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Stress, Strain, and Structural Dynamics: An Interactive Handbook of Formulas, Solutions, and MATLAB Toolboxes
Stress, Strain, and Structural Dynamics: An Interactive Handbook of Formulas, Solutions, and MATLAB Toolboxes
Stress, Strain, and Structural Dynamics: An Interactive Handbook of Formulas, Solutions, and MATLAB Toolboxes
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Stress, Strain, and Structural Dynamics: An Interactive Handbook of Formulas, Solutions, and MATLAB Toolboxes

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Stress, Strain, and Structural Dynamics is a comprehensive and definitive reference to statics and dynamics of solids and structures, including mechanics of materials, structural mechanics, elasticity, rigid-body dynamics, vibrations, structural dynamics, and structural controls. This text integrates the development of fundamental theories, formulas and mathematical models with user-friendly interactive computer programs, written in the powerful and popular MATLAB. This unique merger of technical referencing and interactive computing allows instant solution of a variety of engineering problems, and in-depth exploration of the physics of deformation, stress and motion by analysis, simulation, graphics, and animation. This book is ideal for both professionals and students dealing with aerospace, mechanical, and civil engineering, as well as naval architecture, biomechanics, robotics, and mechtronics. For engineers and specialists, the book is a valuable resource and handy design tool in research and development. For engineering students at both undergraduate and graduate levels, the book serves as a useful study guide and powerful learning aid in many courses. And for instructors, the book offers an easy and efficient approach to curriculum development and teaching innovation.
  • Combines knowledge of solid mechanics--including both statics and dynamics, with relevant mathematical physics and offers a viable solution scheme.
  • Will help the reader better integrate and understand the physical principles of classical mechanics, the applied mathematics of solid mechanics, and computer methods.
  • The Matlab programs will allow professional engineers to develop a wider range of complex engineering analytical problems, using closed-solution methods to test against numerical and other open-ended methods.
  • Allows for solution of higher order problems at earlier engineering level than traditional textbook approaches.
LanguageEnglish
Release dateApr 7, 2005
ISBN9780080541877
Stress, Strain, and Structural Dynamics: An Interactive Handbook of Formulas, Solutions, and MATLAB Toolboxes
Author

Bingen Yang

Professor of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Southern California, USA. With 20 years of research experience, he has published approximately 150 journal and conference papers in the areas of solid mechanics, vibrations, structural dynamics, and controls. His current research interests include modelling, analysis, and deployment control of inflatable space structures, servo control of flexible positioning systems, and development of intelligent biomedical devices via smart materials and micro-electro-mechanical systems. A fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Dr. Yang received his Ph.D. in mechanical engineering from the University of Southern California at Berkeley.

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    Stress, Strain, and Structural Dynamics - Bingen Yang

    completed.

    1

    Introduction

    Inside

    • The Making of This Book

    • How to Use This Book

    1.1 The Making of This Book

    Computing is essentially important in both engineering education and engineering practice. The use of mathematical software packages can greatly enhance the learning of various topics in science and technology, and surely help increase the efficiency and accuracy of engineering designs. The recent technological advancements in computers, software, and telecommunications make it possible for individuals to enjoy an interactive and mobile computing environment in their study and work.

    Taking advantage of such a fast-changing environment, this book is intended to provide a new type of reference to statics and dynamics of solids and structures, with unique interactive computing capabilities. The purpose, approach, scope, and features of this writing are described under the following headlines.

    Who Will Find the Book Useful

    This book is ideal for both professionals and students dealing with aerospace, mechanical, and civil engineering, as well as naval architecture, biomechanics, robotics, and mechtronics. For engineers and specialists, the book is a valuable resource and handy design tool in research and development. For engineering students at both undergraduate and graduate levels, the book serves as a useful study guide and powerful learning aid in many courses. And for instructors, the book offers an easy and efficient approach to curriculum development and teaching innovation.

    Uniqueness

    This book differs from standard handbooks in that it integrates the development of formulas, fundamental theories, mathematical models, and solution methods with user-friendly interactive computer programs. Unlike the commonly adopted approach of finish-the-book-first-and-add-software-later, the text-software integration is harmonically fabricated in the book writing from scratch. This unique merger of technical referencing and interactive computing allows instant solution of a variety of engineering problems and in-depth exploration of the physics of deformation, stress, and motion by analysis, simulation, graphics, and animation.

    Interactive Computing with MATLAB

    The computer programs for the book are written in the powerful and popular MATLAB, which is a premier software package that provides an interactive environment for technical computation. Different from many books that teach people how to use MATLAB in engineering analysis, this book shows how to obtain instant engineering solutions by hundreds of preprogrammed MATLAB functions from a CD-ROM that is attached to the book. These functions permit easy generation of data, figures, animation, and even analytical expressions, and produce results that are equivalent to the contents covered in pages of a conventional handbook and beyond.

    Motive for Writing

    This writing is motivated by the following two needs in engineering education and technical referencing.

    Need for Interactive Computing Capabilities in Engineering Education

    The solution of a problem in an undergraduate engineering course usually requires knowledge in the following four areas:

    • The background material of the problem in consideration, such as strength of materials, vibrations, and structural dynamics;

    • Mathematical physics, including differential equations, linear algebra, and matrix theory;

    • Solution algorithms, which can be either analytical or numerical; and

    • Computer coding in programming languages like C, Fortran, and MATLAB.

    While computer coding is normally introduced in the freshman year, adequate knowledge in mathematical physics and solution algorithms is not available until the senior year or later. This lack of mathematical skills often limits undergraduate teaching to a few classroom problems. Of course, commercial computer programs may be used for solution of complicated problems. The usage of those codes, however, still requires a background in mathematical physics and numerical algorithms.

