Modal Analysis

Preface

This book provides a detailed treatment of the theory of analytical and experimental modal analysis with applications. It is intended for several uses. The materials can be selectively used for undergraduate and postgraduate courses. The book can be a reference text for practising engineers whose work involves modal analysis, and for researchers in other engineering and science disciplines who use modal analysis as a tool in their research.

Though appearing to be specialized, modal analysis has been used in the last two to three decades in many engineering disciplines and technology fields to solve increasingly demanding structural dynamic problems. The path of modal analysis being incorporated into university teaching is paralleled with that taken by finite element analysis. Currently, the published literature in modal analysis is sparse without taking on board conference and journal papers. This is not conducive to users of this technology.

Chapter 1 of this book begins with a brief introduction to the current status of modal analysis in engineering fields and the practical background which gave rise to modal analysis as an effective and an advancing technology. This is followed by a concise clarification of modal analysis and modal testing, and the theoretical framework for modal analysis. It is succeeded by an outline of applications of modal analysis in dealing with different types of engineering problems and practical challenges. This chapter closes on a summary note on the historical development of modal analysis.

Chapter 2 reviews the mathematics tools used in the theory of modal analysis. In matrix theory, these include matrix inversion, linear simultaneous equations, eigenvalue problems, different decomposition of a real symmetrical matrix, matrix perturbation and the derivative of matrices. In addition, this chapter introduces poles and zeros of a polynomial function, Fourier series and transform, and the variable separation method for partial differential equations. These mathematics tools will be used in the following chapters of the book.

Chapter 3 reviews the basic vibration theory which forms the basis of modal analysis theory. This chapter is an epitome of a textbook for mechanical vibrations or dynamics of machines. It intends to review relevant materials rather than to offer a comprehensive coverage of vibration theory. This is to facilitate a more thorough and smooth excursion in modal analysis theory.

Chapters 4, 5 and 6 constitute the theoretical basis of modal analysis. In Chapter 4, modal analysis theory for an SDoF system is presented. It begins with the frequency response function (FRF) of an SDoF system, its concept and its different forms and various formats on which the FRF can be studied. This is followed by an in-depth disclosure of inherent properties of the FRF which will define modal analysis methods introduced in later chapters.

The FRF of an SDoF system is mathematically simple and its physical interpretation unambiguous. However, when extended to an MDoF system, both the concept and definition of an FRF require more stringent deliberation. Chapter 5 deals with the modal analysis theory of an MDoF system without damping. It begins with the concept of normal modes of an MDoF system and its orthogonality properties. This is followed by the definition and description of the dynamic stiffness matrix and frequency response function matrix of an MDoF system. The physical interpretation of the FRFs is conferred and the different graphical presentation of FRFs is given. Next, the chapter establishes the relationship between the modal model of an MDoF system and its FRFs. This relationship forms the kernel of theoretical modal analysis and the foundation for developing experimental modal analysis methods. The asymptote properties of an SDoF FRF are extended in this chapter for the FRFs of an MDoF system. The chapter then continues to explore the orthogonality properties of an MDoF system from more contemporary viewpoints. The harmonic response analysis prepares the reader for a more advanced forced response of an MDoF system. The last section of the chapter provides a sound understanding of the anti-resonance and minimum properties of an FRF. This will lead to the latest progress of modal analysis on structural modification and optimization in later chapters.

Chapter 6 is devoted to the modal analysis theory of an MDoF damped system. This is a natural extension of Chapter 5. In this approach, it is appropriate to begin with a proportional damping model which offers a special advantage of easy analysis. This is succeeded by an expansion of the theory of undamped FRFs into those for a damped MDoF system. Due to the existence of damping, the FRFs can be studied in the complex domain, allowing the study of their real and imaginary forms, Nyquist form and more. The force response of an MDoF damped system is analysed. The chapter ends on a note on complex vibration modes.

Chapter 7, on the measurement of frequency response function data, provides a brief coverage of all aspects involved in conducting a successful frequency response function measurement. This includes preparation of the tested structure, general measurement set-up, selection of excitation forces and locations, selection of measurement locations, calibration of measurement set-up and acquisition of FRF data. This chapter closes at the assessment of FRF data during measurement and before the analysis of these data is to proceed. This is an important step to ensure accurate and sufficient FRF data, and a successful outcome of the analysis. The assessment includes the linearity, reciprocity and time-invariance check of the measured data, and the use of some characteristics of an FRF.

Chapter 8 presents different modal analysis methods using measured FRF data. It begins with the identification of resonances from measured data. This is followed by the description of various modal analysis methods based on the SDoF assumption of MDoF assumption. This includes some latest modal analysis methods found in the literature and adopted by commercial modal analysis software. This full chapter coverage will provide a solid foundation for readers to conduct modal analysis on measured FRF data. Some of the figures are the outputs of a modal analysis software called ICATS.

In addition to the methods based on FRF data, Chapter 9 provides a basic introduction to modal analysis using free vibration or impulse responses of a structure – the time domain modal analysis.

