High Voltage Test Techniques

1

Fundamental Principles of High-Voltage Test Techniques

1.1 Generation and Measurement of High Alternating Voltages

High alternating voltages are required in laboratories for experiments and a.c. tests as well as for most of the circuits for the generation of high direct and impulse voltages. Test transformers generally used for this purpose have considerably lower power rating and frequently much larger transformation ratios than power transformers. The high voltage winding is so designed that it can withstand the routine breakdowns which generally occur on the specimen. The primary current is usually supplied by regulating transformers fed from the mains supply or, in special cases, by synchronous generators.

Most tests and experiments with high alternating voltages require precise knowledge of the value of the voltage. This demand can normally only be fulfilled by measurements on the high-voltage side of the supply.

1.1.1 Characteristic Parameters of High Alternating Voltages

The shape of u(t) and the effective or root-mean-square (r.m.s.) value

are of particular importance.

is defined as the test voltage (VDE 0432-2; IEC-Publ. 60-1).

Generation of High Alternating Voltages

1.1.2 Test Transformer Circuits

Transformers for generating high alternating test voltages usually have one end of the high-voltage winding earthed. Fully isolated windings are required only for special applications (e.g. symmetrical d.c. cascade).

Fig. 1.1 shows the two basic circuits for test transformers. The length of the voltage arrows indicates the magnitude of the stress on the insulation between the high-voltage winding H and the excitor winding E or the iron core F. The fully isolated winding may be earthed if necessary at either of the two terminals or at the centre tap, as shown; in the latter case, the output voltage will be symmetrical with respect to earth,

Fig. 1.1 Circuits of single stage test transformers

a) single pole isolated, b) fully isolated

E: Excitor winding

H: High voltage winding

F: Iron core

To generate voltages above a few hundred kV, single-stage transformers according to Fig. 1.1 are now rarely used; for economical and technical reasons one employs instead a series connection of the high-voltage windings of several transformers. In such a cascade arrangement, the individual transformers must be installed insulated for voltages corresponding to those of the lower stages. Accordingly, the excitor windings of some of the transformers will have to operate at high potential.

A frequently used circuit, introduced in 1915 by W. Petersen, F. Dessauer and E. Welter, is shown in Fig. 1.2. The excitor windings E of the upper stages are supplied from the coupler windings K of the stages immediately below. The individual stages, except the uppermost, must consist of three-winding transformers. When the temperature rise [Grabner 1967], the curve shape [Matthes 1959, Müller 1961] and the short-circuit voltage [Hylten-Cavallius 1986] are determined, it should be noted that the coupling and excitor windings of the lower stages have to transmit higher powers than those of the upper ones and accordingly have to be designed for higher loading. The magnitude of the power carried by the individual windings is indicated in Fig. 1.2 in terms of multiples of P.

Fig. 1.2 Test transformer in 3-stage cascade connection

E: Excitor winding, H: High-voltage winding, K: Coupler winding

The calculation of the total short-circuit impedance of a cascade arrangement from data for the individual stages will be demonstrated in Appendix 4.2. Test transformers in cascade connection have already been fabricated for voltages up to 3 MV [Frank et al 1991].

1.1.3 Construction of Test Transformers

²

For ratings of a few kVA, inductive voltage transformers can be used to generate high a.c. voltages. Low power transformers are also similar in construction to voltage transformers with the same test voltage. For voltages up to about 100 kV epoxy resin insulation is widely used; oil-impregnated paper or oil with insulating barriers and spacers are used at higher voltages. At higher power ratings, cooling of the windings becomes important, and the construction features resemble those of power transformers. Oil with barriers and oil-impregnated paper predominate as insulation. For testing of SF6-insulated components or set-ups, transformers of totally enclosed type are preferred. In these, SF6-impregnated foils are introduced as insulating material between the layers of the winding [Moeller 1975].

Test transformers with cast resin insulation have at least their high-voltage winding moulded in epoxy resin. Fig. 1.3 shows a much simplified cross-section of such a transformer.

