geological conditions, we specially introduced three successful cases in detail, including a certain low-abundance structural and lithological reservoir in eastern China, a stratigraphic carbonate reservoir in western China, and a deep-buried volcanic gas reservoir in northern China.

    Chapter 1

    Introduction to Geophysical Exploration Technologies for Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    Abstract

    In China, oil and gas resources mainly accumulated in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic continental basins, and the proven reserves of oil and gas in continental basins account for three-quarters and nearly half of China's total reserves, respectively (Zhai, 1996). After more than half a century of exploration, a large number of structural reservoirs and some lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs were discovered in continental basins. With improved exploration methods, lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs will be the most realistic and promising fields for oil and gas exploration in China's mainland for many years into the future.

    With years of experience, Chinese explorationists summarized the four basic ideas and six specialized technologies of lithological and stratigraphic reservoir exploration. But some difficulties still remain; for example, we still didn't recognize the control factors on sand-body distribution and hydrocarbon enrichment. Sand-body description, reservoir prediction, and high productive fracturing techniques for low permeability reservoirs have not been integrated into a cohesive system for exploration and production. Therefore, it is still important to emphasize research on formation conditions, distribution rules, and the methods and techniques of exploration and production of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs.

    This book presents in simple terms the geophysical exploration technologies of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs; while proposing that on the basis of a high-resolution sequence stratigraphic framework, we can integrate geological analyses with geophysical techniques, explore the necessary conditions for hydrocarbon accumulation and favorable exploration targets, and discover the formation conditions and the distribution of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs.

    This book also provides some successful examples and geophysical methods in specific conditions for the readers who are interested in the exploration of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs.

    Keywords

    lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs; geophysical technologies; exploration status; research progress

    Chapter Outline

    1.1. Review and Prospect for Exploration of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    1.2. Research Progress of Accumulation Theory of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    1.2.1. Theory Research Progress in Foreign Countries

    1.2.2. Theory Research Progress in China

    1.3. Exploration Status and Resource Potential of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    1.4. Exploration Methods and Technologies for Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    1.4.1. Research Status of Two Exploration Technologies in Foreign Countries

    1.4.2. Research Status of Two Exploration Technologies in China

    1.5. Four Main Exploration Domains of PetroChina Company Limited

    1.5.1. Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    1.5.2. Deep Areas of a Superimposed Basin

    1.5.3. Foreland Basins

    1.5.4. Expansion of an Old Oil Field

    In this chapter, we summarize a series of geophysical exploration technologies using our experience in hydrocarbon accumulation analysis and the distribution laws of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs. These technologies have been proved to be effective for oil and gas production.

    1.1. Review and Prospect for Exploration of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    In China, oil and gas resources mainly accumulated in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic continental basins, and the proven reserves of oil and gas in continental basins account for three-quarters and nearly half of China's total reserves, respectively (Zhai, 1996). Almost 95% of the proven oil reserves in China are concentrated in continental basins (Dai, 2000). After more than half a century of exploration, a large number of structural reservoirs and some lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs were discovered in continental basins. Although the exploration efforts of many Mesozoic and Cenozoic basins has been relatively high, especially for eastern basins, there is still a great potential for the exploration of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs. In order to promote petroleum exploration development, we must develop new technologies and methods, and strengthen the basic research theories targeting lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, using petroleum geological characteristics of continental basins (Jia, 2003).

    With improved exploration methods, lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs have been the targets of exploration in China. In the 1950s, some shallow lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs were discovered in the northwestern part of Junggar Basin by foreign explorationists (Hu et al., 1986). In the 1960s and 1970s, with the eastward shift of China's exploration focus, China found many lithological and stratigraphic oil and gas fields such as Renqiu, Gaosheng, and Huanxiling in Bohai Bay Basin, while a number of large-scale structural reservoirs were found in Songliao Basin and Bohai Bay Basin (Zhai et al., 1996; Qiu et al., 1999). In the 1980s, with wide applications of multifold methods, China found some glutenite lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs with obvious foreset structural features and stratigraphic screened reservoirs with regional unconformity, using seismic facies, reservoir prediction, depositional systems, and accumulation conditions parameters (Zhang, 1988). In the 1990s, the introduction of three-dimensional (3D) seismic acquisition and sequence stratigraphy has greatly improved the recognition accuracy of oil-bearing stratigraphic traps and reservoir prediction. Twelve 100-million-ton lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, such as Chaoyanggou, Yushulin, Zhaozhou, Ansai, Jing'an, and Hudson, were discovered in Songliao, Ordos, Junggar, and Tarim basins. In recent years, the proven reserves in lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs accounted for 50% of China's total reserves (Figure 1.1), and the possible reserves were more than 60% in 2007.

