Geometry, Its Elements and Structure: Second Edition

538

1 Introduction to Geometry

1-1

REVIEW OF BASIC TERMS

As we begin the study of geometry, it is well that we review basic terms, both geometric and otherwise, that will be needed in this course.

It is not possible to define all terms. Something must remain undefined. Whenever a term is defined, other terms must be used. For example, if a square is defined as a rectangle with equal adjacent sides, what is a rectangle and what are equal adjacent sides? When they are defined, they must be defined in terms of other items. If we try to define everything, the process is endless. When you first studied sets, many terms were defined, but set itself remained undefined. Since in geometry we will be dealing with sets of points, sets of lines, and sets of planes, we list here for reference some of the most frequently used definitions.

Definition 1-1 If every element of set A is also an element of set B, then A is a subset of B.

Definition 1-2 If set A is a subset of set B, but set B contains at least one element not in set A, then A is a proper subset of B.

Definition 1-3 Sets A and B are equal sets if and only if each is a subset of the other. A = B .

Definition 1-4 Set A and set B are equivalent sets if and only if their elements can be placed in a one-to-one correspondence. The sets have the same number of elements.

Are equal sets always equivalent? Are equivalent sets always equal? Notice that all of the above definitions are in terms of the undefined set. Definitions 1-2 and 1-3 are also in terms of the defined subset. Other definitions stem from the operations we can perform on sets.

Definition 1-5 The intersection of sets A and B, is the set of all elements that are common to both A and B.

Definition 1-6 The union of sets A and B, is the set of all elements that are in A or B or both A and B

If a binary operation on sets is to be well defined, it must identify a set corresponding to each ordered pair of sets.

Will there always be a union regardless of what sets A and B are? As surely as there are elements in A or B, there is a union. But when we consider intersection, it is possible that sets A and B have no elements in common. This is the motivation for a set without elements.

Definition 1-7 A set that has no elements is the empty set or null set, Ø.

Definition 1-8 Two non-empty sets whose intersection is the null set are disjoint sets.

EXERCISES

Refer to the diagram at right for Exercises 1-9.

?

.

.

=? What is the intersection of the set of even whole

=?

.

.

.

.

10.What is the intersection of the set of even whole numbers and the set of odd whole numbers? What is their union?

11.What is the intersection of the set of positive integers and the set of negative integers? What is the union?

12.Given any two subsets A and Ba subset of B?

13.Is set B ?

Let U = the set of natural numbers less than 25, A = {5, 10, 15, 20} and B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23}. List the members of each of the following sets.

Describe the intersection of the sets of points for each of the following.

29.Lines AB and CD

30.Circle O and line t

Describe the union of the following sets.

31.Triangle ABC and its interior with triangle BPD and its interior.

32.Concentric circles O and O’

33.Describe the ring formed by O and O’ in terms of sets. Let set O = the union of circle O and its interior. Similarly for O’.

SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT

Venn Diagrams

John Venn (1834–1923) devised a method for showing models of statements about sets. We call these models Venn Diagramscan be shown in one of three ways, depending upon the relationship between the sets.

. In the center A and B have elements in common but neither is a subset of the other. On the right the two sets are disjoint. The union of the sets A and B can be shown in one of the following ways.

The set containing every element under consideration is called the universal set. We shall let U represent the universal set. To show a model for U, we use a closed region different from the regions used for the other sets. A rectangle is usually used, with circular regions representing subsets. In the figures below, set A is a subset of U. In the right-hand figure, elements of U that are not in A are shaded. It is the complement of set A, and is indicated as A’.

is true, we can construct a Venn diagram to represent each part of the statement and then show the shaded regions are the same.

Use Venn diagrams to show that the following statements are true.

These statements were first proved by Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871) and are therefore known as De Morgan’s Laws.

1-2

ARRIVING AT CONCLUSIONS

In our daily lives we reach conclusions in many ways. Is relieve or relive a correctly spelled word? You can check which is correct by looking in the dictionary. This is reaching a conclusion by appeal to authority.

Did you ever base a conclusion on a hunch? You were certain of your conclusion but for no reason that you were consciously aware of. Horseplayers who play their hunches usually lose money in large bunches. Some people call their hunches intuition. They may have very good reasons for their conclusion, but may not be aware of them.

Sometimes we reach conclusions by experimentation. Is n² − n+41 a prime number when n is a positive whole number? Let us try a few cases.