    The current book fills this gap by offering adequate computing capabilities to many engineering courses. With this book, an undergraduate student in earlier years can solve various engineering problems without worrying about numerical algorithms. This allows the student to focus on important aspects of fundamental principles in engineering science and to explore the physical insight of practical problems. Moreover, with the interactive computing capabilities provided by this book, more advanced topics can be introduced to adapt an undergraduate or graduate curriculum to today’s environment of emerging technologies.

    Need for Interactive Computing Capabilities in Technical Referencing

    A standard reference collects formulas and tables that normally cover a number of simple cases. Although general-purpose computer codes are available, they usually only deliver numerical results and are not integrated with many analytical formulas given in a standard reference. Quite often, an engineer or specialist would like to get a quick solution for verifying a design concept or a research idea. In this case, a reference with attached computer programs, which yield numerical or analytical solutions according to user-selected parameters, boundary conditions, and loads, would definitely be desirable.

    This book provides such needed interactive computing capabilities to technical referencing. With hundreds of preprogrammed MATLAB functions, numerical and analytical solutions of various engineering problems can be easily obtained. Besides facilitating quick concept proof in design and research, these solutions can serve as a benchmark for verification of numerical algorithms and computer codes developed by the user.

    Scope

    This book covers basic topics regarding solids and structures, including strength of materials, structural mechanics, elasticity, particle and rigid-body dynamics, vibrations, structural dynamics, and structural controls. As indicated by the table of contents, these topics are presented in five parts with a total of 15 chapters. Each chapter deals with a type of problem or a class of systems encountered in engineering. Each chapter is a self-contained package of subject review, fundamental theories, formulas, and a set (toolbox) of MATLAB functions for numerical and analytical solutions.

    For efficient utility of this book, no attempt has been made to include every topic in such a wide range of subjects. Instead, the following three criteria have been applied in selecting the book materials:

    (a) The problem in consideration is fundamentally important to engineering education and engineering practice. Examples include static analysis of Euler-Bernoulli beams (Chapter 2), stress and deformation of elastic bodies (Chapters 5 and 15), and rigid-body dynamics (Chapter 9).

    (b) The problem in consideration is representative of a wide class of engineering applications. Examples include columns (Chapter 4), trusses (Chapter 7), frames (Chapter 8), and multispan beam structures (Chapters 6 and 14).

    (c) The problem in consideration requires substantial analytical and numerical efforts for better understanding of its physics. Examples include vibration of multiple-degree-of-freedom systems (Chapter 11), dynamics and control of Euler-Bernoulli beams (Chapter 12), and vibration of plates (Chapter 16).

    Special Features

    Besides its unique interactive computing capabilities, this book has several special features, some of which are not available in the existing references.

    New Formulas and Solutions

    This book contains many new formulas and analytical solutions. Examples include

    • Analytical expressions of static response of beams subject to general external loads and arbitrary boundary disturbances;

    • Exact static deflections and stresses of flexible frames under arbitrary external loads and support settlement;

    • Influence lines of statically indeterminate multispan beam structures;

    • Exact vibration solutions of one-degree-of-freedom systems subject to general forcing functions;

    • Exact expressions of normalized mode shapes (eigenfunctions) of beams, bars, shafts, and strings, under arbitrary boundary conditions;

    • Eigenfrequency loci of constrained beam structures;

    • Control system formulation and design for beams with feedback controllers; and

    • Exact free vibration solutions of plates with various boundary conditions.

    What makes these new results more useful is that they can be obtained easily through use of the attached MATLAB toolboxes.

    Exact Solution via the Distributed Transfer Function Method

    This book presents exact static and dynamic responses of beams, bars, shafts, columns, and frames, which are determined by the Distributed Transfer Function Method (DTFM). The DTFM is a closed-form analytical solution technique for modeling, analysis, and control of flexible structures. The DTFM is flexible in dealing with different geometric configurations and boundary conditions, and convenient in computer coding. The DTFM is introduced in Appendix C and its application to specific problems is given in related chapters.

    Instant Animation of Motion and Vibration

    The MATLAB toolboxes of the book have functions for animating the modes of vibration and transient response of beams, bars, shafts, constrained and combined beam structures, and plates, the motion of rigid bodies in two and three dimensions, and the response of lumped parameter systems and flexible beams under feedback control. This animation functionality, which takes advantage of the rich resources of MATLAB, helps better understand the physics of motion and vibration and makes learning of difficult subjects a fun experience.

    Integrated System Modeling and Controller Design

    Feedback control has wide applications in machines and structures. This important topic is addressed in the current book, for lumped dynamic systems (Chapter 11) and flexible beams (Chapter 12). For these systems, the book presents major steps in control system design, including system modeling, dynamic analysis, control system formulation, controller design and numerical simulation, and provides MATLAB functions for each of the steps. This integration of modeling, analysis, design, and simulation for feedback control of machines and structures is not available in any other reference on structural dynamics.

    1.2 How to Use This Book

    Chapters 2 to 16 cover topics in strength of materials, structural mechanics, elasticity, particle and rigid-body dynamics, vibrations, structural dynamics, and structural controls. Each of the chapters has the following parts:

    • Getting started

    • Fundamental principles, formulas, and solutions

    • MATLAB functions

    • Examples

    • Quick Solution Guide

    • References

    Each chapter has a toolbox of MATLAB functions contained in the attached CD-ROM. In addition, Appendices A to E will be useful for engineering design and analyses.

    Some key points in using this book are given below.

    Getting Started

    To start, find the right chapter from the Contents for the problem or system in consideration, then go to the first section of the chapter, titled Getting Started. This section tells what the chapter is about, how to install the MATLAB Toolbox, how to use the Toolbox through a tutorial example (in most chapters), and what to do next.

    Fundamental Principles

    The fundamental principles of each subject covered are briefly reviewed. Some derivations of theories and mathematical models are provided. For detailed information on these basic issues, a list of references is given at the end of each chapter.