    FIGURE 1.1   Histogram of proven reserves of PetroChina from 2000 to 2007.

    According to China's continental oil and gas exploration requirement, Jia Cengzao, the chief geologist of PetroChina Company Limited, emphasized the great potential for exploration of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, stating: For many years into the future, lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs will be the most realistic and promising fields for oil and gas exploration in China's mainland (Jia, 2003). He guided researchers to strive for technological breakthroughs in order to promote exploration and research on lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs. In June 2002, Jia inspected the exploration progress of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs in Erlian Basin. In the Chinese Exploration Technology Forum, which was held in March 2003, he clearly stated: Lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs in hydrocarbon-rich depressions have great potential and they will be the focus for incremental reserves increases. In June 2003, he set up the scientific and technological project named The Formation Theory and Exploration Practice of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs and organized its theoretical and technical exploration research. In the exploration technology exchange meeting, which was held in Hangzhou in September 2003, Jia emphasized that it was necessary for PetroChina Company Limited to accelerate the exploration of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs in order to maintain our steady reserves growth and also expounded on the four basic ideas and six specialized technologies of lithological and stratigraphic reservoir exploration. Under his guidance and deployment, the relevant departments of PetroChina Company Limited actively pursued new exploration ideas for lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, advanced their progress, and strengthened the basic theoretical studies. But some difficulties still remain; for example, we still did not recognize the control factors on sand-body distribution and hydrocarbon enrichment. Sand-body description, reservoir prediction, and highly productive fracturing techniques for low-permeability reservoirs have not been integrated into a cohesive system for exploration and production. The guidelines for structural exploration have been adequate, but there are still no guidelines for the exploration of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, especially for ascertaining and mapping a secondary exploration region. Therefore, it is vital to research this topic.

    It is important to emphasize research on formation conditions, distribution rules, and the methods and techniques of exploration and production of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs. Establishing a series of comprehensive exploration theories, methods, and technologies will promote our nation's stratigraphic reservoir exploration. Domestic and international studies have shown that it is vital to integrate sequence stratigraphy with seismic interpretation techniques, especially with seismic reservoir inversion.

    This book presents in simple terms the geophysical exploration technologies of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, while proposing that on the basis of a high-resolution sequence stratigraphic framework we can integrate geological analyses with geophysical techniques, explore the necessary conditions for hydrocarbon accumulation and favorable exploration targets, and discover the formation conditions and the distribution of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs.

    This book also provides some successful examples and geophysical methods of specific conditions for readers who are interested in the exploration of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs.

    1.2. Research Progress of Accumulation Theory of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    The concept of the lithological and stratigraphic reservoir has been defined for many years, and its characteristics and classification has also been updated gradually. In the past, explorationists discovered some stratigraphic reservoirs by chance that were unrelated to tectonics, in conjunction with the ideas or methods of structural reservoir exploration. In recent years, geophysicists discovered much more large-scale lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs and distinguished them from structural reservoirs, and they also developed theories and exploration methods that were more suitable for lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs.

    1.2.1. Theory Research Progress in Foreign Countries

    From the beginning of the 1960s, because of the sharp decline in the reserves–production ratio, some countries in North America and Western Europe were actively searching for oil in subtle traps. Their main objective was to find subtle traps that were primarily lithological and stratigraphic traps in mature basins in order to increase oil and gas production.