If you like to get your daily exercise by jumping to conclusions, you may be willing to say n² − n+41 is a prime for any positive integral number. If you verified a prime result for values of n up to 30, you would hardly be jumping to conclusions. But the danger of arriving at conclusions this way becomes apparent when you try n = 41: n² − n + 41 = 41² − 41 + 41 = 41², not a prime.

Class Exercises

1.You meet a new acquaintance who reminds you very much of a former boy friend. You decide at once that you do not like him. What kind of conclusion is this?

2.Just by looking at the figure at the right would you say that BF = FD? No measuring now!

3.After observing the trains that stop at your station for two months, you tell a friend who is coming to visit you when his or her train will arrive. On what kind of conclusion is your response based?

Complete each of the following with the number that makes the statement true:

10.Upon what kind of conclusion is your answer to Exercise 9 based?

When we make a generalization from many specific cases, we are reaching an inductive conclusion. The danger of inductive conclusions is apparent from the prime number example on page 6. Inductive reasoning is very important in mathematics, but it should never be confused with proof.

But just what is proof? The word is used in many ways. Printer’s proof has little to do with the proof of alcoholic spirits. Still a different kind of proof is demonstrated when the championship basketball team takes the court. And in a court of law, proof means something still different.

Mathematical conclusions are reached by deductive reasoning. This is if–then thinking. A statement of the form If so and so–then such and such is a true statement provided it is impossible for the if part to be true and the then part to be false. Mathematical proof consists of establishing the truth of if–then statements. Let us examine a few if–then statements to illustrate what is meant by the above.

Example 1If the number n has a factor 5, then it has 5 in its one’s digit. Is this statement true?

SolutionWe know that when n = 25, both if and then are true statements. Also if n = 24, both if and then are false. But this has nothing to do with the truth of the if–then statement.

If we try n = 30, we have a true if since 30 = 5 × 6, but a false then since the one’s digit is not 5. The if–then statement is false.

Example 1 illustrates an interesting and useful fact. We can prove that a false statement is false by finding one example. Consider this example. If a triangle is a right triangle, then its sides are in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5. This statement is false because many right triangles have sides not in the ratio 3 : 4 : 5. We prove the statement false by exhibiting one case, for example a triangle whose sides are 5, 12, and 13.

Example 2If the number n has 5 in its one’s digit, then it is a multiple of 5. Is this a true statement?

SolutionWhen n = 25, both if and then are true. When n = 24, both if and then are false. When n = 30, if is false and then is true. None of the above has anything to do with the proof of the statement. Find an n that makes if true and then false, and you will have proved the statement false. But we cannot prove the statement true by finding any number of cases with both if and then true. Nor can we prove it by failing to find an n that makes if true and then false. It may be that there is such an n but that we did not find it.

How, then, can we arrive at a conclusion concerning the truth of a statement such as that in Example 2? The answer to this question will be one of our major concerns in the next few chapters.

EXERCISES

A

Classify each of the following as based on induction or intuition. Look up the meanings of any unfamiliar terms.

1.I am very fond of dogs. I do not like Jim; he hates dogs.

2.After eating at Lou’s Diner for a week, you decide the lunches there are not very good. You decide to eat somewhere else.

3.Find the number of diagonals you can draw in a quadrilateral, a pentagon, a hexagon.

4.Without experimentation, use the results of Exercise 3 to decide how many diagonals can be drawn in a 12-sided polygon.

5.Draw four triangles of different shapes. Find the measures of the angles of each triangle. For each triangle, find the sum of the angle measures. What inductive conclusion can you make about the sum of the measures of the three angles of any triangle?

6.Repeat Exercise 5 using four pentagons of different shapes.

Without determining any intervening terms, try to decide what the tenth term is in each of the following.

B

Make an inductive conclusion from each of the following sets of observations:

In each of the following, use your protractor to measure the angles opposite congruent sides, as marked.

20.From Exercises 17, 18, 19, what inductive conclusion can you draw concerning the angles of an isosceles triangle?

21.Draw three different quadrilaterals and extend the sides as in the figure at the right. Find the sum of the measures of the angles in the quadrilateral and the sum of those outside. What inductive conclusion can you draw?

1-3

ASSUMPTIONS AND DEFINITIONS

In section 1-1 we saw a number of definitions. They were for review and all concerned sets. We have used a number of geometric terms without defining them. Any logical discussion will soon break down unless there is an agreement on the meaning of the terms involved. Frequently, disagreement arises because people are using the same words to mean different things.