    Formulas and Solutions

    Formulas and solutions in a few special cases can be directly found from the text of a chapter. Formulas and solutions in general cases of geometric configurations, boundary conditions, and loadings can be obtained through use of the MATLAB toolbox for the chapter. This requires computing and programming with MATLAB.

    MATLAB

    MATLAB is a software product of The Math Works, Inc., headquartered in Natick, Massachusetts. MATLAB is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. To obtain MATLAB, visit the company’s Web site http://www.mathworks.com/. A quick tutorial and brief summary of computing and programming with MATLAB is given in Appendix B of this book, which is useful for both beginners and advanced users.

    MATLAB Functions in CD-ROM

    Attached to this book is a CD-ROM with hundreds of preprogrammed MATLAB functions. These functions form 15 toolboxes, one for each of Chapters 2 to 16. The license agreement and limited warranty about the software package is given at the end of the book. For possible updated versions of the MATLAB toolboxes contained in the CD-ROM, check the publisher’s Web site.

    Windows

    Windows are used to summarize the purpose and utility of the MATLAB functions from the attached CD-ROM. The windows are distributed in the text flow so that they are naturally related to the formulas and solutions presented.

    Examples

    The windows are normally followed by step-by-step examples demonstrating how the MATLAB functions can be used in analysis, simulation, graphics, and animation. Furthermore, each toolbox has a function RunEx, which, when launched, displays all the numerical examples contained in the chapter.

    Quick Solution Guide

    Each chapter has a section titled Quick Solution Guide. This section briefly describes the problem or system in consideration, lists the MATLAB functions from the toolbox with window or section numbers for easy reference, and outlines the solution procedure in the MATLAB-based computation. This section is especially convenient to those who are familiar with the material covered in the chapter and would like to engage in technical computation directly.

    References

    At the end of each chapter is a list of references for further reading. These references are mostly textbooks and monographs.

    Unit Conversion

    In all the examples, quantities are given in either the standard international system (SI) of units or nondimensional units. For conversion between SI system and the U.S. customary system, refer to Appendix D.

    Mathematical Formulas

    For convenience in engineering analyses, this book collects commonly used mathematical formulas in algebra, trigonometry, analytical geometry, calculus, vector analysis, matrix theory, complex analysis, differential equations, and Laplace transforms; see Appendix A.

    Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

    For convenience in engineering designs, the mechanical properties of selected engineering materials are given in Appendix E.

    Comments and Technical Questions

    For comments on this book and technical questions about the attached MATLAB toolboxes, please contact the author by the following mail and e-mail address:

    Professor Bingen Yang

    Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering

    University of Southern California

    3650 McClintock Avenue, Room 430

    Los Angeles, CA 90089-1453

    E-mail: bingen@usc.edu

    Part I

    Strength of Materials

    2

    Static Analysis of Euler-Bernoulli Beams

    Inside

    • Getting Started

    • Beam Theory

    • Static Analysis by the Toolbox

    • Moment of Inertia of Beam Cross-Section Area

    • Quick Solution Guide

    • References

    2.1 Getting Started

    What Is in This Chapter

    This chapter is a package of subject review, fundamental theories, formulas, solution methods, and a set (toolbox) of MATLAB functions for static analysis of Euler-Bernoulli beams.

    System Requirements for the MATLAB Toolbox

    • PC with Win 98SE/NT/2000 and XP or Mac with OS 9.x and up

    • The software MATLAB (version 5.x and up) installed on computer

    Software Installation and Test

    (i) Drag the Toolbox folder from the CD onto a hard disk of your computer;

    (ii) Launch MATLAB and set a path to the Toolbox folder on your hard disk;¹ and

    (iii) Test the toolbox by typing TBdemo in the MATLAB command window, which will launch a demo program showing how the Toolbox works. The demo ends with a message: The Toolbox works properly.

    At this stage, the Toolbox is properly installed, and it is ready for use.

    Quick Tutorial

    To show how to use the Toolbox, consider a simply-supported beam in Fig. 2.1.1, which has length L = 1 and bending stiffness EI = 25, and is subject to a pointwise force f0 = 1.2 at its midpoint. In the MATLAB command window, type:

    FIGURE 2.1.1 A simply-supported beam under a pointwise force.

    EI = 25; L = 1; BC_pec = [1 1];

    setbeam(EI, L, BC_Spec)

    Load_Spec = [0 0.5 1.2];

    y = beamf(Load_Spec);

    plotbeam(y)

    is the prompt in the MATLAB command window. This yields the spatial distributions of the displacement (transverse deflection), rotation, bending moment, and shear force of the beam as plotted in Fig. 2.1.2, and the maximum response and the reactions as shown below.

    FIGURE 2.1.2 Beam response distribution.

    Maximum Beam Response in Absolute Value

    Max displacement = 0.001, location x = 0.5

    Max rotation (degrees) = 0.17189, location x = 0

    Max bending moment = −0.3, location x = 0.5

    Max shear force = −0.6, location x = 0

    Reactions at Two Ends of the Beam

    Sign convention for support reactions:

    * Positive moment Mc: counterclockwise

    * Positive force Rc: upward

    At left boundary (x = 0):  Mc = 0, Rc = −0.6

    At right boundary (x = L): Mc = 0, Rc = −0.6

    Also, the command

    mathf(Load_Spec)

    produces the analytical expressions of the beam response as follows

    Beam response for 0 <= x <= 0.5:

    Displacement w(x) = −0.004*x̂3 + (0)*x̂2 + (0.003)*x + (0)

    Rotation dw(x)/dx = −0.012*x̂2 + (0)*x + (0.003)

    Bending moment M(x) = −0.6*x + (0)

    Shear force Q(x) = −0.6

    Beam response for 0.5 <= x <= 1:

    Displacement w(x) = 0.004*x̂3 + (−0.012)*x̂2 + (0.009)*x + (−0.001)

    Rotation dw(x)/dx = 0.012*x̂2 + (−0.024)*x + (0.009)

    Bending moment M(x) = 0.6*x + (−0.6)

    Shear force Q(x) = 0.6

    In the above static analysis, four functions from the Toolbox have been used:

    (a) Function setbeam that assigns beam parameters and sets up beam boundary conditions;

    (b) Function beamf that computes beam response under an external force and puts the computed results in a matrix y;

    (c) Function plotbeam that plots the computed beam response versus the spatial coordinate x and shows the maximum beam response and reaction forces at beam supports; and

    (d) Function mathf that delivers the analytical expressions of beam response.