Chapter 10 deals with multi-input multi-output (MIMO) modal analysis. The estimation of accurate FRF data in the MIMO circumstance is discussed. A number of frequency and time domain modal analysis methods for the MIMO test are introduced.

The volume of this book precludes the coverage of all the main applications of modal analysis. However, it would be useful to the reader to include some recent applications. Chapters 11, 12 and 13 serve this purpose. Chapter 11 discusses structural modification and its application to optimize the dynamic characteristics of a structure. This composes structural modification by changing the mass and stiffness properties and by changing physical properties such as cross-sectional changes of beam elements of a structure. This chapter embodies some late developments in structural modification and optimization.

Chapter 12 introduces neural network, its applications in identifying dynamic characteristics of a system and in modal analysis. The use of the artificial neural network is taking a rapid pace in many engineering disciplines, including structural dynamics. This chapter can only serve as a brief introduction to this technique.

Chapter 13 presents a number of practical applications of modal analysis. Many more can be found in the literature such as from the proceedings of the annual International Modal Analysis Conference. Materials presented here are selective for teaching and reference.

Modal analysis draws strength from many sister disciplines in engineering. A book on modal analysis undoubtedly covers materials explored by numerous researchers and practical engineers. In this sense, the literature list at the end of each chapter can only be indicative. It is impossible for the authors to acknowledge all the individual contributions without which this book could not exist. We hope that this book will serve as a gateway for the reader to appreciate these contributions and to discover many more relevant readings in the modal analysis literature.

Jimin He and Zhi-Fang Fu

1

Overview of modal analysis

1.1 Introduction

In the past two decades, modal analysis has become a major technology in the quest for determining, improving and optimizing dynamic characteristics of engineering structures. Not only has it been recognized in mechanical and aeronautical engineering, but modal analysis has also discovered profound applications for civil and building structures, biomechanical problems, space structures, acoustical instruments, transportation and nuclear plants. To appreciate its significance in the modern engineering arena and its potential for future science and technology, it is appropriate to capture some of the background facts which will help to underline this unique technology.

Contemporary design of complex mechanical, aeronautical or civil structures requires them to become increasingly lighter, more flexible and yet strong. For instance, resources have been devoted by car manufacturers to achieve microscopic reductions of product body weight. Aerospace structures such as satellite antennas do deserve weight reduction of every possible gram in order to minimize their inertial property during operation in space. These stringent demands on contemporary structures often made them more susceptible to unwanted vibrations.

Another relevant fact in modern life is the increasing demands of safety and reliability upon contemporary structures either defined by government regulations or accrued by consumers. These demands have created new challenges to the scientific understanding of engineering structures. Where the vibration of a structure is of concern, the challenge lies on better understanding its dynamic properties using analytical, numerical or experimental means, or a combination of them.

As the significance of dynamic behaviour of engineering structures is better appreciated, it becomes important to design them with proper consideration of dynamics. Finite element analysis as a computer modelling approach has provided engineers with a versatile design tool, especially when dynamic properties need to be perused. This numerical analysis requires rigorous theoretical guidance to ascertain meaningful outcomes in relation to structural dynamics. An important part of dynamic finite element analysis is modal analysis.

Computer modelling alone cannot determine completely the dynamic behaviour of structures, because certain structural properties such as damping and nonlinearity do not conform with traditional modelling treatment. There are also boundary condition uncertainties which modelling needs additional help to work. Substantial advances in experimental techniques have complemented modelling with the experimental determination of structural properties. A milestone of this endeavour is the advent of digital Fourier transform analysers. The experimental techniques are nurtured by the theory of modal analysis and in turn provide new impetus to it.

1.2 What is modal analysis?

Modal analysis is the process of determining the inherent dynamic characteristics of a system in forms of natural frequencies, damping factors and mode shapes, and using them to formulate a mathematical model for its dynamic behaviour. The formulated mathematical model is referred to as the modal model of the system and the information for the characteristics are known as its modal data.

The dynamics of a structure are physically decomposed by frequency and position. This is clearly evidenced by the analytical solution of partial differential equations of continuous systems such as beams and strings. Modal analysis is based upon the fact that the vibration response of a linear time-invariant dynamic system can be expressed as the linear combination of a set of simple harmonic motions called the natural modes of vibration. This concept is akin to the use of a Fourier combination of sine and cosine waves to represent a complicated waveform. The natural modes of vibration are inherent to a dynamic system and are determined completely by its physical properties (mass, stiffness, damping) and their spatial distributions. Each mode is described in terms of its modal parameters: natural frequency, the modal damping factor and characteristic displacement pattern, namely mode shape. The mode shape may be real or complex. Each corresponds to a natural frequency. The degree of participation of each natural mode in the overall vibration is determined both by properties of the excitation source(s) and by the mode shapes of the system.