    In 1880, Carl proposed the vague term subtle reservoir for the stratigraphic reservoir. In 1934, Wilson proposed the nonstructural trap to be the reservoir that was formed due to changes in porosity. A.I. Levorsen (1936) proposed the concept of stratigraphic traps and published a paper entitled Obscure and Subtle Traps. In 1972, stratigraphic traps, unconformity traps, and paleotopographic traps were classified as subtle reservoirs by Halbouty. In the past 30  years, with the expansion of petroleum exploration all over the world, subtle reservoir was redefined as the type of oil and gas reservoir that was difficult to identify and describe with the existing exploration methods and technical knowledge. The subtle reservoir included several reservoir types, such as the stratigraphic and lithologic reservoirs, complex fault block reservoirs, and low-amplitude anticline reservoirs.

    Because the differences between a lithological and stratigraphic reservoir and any other subtle reservoir include the geological background trap mechanism, we must distinguish it from other subtle reservoirs. At present, the commonly used definition of lithological and stratigraphic traps is that they are traps that have apparently lack four directional closures, and are difficult to identify using the exploration strategy of structural traps. The definition also includes the trap that relates to structures but is formed in an unexpected location (such as the deep flank of a structure). Furthermore, it cannot be simply defined by the structural closure. Lithological and stratigraphic traps include lithological traps, stratigraphic traps, and lithological and stratigraphic combination traps.

    Today, according to the main formation mechanisms, lithological and stratigraphic traps are subdivided into lateral facies change traps, lateral deposited pinch-out traps, overlap subcrop traps, river- or valley-filled traps, diagenetic traps, fractured traps, and hydrodynamic traps. Specifically, they are subdivided into 15 types: lateral deposition pinch-out traps, lateral facies change traps, channel-filled traps, regional subcrop traps, valley-filled traps, onlap traps on the unconformity of a tectonic flank, cementation traps, onlap traps on the regional unconformity traps, fractured traps, edge truncation traps, dolomite or dissolution traps, paleostructural subcrop traps, incised valley-filled traps, hydrodynamic traps, and asphalt plugging traps (Figure 1.2).

    The most common types of traps include lateral deposition pinch-out traps, lateral facies change traps, channel-filled traps, and regional subcrop traps. These four kinds of traps account for approximately 61% of the total number of traps. However, the most common traps may not contain the largest amount of reserves. A single trap that contains a relatively large amount of reserves may be the onlap trap formed by a structural flanking unconformity, the onlap trap formed by a regional unconformity, the asphalt plugging trap, or the deep basin gas trap.

    FIGURE 1.2   Types of lithological and stratigraphic traps and proven reserves (2009).

    The existing data show that the structural dip of most lithological and stratigraphic traps is less than 2°, and the proportion of these traps with such a small structural dip may account for 60% or more of the total number of traps. However, because lithological and stratigraphic traps often have a very wide aerial extent but very thin effective production layers, these types of traps lack a natural energy drive. As a result, explorationists must apply technologies such as secondary oil recovery or enhanced oil recovery for the production of more than 70% of lithological and stratigraphic traps. In America, of the 320 known lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, 63.44% are sandstone reservoirs and 26.25% are carbonate reservoirs. In the former Soviet Union, of the 1177 traps, sandstone reservoirs account for 85% and 15% are carbonate reservoirs. In addition, 174 known lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs produce from Ordovician to Tertiary intervals. However, most of the reservoirs were formed in the Cretaceous, Tertiary, Carboniferous, and Permian, accounting for 80% of the total number. The statistics also showed that the number of lithological and stratigraphic traps found in foreland basins, cratonic basins, passive continental margin basins, and rift basins account for nearly 85% of the total number, with 55% occurring in foreland basins.

    1.2.2. Theory Research Progress in China

    Since the late 1970s, Chinese researchers have become gradually aware of the importance of the subtle reservoirs, and many related papers and monographs have been published. These include Exploration of the Obscure and Subtle Traps in China published by Petroleum Geology & Oil Field Development in Daqing (1984), Nonstructural Hydrocarbon Reservoirs (Hu et al., 1986), Obscure and Subtle Traps in China (Pan et al., 1998), Exploration of the Obscure and Subtle Reservoirs in Bohai Bay (Gao et al., 2001), and High Precision Sequence Stratigraphy in Continental Basins—The Exploration Basis, Methods and Practice of Obscure and Subtle Traps (Cai et al., 2003). Based on our understanding of foreign counterparts, domestic scholars defined the concept and classification of subtle traps and described the characteristics and distribution of subtle reservoirs in China. Because of the unique reservoir distribution in China, most of our research has concentrated on subtle traps that are distributed in the petroliferous basins in eastern China.