    These functions, along with others from the Toolbox, will be described in sequel.

    For a quick solution, the reader may refer directly to the Quick Solution Guide (Section 2.5), or get the information on the Toolbox by typing TBinfo in the MATLAB command window. To run the examples contained in this chapter, type RunEx in the MATLAB command window. To understand better how the toolbox works, the reader is encouraged to go through the entire chapter. For further reading on the subject, refer to Section 2.6.

    2.2 Beam Theory

    2.2.1 Static Problem

    Governing Equation

    The transverse displacement (deflection) w(x) of a uniform Euler-Bernoulli beam under static loads, as shown in Fig. 2.2.1, is governed by the differential equation (Reference 2)

    (2.1)

    where EI and L are the bending stiffness and length of the beam, respectively. The forcing function for the loads shown in Fig. 2.2.1 has the form

    where q(x) is a distributed external load, f0 is a pointwise force applied at xf, τ is a torque applied at xτ, and δ(·) is the Dirac delta function. Refer to ).

    FIGURE 2.2.1 A uniform Euler-Bernoulli beam under static loads.

    Boundary Conditions

    The boundary conditions of the beam can be written as

    (2.2)

    where B01, B02, BL1, and BL2 are spatial differential operators, and αi and βi represent boundary disturbances. Seven types of beam boundary conditions with associate boundary disturbances are given in Table 2.2.1. In the table, u0 and uL are transverse boundary displacements, θ0 and θL rotations, M0 and ML moments, and Q0 and QL transverse forces. The positive direction of boundary displacements and transverse forces is upward; the positive direction of boundary rotations and moments is counterclockwise.

    TABLE 2.2.1

    Boundary Conditions and Boundary Disturbances

    Static Response

    The static response of a beam includes:Displacement (transverse deflection) w(x)

    Rotation or slope

    (2.3)

    Bending moment

    (2.4)

    Shear force

    (2.5)

    Here M and Q are called the internal forces of the beam. The positive direction of w(x) is upward; the positive direction of rotation is counterclockwise; and the sign convention of bending moment and shear force is given in Fig. 2.2.2.

    FIGURE 2.2.2 Sign convention of bending moment and shear force.

    Reactions at Supports

    All the boundaries listed in Table 2.2.1, except for B3 (free ends), exert reaction moments and/or reaction forces to the beam when it is subject to external loads. These reactions are to support the beam by balancing the external forces. For this reason, these boundaries are also called supports. The reactions are represented by the following equations:

    where w′ = dw/dx. The sign convention for the reactions is the same as the boundary disturbances (see Fig. 2.2.3); that is,

    FIGURE 2.2.3 Sign convention of reactions.

    • A positive reaction moment (Mc) is in the counterclockwise direction; and

    • A positive reaction force (Rc) is in the upward direction.

    A fundamental problem in static analysis of Euler-Bernoulli beams is stated as follows: Given external loads and boundary disturbances, determine the beam response (displacement, rotation, bending moment, and shear force) that is governed by Eq. (2.1) and the boundary conditions (2.2).

    Listed in Table 2.2.2 is the static beam deflection in some cases of boundary conditions and loads. The bending moment and shear force in each case can be derived according to Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5). The deflection solutions in the table can be obtained by the methods given in Section 2.2.2. Also, refer to Section 2.3.5 for analytical solutions with general beam configurations and arbitrary external loads.

    TABLE 2.2.2

    Static Beam Deflection

    In the next two subsections, three solution methods for beam static analysis are presented and the fundamentals of the Euler-Bernoulli beam in bending are reviewed. The reader who is only interested in using the MATLAB toolbox can directly move to Section 2.3.

    2.2.2 Solution Methods

    Many solution methods are available for static analysis of Euler-Bernoulli beams. This section introduces three analytical solution methods for the beam problem, namely the method of singularity functions, the boundary value approach, and the distributed transfer function method.

    Method of Singularity Functions

    This method is often presented in textbooks on strength of materials or solid mechanics; see References 3 and 4 for instance. In the method, Eq. (2.1) is integrated four times, yielding

    (2.6)

    where the initial parameters

    (2.7)

    The sign convention of R0 and M0 follows that in Fig. 2.2.3. Physically, R0 and M0 can be known boundary disturbances, or unknown support reactions.

    The integral in Eq. (2.6) can be expressed by the singularity function 〈x x0〉n.

    Definition: The singularity function 〈x x0〉n is defined as follows:

    for n ≥ 0

    (2.8)

    for n = −1, − 2

    (2.9a)

    and

    (2.9b)

    From the above definition, 〈x x0〉−1 actually is the delta function δ(x x0), and 〈x x0)⁰ is the unite step function.

    for several types of external forces is given in Table 2.2.3. The solution of a beam problem can be obtained according to Eq. (2.6) and Table 2.2.3, as shown in the following example.