Modal analysis embraces both theoretical and experimental techniques. The theoretical modal analysis anchors on a physical model of a dynamic system comprising its mass, stiffness and damping properties. These properties may be given in forms of partial differential equations. An example is the wave equation of a uniform vibratory string established from its mass distribution and elasticity properties. The solution of the equation provides the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the string and its forced vibration responses. However, a more realistic physical model will usually comprise the mass, stiffness and damping properties in terms of their spatial distributions, namely the mass, stiffness and damping matrices. These matrices are incorporated into a set of normal differential equations of motion. The superposition principle of a linear dynamic system enables us to transform these equations into a typical eigenvalue problem. Its solution provides the modal data of the system. Modern finite element analysis empowers the discretization of almost any linear dynamic structure and hence has greatly enhanced the capacity and scope of theoretical modal analysis. On the other hand, the rapid development over the last two decades of data acquisition and processing capabilities has given rise to major advances in the experimental realm of the analysis, which has become known as modal testing.

1.3 What is modal testing?

Modal testing is an experimental technique used to derive the modal model of a linear time-invariant vibratory system. The theoretical basis of the technique is secured upon establishing the relationship between the vibration response at one location and excitation at the same or another location as a function of excitation frequency. This relationship, which is often a complex mathematical function, is known as frequency response function, or FRF in short. Combinations of excitation and response at different locations lead to a complete set of frequency response functions (FRFs) which can be collectively represented by an FRF matrix of the system. This matrix is usually symmetric, reflecting the structural reciprocity of the system.

The practice of modal testing involves measuring the FRFs or impulse responses of a structure. The FRF measurement can simply be done by asserting a measured excitation at one location of the structure in the absence of other excitations and measure vibration responses at one or more location(s). Modern excitation technique and recent developments of modal analysis theory permit more complicated excitation mechanisms. The excitation can be of a selected frequency band, stepped sinusoid, transient, random or white noise. It is usually measured by a force transducer at the driving point while the response is measured by accelerometers or other probes. Both the excitation and response signals are fed into an analyser which is an instrument responsible for computing the FRF data.

A practical consideration of modal testing is how much FRF data need to be acquired in order to adequately derive the modal model of the tested object. When doing a simple hammer test, a fixed response location is used while alternately moving force excitation points. The measured FRF data constitute a row of the FRF matrix (explained in Chapter 7). These data would theoretically suffice for deriving the modal model. For a simple shaker test, a fixed force input location is used while alternately moving response collection points or simultaneous acquiring responses from points. The measured FRF data constitute a column of the FRF matrix. Again, the data should suffice theoretically. With sufficient data, numerical analysis will derive modal parameters by ways of curve fitting. This process is known as experimental modal analysis. The derived parameters will form the modal model for the test structure. Parameters can be extracted either from individual FRF curves or from a set of FRF curves.

In summary, experimental modal analysis involves three constituent phases: test preparation, frequency response measurements and modal parameter identification. Test preparation involves selection of a structure’s support, type of excitation force(s), location(s) of excitation, hardware to measure force(s) and responses; determination of a structural geometry model which consists of points of response to be measured; and identification of mechanisms which could lead to inaccurate measurement. During the test, a set of FRF data is measured and stored which is then analysed to identify modal parameters of the tested structure.

1.4 Applications of modal analysis

Both theoretical and experimental modal analysis ultimately arrive at the modal model of a dynamic system. Compared with the FRF or the vibration response, the modal model explicitly portrays the dynamic characteristics of a system. Therefore, applications of modal analysis are closely related to utilizing the derived modal model in design, problem solving and analysis. Before embarking on the discussion of applications, it is important to refresh the two different paths from which a modal model is derived. Theoretical modal analysis relies on the description of physical properties of a system to derive the modal model. Such a description usually contains the mass, stiffness and damping matrices of the system. Thus, it is a path from spatial data to modal model. Experimental modal analysis obtains the modal model from measured FRF data or measured free vibration response data. Thus, it is a path from response data to modal model. Once the modal model is derived, a number of applications can be instigated. Some applications of modal analysis involve direct use of modal data from measurement while others use these data for further analysis. In the following, some of the applications of modal analysis are reviewed. Detailed theoretical analysis of these applications and more will be found later in the book or in the literature.

1.4.1 Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting using experimental modal analysis is to gain an insight into a dynamic structure which is problematic. This is a most popular application of experimental modal analysis since its emergence. It also often heralds further applications of modal analysis. Troubleshooting relies on experimentally derived natural frequencies, damping factors and mode shapes of the structure. These data provide a fundamental understanding of the structural characteristics and often reveal the root of dynamic problems encountered in real life.

1.4.2 Correlation of finite element model and experimental results

Many applications of structural dynamics rely their success entirely upon having an accurate mathematical model for a dynamic structure. Such a model can be derived from the finite element modelling. The resultant FE model, which is in the form of mass and stiffness matrices, can be essential for further applications such as sensitivity analysis and prediction due to proposed structural changes. However, owing to the complexity and uncertainty of the structure, it is unrealistic to expect such an FE model to be faithfully representative. An essential approach is to take a measurement of the structure, derive its modal model and use it to correlate with the existing FE model in order to update it. The philosophy behind this model correlation is that the modal model derived from measurement, though incomplete due to lack of sufficient numbers of vibration modes and measured locations, truly represents the structure’s dynamic behaviour. Thus, it can be used to ‘correct’ the FE model, should any discrepancies occur between them. This philosophy may be challenged by some FE analysts but experience has justified its merits in most