    Many scholars have postulated their theories about lithological and stratigraphic traps and related topics. In the article entitled Humble Opinions about Subtle Hydrocarbon Traps (Zhu, 1984), the author pointed out that the concept of Yingbiquanbi (or yingbiyouqicang) in Chinese should equate to the concept of obscure and subtle traps in English, which includes certain types of structural traps, and Dicengquanbi, should equate to stratigraphic traps in English. But there is no equivalent in English that equates to Yanxingquanbi in Chinese. Hu (1984) expounded on the characteristics and geological background, as well as the distribution laws of lithological and stratigraphic traps in his paper entitled The Accumulation Area and Exploration Programs of Lithological and Stratigraphic Traps in Continental Basins, Eastern China. He also defined nonstructural traps as the lithological and stratigraphic traps that are distinct from structural traps in his book entitled The Nonstructural Reservoirs (1986). In active exploration and production, the term subtle reservoir is always comingled with the terms nonstructural reservoirs and lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs. There is confusion and ambiguity when discussing subtle reservoirs, because at times this term is used to refer to all nonstructural traps, or to include a structural trap that is difficult to distinguish with geophysical techniques. In order to avoid this confusion, Jia (2003) recommended that the term "Yinbiquanbi be dropped, and instead proposed the term lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs" to standardize usage.

    Over the past few decades, domestic experts and scholars studied the formation conditions and the distribution of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs from different points of view. We discuss these in the following sections.

    1.2.2.1. Trap Formation

    Hu et al., (1986) summarized the essential elements of lithological and stratigraphic traps as three lines (the lithological pinch-out line, the stratigraphic overlap line, and the structural contour) and three surfaces (the unconformity surface, the roof–floor surfaces, and the fault plane), and classified nonstructural traps in detail (Table 1.1). Lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs are found in areas near the lithological pinch-out zones, facies change zones, stratigraphic overlap zones, and unconformity surfaces.

    TABLE 1.1

    Classification of Nonstructural Reservoirs (Hu, 1986)

    1.2.2.2. Sequence Stratigraphy

    After recognizing the validity and importance of sequence stratigraphy for finding lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, explorers consistently used the source–reservoir–cap assemblage within the sequence stratigraphic framework to predict favorable zones. Stratigraphic reservoirs are always discovered in the vicinity of sequence boundaries. Updip pinch-out lithological reservoirs and lenticular body lithological reservoirs are always formed in the vicinity of the maximum flooding surface. At the lower part of the slope of a rift lacustrine basin, which has a slope structure similar to a passive continental margin, various types of fan bodies form during the stage called the lowstand systems tract; these are favorable areas where lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs are formed.

    1.2.2.3. Basin Structure

    It is easy to illustrate the development of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs in rift basins. The structural characteristics are explicit at the steep slope, gentle slope, and deep area of a rift basin. During actual exploration, there is a theory called ramp–control–sand. The ramp or the slope-break zone, which plays an important role in controlling deposition, refers to the steep slope zone or the slope-break zone that was influenced by terrain mutations or faults. Because of shifting shorelines, multiple phases of lithological pinch-out and stratigraphic overlap are formed in the vicinity of a slope-break zone. Furthermore, because a slope-break zone is proximal to a hydrocarbon generation center, lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs are always formed in this zone. The deep area of a rift basin is the hydrocarbon generation center and the sandstone lens in it can be considered a lithological reservoir.

    1.2.2.4. Depositional Systems, Sedimentary Facies Belts, and Lithofacies

    The characteristics of depositional systems, facies belts, and lateral changes in deposition make delta systems the most favorable zones for the development of stratigraphic reservoirs in a lake basin. The underwater distributary channels and mouth bars in the delta front are the sweet spots of stratigraphic reservoirs. Some experts believe that the migration conditions (fluid potential) and accommodation conditions (lithofacies) are the main factors controlling the formation of a reservoir and proposed the theory called the effect of facies and fluid potential on the formation of a reservoir (Cai, 2003). The fluid potential and sedimentary facies have a negative correlation. The higher the fluid potential, the lower the low limit of porosity. The relationship between the potential size and sedimentary facies decide the resource potential of a reservoir. In a sealed system with abnormal pressure, lithological reservoirs with corresponding high fluid potential are formed in the inner part of the sealed system, while the normal stratum or lithological reservoirs are formed in the outer part.