    TABLE 2.2.3

    External Forces and Integrals

    EXAMPLE 2.1

    Consider a clamped-pinned beam subject to a torque at the midpoint; see Fig. 2.2.4. The beam response, by Eq. (2.6) and Table 2.2.3 is

    FIGURE 2.2.4

    By the boundary conditions

    the initial parameters of the beam are determined as

    Thus, the deflection of the beam is

    and the rotation, bending moment, and shear force are

    The beam response is plotted in Fig. 2.2.5 for EI = 1, L = 1, and τ = 1.

    FIGURE 2.2.5

    Boundary Value Approach

    Response to boundary disturbances: The response of a beam under boundary disturbances is governed by

    (2.10)

    subject to boundary conditions as described in Table 2.2.1. The solution of the above equation is of the form

    (2.11)

    where γ0, γ1, γ2, and γ3 are coefficients to be determined by the beam boundary conditions.

    Response to a pointwise force: The response of a beam under a pointwise force q at x = xf is governed by

    (2.12)

    The solution of Eq. (2.12) is

    (2.13)

    where the coefficients aj and bk are determined by the boundary conditions of the beam and the compatibility conditions

    (2.14)

    where w′ = dw/dx.

    Response to a torque: The response of a beam under a torque τ at x = xτ is governed by

    (2.15)

    The solution of Eq. (2.15) is

    (2.16)

    where the coefficients aj and bk are determined by the beam boundary conditions and the following compatibility conditions

    (2.17)

    Response to distributed forces: Consider two types of distributed forces applied in the region x1 ≤ x x2:

    (a) A force of polynomial distribution

    (2.18a)

    (b) A force of sinusoidal distribution

    (2.18b)

    where 0 ≤ x1 < x2 ≤ L. The static displacement of a beam under f1 (x) or f2(x) is described by

    (2.19)

    The solution of Eq. (2.19) is of the form

    (2.20)

    where the coefficients aj, bk, and dl are determined by the boundary conditions of the beam and the compatibility conditions

    (2.21)

    and wp(x) is a particular solution of Eq. (2.19). For force f1(x) (polynomial distribution), a particular solution is

    (2.22a)

    For force f2(x) (sinusoidal distribution), a particular solution is

    (2.22b)

    Once the coefficients γi, aj, bk, and dl are determined by the boundary and compatibility conditions, the beam response is given in the exact form Eq. (2.20).

    Distributed Transfer Function Method

    The MATLAB functions of this chapter are developed based on the Distributed Transfer Function Method (DTFM), which is an exact analytical modeling and solution method for many one-dimensional distributed systems including bars, shafts, strings, and beams. Refer to Appendix C for more information on the DTFM.

    Spatial state formulation: In the DTFM, Eq. (2.1) is first cast into an equivalent spatial state form

    (2.23)

    where

    (2.24)

    The boundary conditions can also be written in terms of {η}:

    (2.25)

    where [Mb] and [Nb] are four-by-four boundary matrices and {γb} is a boundary disturbance vector. For instance, for a clamped-free (cantilever) beam subject to an end moment ML, the boundary conditions are

    which are converted to Eq. (2.25) with

    Hence, the original beam problem is reduced to the state equation (2.23) subject to the boundary condition (2.25).

    Solution by distributed transfer functions: By the DTFM, the solution of Eq. (2.23) with the boundary condition (2.25) is

    (2.26)

    where the Green’s function [G(x, ξ)] and the boundary influence function [H(x)] are

    (2.27)

    and e[F]x is an exponential matrix of the form

    (2.28)

    In the DTFM, [G(x, ξ)] and [H(x)] are called distributed transfer functions. The static displacement and internal forces of the beam are expressed as

    (2.29)

    By Eqs. (2.26) and (2.27), the beam response is expressed as

    (2.30)

    This equation involves the integrals ∫ ξjf(ξ) dξ for j = 0, 1, 2, 3, which can be evaluated by exact quadrature. Therefore, the beam solution by the DTFM is in exact and closed form.

    EXAMPLE 2.2

    A beam of stiffness EI and length L is subject to a uniform load in its entire domain, i.e., f(x) = q0 for 0 ≤ x L. The response of the beam by Eq. (2.30) is

    By Eq. (2.28), it is easy to show that

    It follows that the response of the beam is in the exact and closed form

    The above solution is valid for the beam with arbitrary boundary conditions, provided that the boundary matrices [Mb] and [Nb] are properly assigned.

    2.2.3 Fundamentals of Euler-Bernoulli Beams

    In this section, the fundamentals of the Euler-Bernoulli beam in bending are reviewed to show how Eq. (2.1) is derived. For more information on the beam theory, refer to any of the references listed in Section 2.6.

    Basic Assumptions of Euler-Bernoulli Beams

    (a) Kinematic assumption (Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis): Plane sections of a beam normal to its axis (neutral axis) remain planes after the beam experiences bending deformation.

    (b) Linear elastic assumption: In deformation, the normal stress and strain of beam in the longitudinal direction satisfy the Hooke’s law:

    (2.31)

    where E is Young’s modulus.

    (c) Small deflection assumption: The beam undergoes small deformation such that the rotation w′ is a negligible quantity in comparison with unity.

    (d) The beam is in pure bending.

    Curvature of Beam Axis

    Under Assumption (a), the normal strain of an infinitesimal fiber segment a-a of the beam (see Fig. 2.2.6) that is a distance y from the beam is expressed by

    (2.32)

    where κ, the curvature of the beam axis, is

    (2.33)

    with w(x) being the deflection of the beam axis. By Assumption (c), |w1 and Eq. (2.33) reduces to

    (2.34)

    Moment-Curvature Relation

    According to Assumption (b) and Eqs. (2.32) and (2.34), the normal stress is

    FIGURE 2.2.6 A beam segment in bending.