As essential as definitions are, we have already observed that it is impossible to define everything. A dictionary attempts to define all words that it uses. But it is guilty of circularity of definition; a is defined in terms of b, b is defined in terms of c, and c in terms of a. This is another way of saying a is a. A good example of circular definitions is:

(1)Perpendicular lines are intersecting lines that form right angles.

(2)Right angles are equal adjacent angles whose noncommon sides form a straight line.

(3)Equal adjacent angles whose noncommon sides form a straight line are angles formed by perpendicular lines.

Circular definitions are not enlightening. We must accept something without definition. The simpler the idea involved the better. We hope the undefined terms mean the same for everyone. There is nothing wrong with discussing them, describing them, giving illustrations and analogies. But in the final analysis, they must be taken as our starting point. The undefined terms we shall use in this geometry development are point, line, and plane. These words, together with common English terms, enable us to give meaningful definitions to other words. Defined terms can in turn be used to define other terms.

Example 1We can define a square as: A square is a rectangle with equal adjacent sides. What terms, defined or undefined, are used to define square?

SolutionRectangle, side, equal sides, and adjacent sides are the terms used to define square. These terms must each be previously defined or be an undefined term.

It is not sufficient merely to make a true statement about the object that is defined. A square is a rectangle is a true statement. But it is not sufficient as a definition. Every definition should be reversible, and A rectangle is a square is not a true statement since there are plenty of rectangles that are not squares.

On the other hand, A right angle is an angle whose measure is 90 is an acceptable definition of right angle. If we reverse the statement, An angle whose measure is 90 is a right angle is an equally correct statement. Right angle and 90 degree angle are two names for the same thing.

A definition must also place the term being defined into a larger set. This larger set must then be restricted so that it includes nothing but the term being defined. This is what the above definition of a square does. It places the set of all squares in the set of all rectangles, and restricts rectangles to those that have equal adjacent sides. It identifies the subset of rectangles that are squares.

What would be wrong with defining a square thus: A square is a four-sided figure all of whose sides are equal and all of whose angles are right angles, and whose diagonals are equal and perpendicular. This is a true description of a square, but it is a poor definition on two counts. It places squares in the set of 4-sided figures which is not the most restrictive set it can be placed in. Furthermore, it provides more information than is necessary to pick out the subset of squares.

For example, we can rewrite Definition 1-8: If the intersection of two sets is the null set, then they are disjoint. The reverse of this is: If two sets are disjoint, then their intersection is the null set. The reversibility of a definition means that it is a true two-way if-then statement.

Summary. Characteristics of a Good Definition

A good definition must:

1.name the term being defined;

2.use only previously defined terms or accepted undefined terms;

3.place the set into the smallest set to which it belongs;

4.state the characteristic of the term being defined which distinguishes it from the other members of the set;

5.contain no more information than is necessary for Step 4;

6.always be reversible.

Example 2Show that the definition of a square as a rectangle with equal adjacent sides is a two-way if–then statement.

SolutionThe definition means: If a figure is a square, then it is a rectangle with equal adjacent sides; and if a figure is a rectangle with equal adjacent sides, then it is a square.

We should be careful to observe that not all true statements are reversible.

Example 3Show that all right angles are equal is not a reversible statement.

SolutionThe reverse statement All equal angles are right angles is not a true statement. Equal angles can have other measures.

From Section 1-2 we know mathematical proof, deductive proof, consists of showing that if-then statements are true. Many if-then statements can be established by showing that they are definitions. But definitions alone are not sufficient to prove many statements. Another source of true if-then statements is the set of postulates that are used.

Just as it is impossible to define everything, it is impossible to prove all statements concerning defined and undefined terms. Proofs cannot be created without basis. Some relationships between the defined and undefined terms must be accepted without proof. They must be assumed to be true.

Postulates are statements accepted without proof. Although they are not necessarily worded that way, most postulates are also if-then statements. But unlike definitions they are not necessarily reversible.

Example 4Show that the postulate "if B means the measure of angle A.)

Solutionthen B could be 180°.

Example 5Show that the postulate If two distinct points of a line lie in a plane, then the line lies in that plane is reversible.

SolutionThe reverse statement If a line lies in a plane, then any two distinct points of the line lie in the plane is certainly true. If the line lies in the plane, all of its points lie in the plane.