Fig. 1.3 Cross-sectional view of test transformers

a) with cast resin insulation, b) with SF6-foil insulation

1. High-voltage winding

2. Low-voltage winding

3. Iron core

4. Base

5. High-voltage terminal

6. Insulation

7. Metal housing

8. Intermediate electrode of high-voltage winding

9. High-voltage electrode of high-voltage winding

There are numerous designs for oil-insulated test transformers. In the tank type construction, shown in Fig. 1.4a, the active parts (core and windings) are enclosed in a metal container the surface of which provides useful self-cooling. However, at high working voltages the space requirement and high cost of the bushing is a disadvantage. In the insulated enclosure transformer type, as shown in Fig. 1.4b, the active parts are surrounded by an insulating cylinder. In general, transformers of this kind contain a relatively large quantity of oil and so have large thermal time constant in the case of overloading. Heat dissipation through the insulated enclosure is very small; consequently, closed-circuit cooling by means of external heat exchangers is necessary at high continuous rating. The advantage is that no bushings are required and high-voltage electrodes with large radii of curvature can easily be fitted.

Fig. 1.4 Oil-insulated test transformers

a) tank type of construction, b) insulated enclosure type of construction

1 to 5. see Fig. 1.3,

6. Bushing

7. Metal housing

8. Insulated enclosure

An advantageous and therefore frequently used arrangement of the active parts is shown in Fig. 1.5. It can be considered as a 2-stage cascade in which both stages have a common iron core F, which is at mid-potential and thus normally requires insulated mounting. For the symmetrical arrangement of the windings shown, E1 or E2 can be chosen for the primary excitation. If a cascade circuit is to be set up with a further transformer unit, via K1, K2, a symmetrical high voltage with respect to earth is obtained.

Fig. 1.5 A 2-stage cascade with common iron core at mid-potential

E1, E2 : Excitor windings, H1, H2 : High-voltage windings

K1, K2 : Coupler windings, F : Iron core

The example of Fig. 1.5 shows the voltages to earth which occur when the right high-voltage terminal is earthed.

The described arrangement is especially advantageous at very high voltages and can be set up according to the tank type design with two bushings, and also according to the insulated enclosure type design. In the latter case however, the arrangement would be turned by 90° so that the two stages lie above each other.

1.1.4 Performance of Test Transformers

The working performance of test transformers can be described with the aid of the simplified transformer equivalent circuit (Fig. 1.6a). The self-capacitance CT of the high-voltage windings and the capacitance of the connected test object (eventually inclusive of the measuring set-up), which represents a predominantly capacitive external load Ca, make up the load across the transformer. On the other hand, the magnetization current can be neglected as long as there is no saturation of the iron core.

Fig. 1.6 Working performance of test transformers

a) circuit diagram, b) equivalent circuit, c) phasor diagram

Fig. 1.6b shows the equivalent circuit with the short-circuit impedance RT + jωLT and the total capacitance C = CT + Cto the secondary side. This equivalent circuit can also represent test transformers in cascade connection.

Since as a rule RωL, we have:

The expression 1/(1- ω²LTC) is always > 1. Thus series resonance leads to a capacitive enhancement of the secondary voltage. The amount of capacitive voltage enhancement can easily be calculated from the transformed short-circuit voltage uk of the transformer, for the case when the capacitive load C just takes rated current In at rated voltage Un and nominal frequency, as:

Thus a test transformer with uk =20 % will show a voltage enhancement of 25% at nominal frequency when a capacitive load takes the rated current.

This voltage enhancement has to be taken into account, particularly for test transformers with high values of transformed short-circuit voltage, and above all when used at higher frequencies. There is then no longer a fixed ratio of primary to secondary voltage; for this reason determination of the high-voltage output by voltage measurement on the primary side of the transformer is inadmissible. This measurement would indicate values well below the real ones, and the object as well as test transformer could be endangered.

Test transformers, especially in cascade connection, represent spatially extended networks capable of oscillation. Harmonics of the primary voltage and the magnetization current may excite natural oscillations at various frequencies, and this can lead to considerable distortion of the secondary voltage. These distortions from the ideal sine curve due to the harmonics of the high-voltage depend upon the load current and the value of the set voltage.

1.1.5 Compensation for a Capacitive Load

With large capacitive loads, e.g. while testing high voltage cables, it is advantageous to compensate for the reactive kVA of the specimen. Fig. 1.7 shows the possible circuits for this. Compensation with additional switchable coils on the primary side (1) is common due to economic reasons. The connected power rating from the supply network and the regulating transformer can be dimensioned for a lower power rating, whereas the high voltage transformer must transmit the full power. Compensating coils on the high voltage side (2) are often an uneconomical solution though the test transformer can be designed for a lower rating since the coils must be dimensioned similar to the high voltage winding of the test transformer. Solution (3) has found acceptance in multi-stage cascades with very large power ratings.