    (2.35)

    The bending moment of the beam at x is

    (2.36)

    where A is the beam cross-section area and I is the moment of inertia of the area defined by

    (2.37)

    The EI is known as bending stiffness or flexural rigidity. According to Eqs. (2.34) and (2.35), the beam curvature and normal stress are related to bending moment by

    (2.38)

    and

    (2.39)

    Equilibrium Equations

    Consider an infinitesimal beam segment dx in Fig. 2.2.7. Balance of the forces and moments that are applied to the segment gives

    FIGURE 2.2.7 An infinitesimal beam segment.

    By letting dx → 0, the above equations reduce to

    (2.40)

    and

    (2.41)

    It follows from Eqs. (2.36), (2.40), and (2.41) that

    which is Eq. (2.1), and

    which are Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5).

    2.3 Static Analysis by the Toolbox

    This chapter has a toolbox of MATLAB functions for determination of the static response of an Euler-Bernoulli beam under external loads and boundary disturbances. Solution by the Toolbox takes two simple steps:

    Step 1. Set up system (beam parameters and boundary conditions) by function setbeam.

    Step 2. Determine beam response by functions beamf and beamb.

    Also, function plotbeam can be called to display beam response. These MATLAB functions, along with others from the Toolbox, will be introduced in sequel.

    2.3.1 System Setup

    In static analysis of a beam, function setbeam from the Toolbox is always called first to set up beam parameters and boundary conditions; see Window 3.1.

    Window 3.1

       Function setbeam

    MATLAB Function: setbeam

    Purpose:

    To set up parameters and boundary conditions for a beam.

    Synopsis:

    setbeam(EI, L, BC_Spec)

    setbeam(EI, L, BC_Spec, n)

    Description:

    setbeam(EI, L, BC_Spec) inputs the bending stiffness EI and length L of a beam, and specifies boundary conditions by vector BC_Spec. The formation of BC_Spec is done according to Table 2.3.1.

    setbeam(EI, L, BC_Spec, n) sets up n equally-spaced points along the beam length for graphic purposes. By default, n = 201.

    Note:

    The information of beam parameters and boundary conditions can be displayed by function systinfo; see Window 3.9.

    The spatial points for computation can be changed by functions setxpt or setxpt1; see Window 3.10.

    Note 1. As an argument of setbeam, vector BC_Spec is of the form

    BC_Spec = [BC_Left BC_Right]

    where BC_Left and BC_Right are two subvectors describing the boundary conditions at the left end (x = 0) and the right end (x = L) of the beam, respectively. Table 2.3.1 lists the entries of these vectors for the seven different boundary conditions (B1 to B7). The first element of BC_Left and BC_Right is an integer identifying the boundary condition type.

    TABLE 2.3.1

    Boundary Conditions and Boundary Disturbances

    u0,uL- end displacement; θ0,θL- end rotation (in radians);

    M0, ML-end moment; Q0, QL-end transverse force;

    kr-torsional spring coefficient; kt-translational spring coefficient.

    Positive direction of end displacement and transverse force: upward.

    Positive direction of end rotation and moment: counterclockwise.

    Note 2. Function setbeam must be executed before any other functions of static analysis from the Toolbox can be used. However, setbeam only needs to be called once for the same beam in different cases of external loads or boundary disturbances.

    EXAMPLE 3.1

    For the boundary conditions given in Fig. 2.3.1, the boundary specification vector is:

    FIGURE 2.3.1 The beam boundary conditions in Example 3.1.

    Case (a) Pinned-pinned beam (B1-B1):

    BC_Spec = [1 1]

    Case (b) Clamped-free beam (B2-B3):

    BC_Spec = [2 3]

    Case (c) Clamped–sliding-elastic (B2-B7):

    BC_Spec = [1 7 kt]

    2.3.2 Response to External Forces

    This Toolbox provides a function beamf for computing the static response of a beam under external forces; see Windows 3.2.

    Window 3.2

       Function beamf

    MATLAB Function: beamf

    Purpose:

    To compute and display static response of a beam under external forces.

    Synopsis:

    beamf(Load_Spec)

    y = beamf(Load_Spec)

    [y, x] = beamf(Load_Spec)

    Description:

    beamf (Load_Spec) plots the spatial distribution of beam response subject to an external load specified by vector Load_Spec. See Table 2.3.2 for the formation of Load_Spec.

    y = beamf (Load_Spec) returns the computed beam response in a matrix y. The beam response distribution can be plotted by plotbeam(y); see Window 3.3.

    [y, x] = beamf (Load_Spec) returns the beam response in a four-row matrix y, and the spatial points of computation in a vector x. Here, y(1,:) stores beam displacement, y(2,:) rotation, y(3,:) bending moment, and y(4,:) shear force. With y and x, the spatial distribution of the beam response can be plotted by the MATLAB function plot. For example, for the deflection w(x), use plot(x, y(1,:)); and for the shear force Q(x), use plot(x, y(4,:)).

    If a beam is subject to N external loads specified by vectors Load1, Load2,…, LoadN, its response can be obtained by superposition:

    y = beamf(Load1) + beamf(Load2) + … + beamf(LoadN)

    and the spatial distribution of the beam response is plotted by function plotbeam. See Section 2.3.4 for more information.

    As an argument of beamf, vector Load_Spec describes one of the six types of external forces listed in Table 2.3.2. Note that the first element of Load_Spec is an integer from −1 to 4 for identifying load type. In the table, there are two pointwise loads (L1 and L2) and four distributed loads (D1 to D4). The sign convention of external forces is as follows:

    TABLE 2.3.2

    Specification of External Loads

    • The positive direction of transverse loads (L1, D1 to D4) is upward.

    • The positive direction of a torque (L2) is counterclockwise.

    EXAMPLE 3.2

    For the load of parabolic distribution shown in Fig. 2.3.2,

    the load specification vector

    FIGURE 2.3.2 A load of parabolic distribution.