Example 6Show that the statement, "If A is a proper subset of B, then A is a subset of B," is not reversible.

SolutionThe reverse statement "If A is a subset of B, then A is a proper subset of B," is not true since A may have the same elements as B, that is, it may contain all of the elements of B and so not be a proper subset.

Example 7Show that the statement, "If A is in the intersection of sets X and Y, then A is in set X," is not reversible.

SolutionThe reverse statement, "lf A is contained in set X, then A is contained in the intersection of sets X and Y," is not necessarily true. Define some sets for yourself to show this.

Postulates are another source of true if–then statements. If–then statements that are neither definitions nor postulates are called theorems. In a later section we shall discuss how these if–then statements can be proved.

EXERCISES

A

Try to identify the algebraic postulate that justifies each of the following if-then statements.

1.If a = b and m = n, then a + m = b + n.

2.If 5x(a −7) = n, then (a − 7)5x = n.

3.If a = 5, then 3a + 5 = 3.5 + 5.

4.If a(x + y) = m, then ax + ay = m.

5.If 5(a − x) = 25, then a − x = 5.

6.Which of the postulates cited in Exercises 1-5 are reversible?

State the reverse of each of the following definitions.

7.If the sides of two angles form two pairs of opposite rays, then the angles are vertical angles.

8.A triangle is a polygon with three sides.

9.If a triangle is isosceles, then it has exactly two sides of equal length.

10.Space is the set of all points.

11.In Exercises 8 and 10 if the definition can be stated in if-then form, state its reverse in that form.

12.Suggest a way to eliminate the following circular defining:

of a right angle.

b)A right angle is the angle formed by perpendicular lines.

c)Perpendicular lines are lines which form a 90 degree angle.

B

13.Can postulates be proved? Explain your answer.

14.Recall our definition of space in Exercise 10. Could space be listed as an undefined term? Explain your answer.

15.Why could we not define line as a set of points in a plane?

16.Why could we not define line as a set of collinear points?

1-4

LINES

Although point and line are undefined, they are not unrelated. We can have points in a line, and we can have lines on a point.

You should not think of all the points on a line as being identical with the line any more than you should think all the lines on a point are identical with the point. Though undefined, points and lines are two different kinds of things. A line is a collection, a set, of points; and a set has a different kind of identity than its elements. From your study of algebra, you are familiar with the number line. There is a real number corresponding to each point on the line and a point on the line corresponding to each real number.

If the number line is applied to a line containing two points, each point determines a real number. The difference between the two real numbers is the distance between the points.

Postulate 1-1 The Distance Postulate To every pair of distinct points there corresponds a unique real number.

Definition 1-9 The distance between two points is the unique number corresponding to them. We denote the distance from A to B by AB.

Postulate 1-2 The Ruler Postulate A correspondence between the real numbers and the points of a line can be made such that:

1.to each real number, there corresponds exactly one point of the line;

2.to each point of the line, there corresponds exactly one real number;

3.the distance between any two points is the absolute value of the difference of the coordinates of the points.

In part 3, the requirement of absolute value means that we are not dealing with directed segments. That is, the distance between A and B may be considered either the distance from A to B or the distance from B to A. If this were not true, the next definition would not be usable.

Given three collinear points A, B, C, we know intuitively that exactly one of the points can lie between the other two.

The definition below helps establish what we mean by between.

Definition 1-10 If points A, B,C are distinct points of a line such that AC + CB = AB, then point C lies between points A and B.

Class Exercises

Point Q lies between points P and R of a line.

1.If PR = 12 and QR = 3, find PQ.

2.If PQ = 5 and PR = 8, find QR.

3.If PQ = 8 and QR = 9, find PR.

4.If PR = 7 and QP = 2, find QR.

5.If P, Q, and R lie on a line such that PR = 12 and PQ = 15, does Q lie between P and R?

6.M has the coordinate −3. Name the coordinate(s) of the point(s) A, B of a line which are a distance of 7 from point M of the line.

, what can you conclude?

8.If 3x > 2y and 2y

9.Is it true that if 3 < 12, then 3x < l 2x when x is positive?

Solve each of the following:

Figures are indispensable aids in studying geometric relationships.