    1.2.2.5. Basin Formation

    In the article entitled Meaning and Significance of the Hydrocarbon-Rich Depression Theory, Zhao (2004) proposed that a basin was formed during multiple cycles because of multiple tectonic episodes. Water level changes in a lake create sand bodies that not only interlace with but also contact the source rocks, with potentially large surface areas of contact. All sand reservoirs have the potential for hydrocarbon accumulation. The aerial extent of oil-bearing deposits is always beyond the scale of secondary structural zones and includes the ramp area and the deep area of a rift basin. Therefore, stratigraphic reservoirs could form at various parts of a basin during various periods of basin development.

    1.2.2.6. Basin Types

    In the article entitled The Resource Potential and Exploration Techniques of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs in China (Jia, 2004), Jia suggested that the main petroliferous basins located in China's major continental oil regions had complex tectonic evolution histories, and the formation conditions and distribution characteristics of stratigraphic reservoirs vary considerably based on in-depth studies. By incorporating paleoclimate changes, types of sand bodies, and hydrocarbon accumulation backgrounds, he analyzed the formation and distribution of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs located in different types of basins (Table 1.2). China has four types of oil-bearing basins, including (1) continental sag basins (e.g. the Songliao Basin), (2) continental rift basins (e.g. the Bohai Bay Basin and the Erlian Basin), (3) continental foreland basins (e.g. the Kuqa Basin and the Zhunan Basin), and (4) Paleozoic marine basins (e.g. the Tarim Basin and Sichuan Basin). Different types of basins have different formation and evolutionary histories, tectonics, paleoclimate backgrounds, and space configurations and interaction characteristics between the deposition areas and the source areas. As a result, each basin has its own stratigraphic sequences, sand-body distributions, and favorable traps, which are the factors that control the classification of a stratigraphic reservoir.

    1.3. Exploration Status and Resource Potential of Lithological and Stratigraphic Reservoirs

    A large number of foreign lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs have been discovered since the 1950s (Figure 1.3), primarily in continental basins. Seismic technologies and marine engineering developed rapidly from the 1990s to the present, and offshore basins became the main areas of exploration focus. In Brazil, the United States, Venezuela, and other countries, the exploration of sand-body lithological reservoirs in deep-sea fans achieved great breakthroughs with sequence stratigraphy and 3D seismic exploration technologies. The proportion of the discovered lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs to large oil and gas fields gradually increased. From 1940 to 1969, 278 oil and gas fields were discovered and the number of stratigraphic traps was only 24, accounting for 8.6%. From 1970 to 1999, 427 oil fields were discovered, but only 93 were stratigraphic traps, accounting for 21.7%. The reserves from lithological and stratigraphic traps discovered in the world are estimated to be 128 million barrels, but more than 75% of them are in North America. This situation relates to the long exploration history and special geological conditions found in North America.

    FIGURE 1.3   Frequency of stratigraphic reservoirs discovered in foreign countries.

    TABLE 1.2

    The Formation and Distribution Characteristics of Stratigraphic Reservoirs in China (Jia, 2003)

    At present, most lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs are found in mature or overmature exploration areas. In the relatively low-level exploration areas, there is huge resource potential and exploration prospect for lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs. Of the 166 stratigraphic traps discovered worldwide, the number found by chance (including exploration for deep targets or based on incorrect geological models) accounts for 17% of the total. The remaining bases of stratigraphic trap discovery are as follows:

    • 3%: Reevaluating logging data

    • 7%: Shallow or deep testing of existing oil fields

    • 4%: Drilling wildcat wells

    • 4%: Expanding edge wells

    • 6%: Analogous drilling of oil fields

    • 8%: Using stratigraphic trap pattern

    • 8%: Using surface geology and oil seeps

    • 4%: Using surface geology, seismic, gravity, and magnetics

    • 6%: Borehole geology

    • 7%: Using seismic and underground geological characteristics

    • 22%: Using seismic alone

    • 4%: Using seismic, gravity, and magnetic.