    Load_Spec = [3 x1 X2 c0 c1 c2]

    The beam response obtained by beamf can be plotted by function plotbeam, as described in Window 3.3.

    Window 3.3

       Function plotbeam

    MATLAB Function: plotbeam

    Purpose:

    To plot spatial distribution of beam response and to show maximum beam response and reactions at beam supports.

    Synopsis:

    plotbeam(y)

    plotbeam(y, opt)

    Description:

    plotbeam(y) carries out the following three tasks: (a) it plots spatial distributions of beam response; (b) it determines maximum beam response; and (c) it gives the reactions at beam supports. Here y is a matrix of beam response data that is obtained through use of beamf or beamb. The output of plotbeam(y) is four figures, namely the displacement, rotation, bending moment, and shear force versus the spatial coordinate x.

    plotbeam(y, opt) plots beam response with the following options:

    opt = 1 plot displacement w(x) only

    opt = 2 plot rotation θ(x) only

    opt = 3 plot bending moment M(x) only

    opt = 4 plot shear force Q(x) only

    EXAMPLE 3.3

    In Fig. 2.3.3, a beam is clamped at the left end and elastically supported at the right end by a spring of coefficient kt = 375. The beam is subject to a force of half-sine distribution:

    Let the beam parameters be EI = 800 and L = 2. By the commands (typed in the MATLAB command window)

    FIGURE 2.3.3 A beam subject to a force of half-sine distribution.

    setbeam(800, 2, [2 5 0 375])

    beamf([4 0 1 5 pi 0])

    the beam response versus x is plotted in Fig. 2.3.4. Also,

    FIGURE 2.3.4 Spatial distribution of beam response.

    y = beamf([4 0 1 5 pi 0]);

    plotbeam(y)

    yields Fig. 2.3.4, and gives the following information about the computed results:

    Maximum Beam Response in Absolute Value

    Max displacement = 0.00046807, location x = 2

    Max rotation (degrees) = 0.020213, location x = 0.52

    Max bending moment = 1.2405, location x = 0

    Max shear force = −3.0076, location x = 0

    Reactions at Two Ends of the Beam

    Sign convention for support reactions:

    * Positive moment Mc: counterclockwise

    * Positive force Rc: upward

    At left boundary (x = 0): Mc = −1.2405, Rc = −3.0076

    At right boundary (x = L): Mc = 0, Rc = −0.17552

    2.3.3 Response to Boundary Disturbances

    To compute the static response of a beam under boundary disturbances, use function beamb from the Toolbox; see Windows 3.4. The boundary disturbances are specified by vector

    Window 3.4

       Function beamb

    MATLAB Function: beamb

    Purpose:

    To compute and display static response of a beam under boundary disturbances.

    Synopsis:

    beamb(BD_Spec)

    y = beamb(BD_Spec)

    [y, x] = beamb(BD_Spec)

    Description:

    beamb (BD_Spec) plots spatial distribution of the response of a beam subject to boundary disturbances, where BD_Spec is a vector specifying given boundary disturbances according to Table 2.3.1.

    y = beamb(BD_Spec) returns the computed beam response in a matrix y. The beam response distribution can be plotted by plotbeam(y), which is described in Window 3.3.

    [y, x] = beamb (BD_Spec) returns the beam response in a four-row matrix y, and the points of computation in a vector x. Here, y(1,:) stores beam displacement, y(2,:) rotation, y(3,:) bending moment, and y(4,:) shear force. With y and x, the spatial distribution of beam response can be plotted by the MATLAB function plot. For example, for deflection w(x), use plot (x, y (1, :)); and for bending moment M(x), use plot(x, y(3, :)).

    BD_Spec = [BD_Left BD_Right]

    where the subvectors BD_Left and BD_Right describe the disturbances at the left end (x = 0) and right end (x = L) of the beam, respectively; see Table 2.3.1. The end rotations θ0 and θL in the table are in radians.

    EXAMPLE 3.4

    In Fig. 2.3.5, a clamped-pinned beam of bending stiffness EI = 40 and length L = 4 is subject to the boundary disturbances

    The boundary disturbance vector, according to Table 2.3.1, is

    FIGURE 2.3.5 A clamped-pinned beam subject to boundary disturbances.

    BD_Spec = [0 0.1 0.05 15]

    setbeam(40, 4, [2 1])

    beamb([0 0.1 0.05 15])

    yields the spatial distribution of the beam response plotted in Fig. 2.3.6.

    FIGURE 2.3.6 Spatial distribution of beam response.

    2.3.4 Total Response

    When a beam is subject to an external load and boundary disturbances, the total response of the beam can be obtained and plotted by

    y = beamf(Load_Spec)+beamb(BD_Spec);

    plotbeam(y, opt)

    where vectors Load_Spec and BD_Spec are formed according to Tables 2.3.1 and 2.3.2, respectively, and function plotbeam is given in Window 3.3.

    If a beam is subject to N external loads specified by Load1, Load2,…, LoadN and boundary disturbances specified by BD_Spec, the total response of the beam is obtained by

    y = beamf(Load1) + beamf(Load2) + … + beamf(LoadN) + beamb(BD_Spec);

    Here, y is a four-row matrix, with y(1,:) containing the beam displacement, y(2,:) the rotation, y(3,:) the bending moment, and y(4,:) the shear force. There are three ways to plot the spatial distribution of the beam response:

    (i) Use function plotbeam(y, opt).

    (ii) Use the MATLAB function plot as follows:

    [yb, x] = beamb(BD_Spec);

    y = beamf(Load1) + … + beamf(LoadN) + yb;

    plot(x, y(j,:))

    where j is an integer from 1 to 4.

    (iii) Use function getxpt from the Toolbox:

    y = beamf(Load1) + … + beamf(LoadN) + beamb(BD_Spec);

    x = getxpt;

    plot(x, y(j,:))

    where j is an integer from 1 to 4 and getxpt is a function described in Window 3.11.