It is customary to refer to points with capital letters and to represent them with dots. A line is named by referring to two points of the line, for example, points R and S is read "line RS." We may also use a lower case letter to name a line. In the vertical plane, we see line l. There are several ways of referring to a plane, but for the present, we shall name a plane with a single capital letter preceded by the word plane. In the figures above, we see models representing a horizontal plane P and a vertical plane M. In the models, point T is contained in plane P, line l is contained in plane M, and point Q lies in plane M but not on l.

Your study of geometry will be more satisfying and productive if you look very closely and carefully at each symbol. You must understand each meaning exactly. Only then can you proceed without confusion.

Definition 1-11 A set of points is collinear if all the points lie on one line.

Points A, B, and D How many lines can be drawn containing both points A and B? Are two points all that are needed to determine a line? To determine means to specify exactly one. Points A, B, and C above do not all lie on the same line. Do they all lie in the same plane? In how many different planes can the three noncollinear points lie? When two points of a line lie in a plane, does the entire line lie in the plane?

Definition 1-12 A set of points is coplanar if all the points lie in the same plane.

In the model at right, how many planes can you name? Name the coplanar points in plane R. Are points A, B, C, and D coplanar?

Definition 1-13 A line segment is determined by two points A, B. All points between A and B are points of the segment, and A and B are its endpoints. We denote line segment AB .

Class Exercises

1.Describe the relationship between a line and the plane in which the line lies.

2.Does the relationship described in Exercise 1 apply to the relationship between a line segment and the line of which it is a part?

3.Are any two points collinear?

4.Are any four points coplanar?

5.Are any three points coplanar?

6.Are two intersecting lines coplanar?

We have said the distance between points A and B is indicated by AB. This is also the measure of segment AB.

Definition 1-14 AB is the measure .

If a point C divides segment AB into two segments of equal measure, then C How many midpoints can a segment have?

Definition 1-15 Point C is the midpoint if C lies between A and B, and AC = CB.

Imagine point A fixed on a line and point B approaching A. As B moves closer to A, AB becomes smaller, approaching zero. Then when B coincides with A, we have a segment of zero length.

Definition 1-16 A point may be considered a segment whose measure is zero. We may call point A a zero segment.

A segment has only one midpoint. How many midpoints does a line have? No matter what point we choose, no segments are formed. The line is endless in either direction from the point; therefore, a line has no midpoint.

Postulate 1-3 The Line Separation Postulate Any point P of a line separates the remaining points of the line into two distinct sets of points, one on each side of P.

Definition 1-17 The sets of points described in the line separation postulate are half-lines with P the endpoint of each half-line. The half-line through B .

How do you indicate the other half-line formed by P? The union of a half-line and its endpoint is a ray: the union of half-line PA and point P is ray PA.

Definition 1-18 A ray is the union of a half-line and its endpoint. We denote ray PQ .

The endpoint of a ray is often called its vertex. Any point on a line determines two rays as well as two half-lines. Two such rays are called opposite rays. Opposite rays form a line.

EXERCISES

A

Match each symbol (1–5) with the proper name (a–e):

1.AB

a. half-line AB

b. line AB

c. segment AB

d. measure of segment AB

e. ray AB.

Using the accompanying three-dimensional model, determine whether each of the following sets is (a) collinear and/or (b) coplanar:

6.{A, F, D}

7.{A, B, D, E}

8.{P, A, F}

9.{A, F, D, E}

Describe each of the following sets, using the illustration above:

B

16.How many lines are determined by two distinct points?

?

Indicate whether statements 18–23 are true or false:

18.If points A and B lie in the plane.

lie in one plane, then R, A, and B are collinear.

20.Three noncollinear points are also noncoplanar.

21.Rays with common vertices are opposite rays.

22.If AC = CB, then A, B, and C are collinear.

23.The measure PQ is a real number.

C

24.A point of a line separates the line into two half-lines. Extend this idea to describe the separation of a plane by a line.

25.Name a geometric figure that is formed by three noncollinear points. Into how many parts does this figure divide the plane in which it lies?

26.Name eight geometric figures formed by a pair of intersecting lines.

1-5

ANGLES

If two rays share a common endpoint, must they be opposite rays? What other kind of figure can they form? Here are some examples:

We recognize these figures as angles. From the figures, we see that we can define an angle in terms of the rays that form the angle.

Definition 1-19 An angle is the union of two noncollinear rays with a common endpoint. The common endpoint of the rays is the vertex of the angle. The two rays are the sides of the angle.

for angle.

How many angles in the figure on the right have N using three letters.