    We summarize the four main influencing factors of discovery as (1) accidental discovery, (2) unconventional methods, (3) lithological and stratigraphic trap models, and (4) seismic abnormality, and these factors account for 21%, 12%, 14%, and 33%, respectively. Lithological and stratigraphic traps found by other geologic analyses and logging data account for 20%. The above statistics shows that the proportion of lithological and stratigraphic traps found on the basis of theories and technologies specific to lithological and stratigraphic traps is not very high. It is possible that a large number of lithological and stratigraphic traps in old oil fields or new oil fields have not been discovered because of a lack of comprehensive understanding.

    Over the past decade, in Songliao, Erlian, Ordos, Tarim, Junggar, and other basins, we have discovered a number of 100-million-ton scale and 50-million-ton scale lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs. These reservoirs have significantly increased our reserves and production. We have the ability to explore structural reservoirs and lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs, and the production of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs is major in some basins. Lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs are the main targets of exploration. The proven reserves of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs accounted for 65% of the total proven reserves of PetroChina in 2007 (Figure 1.1).

    The old oil fields in eastern China constitute our major domestic oil production areas, and their lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs were explored relatively early. Explorationists discovered a great number of large-scale lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs and summarized a series of effective methods for exploration. We found a large-scale lithological reservoir in the Fuyang Formation, Sanzhao, northern Daqing oil field. In the Sanzhao depression, we successively discovered seven large oil fields with more than 100 million tons of reserves. In the Qijia-Gulong depression, we found four oil fields with 100 million tons of reserves; these are the Qijianan Longhupao, Puxi, Xinzhao Yingtuo, and Daqingzijing oil fields. Two lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs with 100  million  tons of reserves were discovered in the Jilin oil field, Songliao Basin.

    In Bohai Bay Basin, we concentrated on various fans in the Shahejie Formation depressions in the Shengli oil field and found several oil fields with 100  million  tons of reserves. We also made great progress in the exploration of buried hill reservoirs, sand-body reservoirs, and volcanic reservoirs in Liaohe oil field. In Huabei oil field, explorationists made specialized workflows for stratigraphic reservoirs based on their new understanding of old reservoirs.

    Using delta accumulation theories, Ansai oil field, with more than 100  million  tons of reserves, was discovered in Ordos Basin in 1984, and Jingbian oil field which was a major paleogeomorphology lithological gas field, was discovered in 1989. In recent years, we found Suijing and Xifeng oil fields with 100  million  tons of reserves in the eastern and northern parts of Shanxi Province. The discovery of Sulige, Wushenqi, and Mizhi gas fields expanded the ranges of Jingbian and Yulin gas fields. Some shallow gas reservoirs were found in Shenmu, east Ordos Basin.

    We have already stressed the importance of exploration on lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs in western Tarim Basin. Stratigraphic reservoirs are mainly distributed in the Ordovician, Carboniferous, and Silurian formations. In western Tarim Basin, Carboniferous Donghe sandstone formations with great exploration potential were deposited in different periods. There are many onlap pinch-out lines and phase transition lines. In Hudson oil field, there are a number of lithological and stratigraphic traps such as Quema-1, Caonan-1, and Hade-11, with reserves at about 250  million  tons. The possible reserves of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs in Tarim Basin are approximately 10  million  tons.

    There is great exploration potential for lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs in the exploration districts of China National Petroleum Company (CNPC). According to the reserves estimates from Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development (RIPED), China's continental recoverable reserves are approximately 14–16  billion  tons, including 4  billion  tons produced. The remaining recoverable reserves are 6.9–11.4  billion  tons and the proven reserves are approximately 2  billion  tons. The recoverable reserves of CNPC are about 5.5–9.3  billion  tons, and the recoverable reserves of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs are 2.4–4  billion  tons. The exploration of lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs has been the most realistic and promising. At present, lithological and stratigraphic reservoirs are our primary objects of exploration in the oil fields of east China, and they will be the focus of oil and gas exploration in China's mainland for the foreseeable future

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