    Window 3.11

       Function getxpt

    MATLAB Function: getxpt

    Purpose:

    To obtain the spatial points that are set up for computation.

    Synopsis:

    x = getxpt

    Description:

    x = getxpt obtains the spatial points that are set up for computation by one of the functions setbeam, setxpt, or setxpt1. Here x is a vector containing the points.

    EXAMPLE 3.5

    In Fig. 2.3.7, a beam of parameters EI = 800 and L = 2 is clamped at its left end and elastically supported at its right end by a translational spring of coefficient kt = 375. There are two external loads: a torque of τ0 = 1.5 located at xτ = 1.0 and a uniform load of amplitude q = 1.8 applied in the region 1.0 ≤ x ≤ 2.0. The beam is also subject to a rotation at its left end, θ0 = 0.01 rad. By

    FIGURE 2.3.7 A beam under a uniform load q, a torque τ0 and boundary disturbance θ0.

    setbeam(800, 2, [2 5 0 375]);

    Load1 = [−1 1.0 1.5]; Load2 = [1 1 2 1.8]; BD_Spec = [0 0.01 0 0];

    y = beamf(Load1) + beamf(Load2) + beamb(BD_Spec);

    plotbeam(y)

    the total beam response is plotted in Fig. 2.3.8. In addition, the following results are obtained:

    FIGURE 2.3.8 Total beam response.

    Maximum Beam Response in Absolute Value

    Max displacement = 0.011847, location x = 2

    Max rotation (degrees) = 0.57296, location x = 0

    Max bending moment = −4.6854, location x = 0

    Max shear force = 4.4427, location x = 2

    Reactions at Two Ends of the Beam

    Sign convention for support reactions:

    * Positive moment Mc: counterclockwise

    * Positive force Rc: upward

    At left boundary (x = 0):

    Mc = 4.6854, Rc = 2.6427

    At right boundary (x = L):

    Mc = 0, Rc = −4.4427

    2.3.5 Exact Analytical Solutions

    Functions beamf and beamb obtain beam response numerically. For exact analytical expressions of beam response under arbitrary boundary conditions and external loads, two other functions from the Toolbox are available; see Windows 3.5 and 3.6.

    Window 3.5

       Function mathf

    MATLAB Function: mathf

    Purpose:

    To display mathematical expressions of beam response to an external force.

    Synopsis:

    mathf(Load_Spec)

    y = mathf(Load_Spec)

    Description:

    mathf (Load_Spec) displays the mathematical expressions of the response (displacement, rotation, bending moment, and shear force) of a beam subject to an external load specified by vector Load_Spec. Formation of Load_Spec follows Table 2.3.2.

    y = mathf (Load_Spec) returns the coefficients in the mathematical expressions of the beam response in a matrix y.

    Window 3.6

       Function mathb

    MATLAB Function: mathb

    Purpose:

    To display mathematical expressions of beam response to boundary disturbances.

    Synopsis:

    mathb(BD_Spec)

    y = mathb(BD_Spec)

    Description:

    mathb(BD_Spec) displays the mathematical expressions of the response (displacement, rotation, bending moment, and shear force) of a beam subject to boundary disturbances specified by vector BD_Spec. Formation of BD_Spec follows Table 2.3.1.

    y = mathb (BD_Spec) returns the coefficients in the mathematical expressions of the beam response in a matrix y.

    EXAMPLE 3.6

    Consider the beam in Fig. 2.1.1, Section 2.1. By

    setbeam(25, 1, [1 1])

    mathf([0 0.5 1.2])

    the mathematical expressions of the beam response are obtained as follows:

    Beam response for 0 <= x <= 0.5:

    Displacement w(x) = −0.004*x̂3 + (0)*x̂2 + (0.003)*x + (0)

    Rotation dw(x)/dx = −0.012*x̂2 + (0)*x + (0.003)

    Bending moment M(x) = −0.6*x + (0)

    Shear force Q(x) = −0.6

    Beam response for 0.5 <= x <= 1:

    Displacement w(x) = 0.004*x̂3 + (−0.012)*x̂2 + (0.009)*x + (−0.001)

    Rotation dw(x)/dx = 0.012*x̂2 + (−0.024)*x + (0.009)

    Bending moment M(x) = 0.6*x + (−0.6)

    Shear force Q(x) = 0.6

    EXAMPLE 3.7

    For the beam in Example 3.3

    setbeam(800, 2, [2 5 0 375])

    mathf([4 0 1 5 pi 0])

    gives the beam response as follows:

    Beam response for 0 <= x <= 1:

    Displacement w(x) = 6.4162e−005*sin(3.1416*x + 0)+(−0.00029501)*x̂3 +(0.00077531)*x̂2+(−0.00020157)*x+(0)

    Rotation dw(x)/dx = 0.00020157*cos(3.1416*x+0) + (−0.00088502)*x̂2 + (0.0015506)*x + (−0.00020157)

    Bending moment M(x) = −0.50661*sin(3.1416*x + 0) + (−1.416)*x+(1.2405)

    Shear force Q(x) = −1.5915*cos(3.1416*x + 0) + (−1.416)

    Beam response for 1 <= x <= 2:

    Displacement w(x) = 3.6568e−005*x̂3 + (−0.00021941)*x̂2 +(0.00059157)*x + (−0.00013)

    Rotation dw(x)/dx = 0.0001097*x̂2+(−0.00043881)*x+(0.00059157)

    Bending moment M(x) = 0.17552*x + (−0.35105)

    Shear force Q(x) = 0.17552

    EXAMPLE 3.8

    In Fig. 2.3.9, a clamped-pinned beam of parameters EI = 250 and a = 1 is subject to a linearly distributed load (q = 10) in the region a x ≤ 2a.

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