Any line in a plane separates the plane into two half-planes. If the half-plane includes the separating line, or edge of the half-plane, we say this is a closed half-plane.

Postulate 1-4 The Plane Separation Postulate Any line m of plane P separates the points of P that are not in m two such that:

1.for any two points A and B lies entirely in that set;

2.if A is in one set and B intersects m.

Definition 1-20 The sets described in the Plane Separation Postulate are half-planes, with m as the edge of each half-plane.

is the edge of the half-plane containing P and the opposite half-plane containing R.

Angle Measure

We use a ruler to measure lines and segments. Can we use the ruler to measure angles? Angles differ in the amount of separation between their rays. The unit we use to measure this separation is the degree. The measuring device we use to determine the number of degrees in an angle is the protractor. The protractor uses a semicircular scale with units from 0 to 180. Usually the scale is marked in both directions.

Postulate 1-5 The Angle Measure Postulate To every angle there corresponds a real number between 0 and 180.

Definition 1-21 The measure of an angle .

Example 1.

Solution, with the center mark of the protractor over the vertex B . The measure is 40. We write m = 40.

Example 2Find the measure of each angle having O as its vertex.

SolutionThere are three angles with vertex O

In Example 2, point N . Other than by looking at a figure, how can we tell whether a point is in the interior of an angle? More specifically, just what is the interior of an angle? If the edges of two half-planes intersect, how many angles are formed? How many rays? If we select a point other than the point of intersection on each of two noncollinear rays, we identify an angle. In the figure at the right, we have selected M and P containing P containing M .

Definition 1-22 The interior of an angle is the intersection of two half-planes. Each half-plane has for its edge the line containing one of the sides of the angle, and contains the other side.

Example 3Is the vertex of an angle in the interior of the angle?

SolutionA half-plane does not include its edge. Hence the sides of the angle are not in its interior. Since the vertex lies on both sides, it is not in the interior.

Class Exercises

Determine which of the following are true:

1.The intersection of two rays is a point.

2.A ray separates a plane into two half-planes.

3.A half-plane does not include the edge.

.

5.Name all of the angles in the model having O as vertex.

.

.

8.Which points of the set {A, B, C, D, E, O?

9.Describe the closed half-plane containing the points B and C.

?

Use your protractor to find the measure of each of the angles of the following triangle:

11.∠XYZ = ______

12.∠YXZ = ______

13.∠XZY = ______

Use your protractor to construct triangles such that the angles have the following measures:

Angle Relationships

Consider the pair of angles PQR and RQS. Now consider the pair of angles PQS and PQR. These two pairs are alike in that the angles in each have a common vertex and a common side, but they also differ in one respect. Can you tell how they differ? The first pair shows an example of adjacent angles.

Definition 1-23 Adjacent angles are two angles with a common vertex and a common side, but no common interior points.

We classify angles by their measure. The three types of angles we have seen so far are acute, obtuse, and right angles.

at the vertex of an angle to indicate that it is a right angle.

Definition 1-24 An angle whose measure is between 0 and 90 is called an acute angle. An angle whose measure is between 90 and 180 is called an obtuse angle. An angle whose measure is 90 is called a right angle.

Definition 1-25 intersect, and they form adjacent angles of equal measure, then the lines are perpendicular

Definition 1-26 If the two noncommon sides of adjacent angles are collinear that is, form opposite rays – we say that the angles are a linear pair.

, form a linear pair. Traditionally, we refer to a linear pair as forming a straight angle.

Definition 1-27 If the sum of the measures of two angles is 90, the angles are complementary angles. Each angle is the complement of the other.

Example 4.

Solution, we have

Thus,

Definition 1-28 If the sum of the measures of two angles is 180, the angles are supplementary angles. Each angle is the supplement of the other.

The definitions of supplementary angles and a linear pair lead to the next postulate:

Postulate 1-6 The Supplementary Angles Postulate Two angles that form a linear pair are supplementary.

Not every pair of supplementary angles form a linear pair; the angles must also be adjacent.

Example 5are a linear pair.

Solution

When a ray shares its vertex with an angle and lies in the interior of the angle so that two angles with equal measure are formed, the ray bisects the angle.

Definition 1-29 If point P is the bisector .

It has been mentioned that a linear pair is sometimes called a straight angle. In view of Postulate 1-6, we can now extend the definition of an angle to include two opposite rays and two coincident rays which will have measures of 180 and 0 respectively. We also revise Postulate 1-5 to include measures of 0 and 180.