Fig. 1.7 Compensation of the capacitive reactive kVA with switchable coils (1) on the primary side, (2) on the high-voltage side, (3) through a tertiary winding with coils built- in into the tank or (4) with adjustable air-gap in the transformer core

Compensation of the capacitive reactive kVA with the help of an adjustable air-gap in the iron core (4) has been resorted to in single stage set-ups of the tank type construction.

1.1.6 Generation of High Voltage in a Series Resonant Circuit

Besides this conventional method, compensation of the reactive power requirement of the specimen in a series circuit is also possible with parallel connected inductive coils. A variable high voltage inductor together with an additional transformer of comparatively lower secondary voltage forms a series resonant set-up (Fig. 1.8).

Fig 1.8 Working principle of series resonant setups

a) circuit diagram, b) equivalent circuit c) phasor diagram

The variable inductor is made possible by an adjustable air-gap in the iron path. An advantage of the series resonant circuit is that it delivers a high voltage with low distortion, has a low short circuit power rating, and due to the working principle of the resonant circuit, achieves an almost complete compensation of the reactive power requirement of the specimen. Thus it is possible in the series resonant circuit to design the connected power requirement as well as that of the regulating transformer correspondingly low. While setting it up, it is necessary to pay attention especially to the stray flux lines in the air-gap and the vibrational noise.

For high voltages (above 500 kV) the various inductor is realized by a large number of inductors in insulated-tank type construction stapled one above the other. For e.g., series resonant circuits upto 2.2 MV and 10MVA have been built with 6 inductors in series.

As may be seen clearly from the phasor diagram of the series resonant setup (Fig 1.8c), the overvoltage caused by the inductance L in a capacitively loaded test transformer is intentionally made use of for obtaining a high voltage on its secondary side. In practice, a quality factor of 50 … 100 is achievable for the resonant circuit. Such setups are, due to constraints arising out of their working principle, not suitable for pure resistive loading e.g., as encountered in pollution testing. The heavy pulse like discharges result in voltage dips.

For in-situ testing of cables or SF6 setups, a series resonant set-up with a fixed (non-variable) inductance and variable supply frequency has been realized. A disadvantage of this type is that the test is not conducted at a rated frequency. On the contrary, an advantage of the set-up for in-situ testing is the comparatively small and light inductance that, depending on the test voltage level, can be arranged in series or parallel [Zaengl et al. 1982].

The Tesla-transformer [Marx 1952; Heise 1964], named after its inventor also belongs to the resonant circuits. The circuit consists of a primary and a secondary oscillatory circuit, which are loosely coupled with one another magnetically. Such a set-up capable of oscillating is excited by periodic discharge of the primary side capacitor via a spark gap to oscillate at high frequencies. Based on the chosen circuit parameters and the transformation ratio between the primary and secondary windings, voltages upto 1 MV and above can be generated with Tesla transformers. These have been made use of in breakdown testing of porcelain pin-type insulators.

1.1.7 Requirements on a Voltage Source for Pollution Tests

Currents upto a few amperes flow through the specimen during pollution testing [Rizk, Bourdage 1985]. The requirement valid for a meaningful test is that the pollution layer current during a withstand test does not affect the test voltage to an impermissible extent. Fig 1.9 shows the equivalent circuit and the basic performance of the test - circuit during pollution testing.

Fig 1.9 Pollution test (σs - layer conductance of pollution layer)

a) equivalent circuit of test set-up and the specimen,

b) basic wave form of test voltage u2 and pollution layer current iH

((1) quenching, (2) restriking of partial arcs)

The pollution layer current iH results in a voltage drop Δu2 across the internal resistance of the voltage source. In order that this voltage drop, referred to the open circuit voltage u20, does not exceed 10%, requirements are imposed on a voltage source for pollution investi-gation, especially on its short circuit current rating (IEC- Publ. 507). The short circuit current Ik min shall be 11 times greater than the highest magnitude of the pollution layer current IHmax during a withstand test. This requires short circuit currents of the order of 5.5 to 22 A for pollution layer currents of 0.5 to 2 A. Further requirements placed on voltage sources for pollution tests corresponding to IEC-Publ. 507 are usually met [Köhler