Definition 1-30 A straight angle is an angle whose measure is 180. Treated as an angle, a single ray is an angle whose measure is 0.

EXERCISES

A

is a right angle.

Classify each of the following as acute, obtuse, or right:

1.∠POR

2.∠POS

3.∠POT

4.∠ROS

5.∠TOP

6.∠SOT

is in the interior.

is in the exterior of what angle? A point not on the angle nor in the interior is in the exterior.

.

Name the degree measure of each of the following:

of a right angle

of a right angle

13.two right angles

of a right angle

15.the sum of complementary angles

16.a linear pair

Using your protractor, determine the measure of each of the following angles:

Using your protractor, form an angle for each of the following:

21.54°

22.72°

23.85°

24.142°

25.115°

26.38°

Determine the measure of the complement of each of the following angles:

27.55°

28.72°

29.15°

Determine the measure of the supplement of each of the following angles:

30.55°

31.172°

32.8°

33.90°

B

.

35.If P .

Using your protractor, determine the measure of each angle:

Classify the angle supplementary to each of the following angles:

39.a right angle

40.an obtuse angle

41.an acute angle

Describe the angles resulting from bisecting each of the following:

42.an obtuse angle

43.a right angle

44.an acute angle

C

45.Two angles are complementary and one is twice the measure of the other. Find the measures of these angles.

46.Two angles are complementary and the measure of one angle is 36 less than the other. Find the measures of the two angles.

47.The supplement of an angle exceeds five times the measure of the angle by 6. Find the measures of the supplementary angles.

48.The supplement of an angle exceeds five times the complement of the angle by 10. Find the measure of the angle.

A LOOK AT THE PAST

Euclid’s Elements

The first geometric concepts evolved as ancient \civilizations attempted to explain the world. In the records of the Egyptian and Babylonian civilizations, we find many references to geometric ideas. The Greeks, however, were the first people to make an extensive, well-organized study of the properties of geometry.

The study of geometry was organized by the Greek mathematician Euclid (about 300 B.C.). His thoughts were set down in The Elements, a series of 13 books dealing with plane and solid geometry. In The Elements, Euclid included conclusions that had been developed by earlier Greek schools, such as the Pythagorean School and the Academy of Plato, as well as by individual Greek mathematicians such as Thales. Much of the content had been refined for many years before Euclid. Euclid’s major contribution is the simplicity of his organization. He arranged all the concepts in a logical order, showing how each one could be deduced from a basic set of definitions and assumptions.

1-6

POLYGONS

We have briefly discussed the line and the angle. In this section we shall informally consider other plane figures called polygons. Polygons are figures formed by joining segments at their endpoints, if the segments do not intersect at any other points. The segments become the sides of the polygon. In Chapter 6 we shall formally define polygon. We classify polygons according to the number of sides. An n-sided polygon is referred to as an n-gon. The more frequently used polygons, however, have special names. You know the names for some of the polygons of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 12 sides. These are the names: triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, octagon, nonagon, decagon, dodecagon. What is the least number of sides a polygon can have?

Definition 1-31 A triangle is a three-sided polygon.

A triangle has three sides and three vertices. In the figure at the right, the three noncollinear points X, Y, and Z . The union of these segments forms triangle XYZ. We denote triangle XYZ are the sides of the triangle. The points X, Y, and Z .

The triangle separates the remaining points of the plane into two distinct sets of points: the set of points inside the triangle and the set of points outside the triangle. The set of points inside forms the interior of the triangle, and the set of points outside forms the exterior of the triangle. The interior of a triangle is the intersection of the interior of any two angles of the triangle.

Example 1Name all the triangles in the figure at the right.

SolutionAny three noncollinear points determine a triangle. We select any two and use all the possible third points. If we pick A and C. If we pick C and B. If we select any other two points, we will repeat triangles that we have named. Why?

If point M is called a median . We shall discuss the median in greater detail in a later chapter. For now, it is sufficient to say that a median is the segment connecting a vertex of a triangle to the midpoint of the opposite side. In the figure above, a median is the segment from the vertex C to point M . If D from the vertex A . Assume that N . Since there is only one midpoint for each side, how many medians do you think a triangle has?

Classification of Triangles

If all three measures of the sides of a triangle are different, the triangle is scalene. If only two sides are of equal measure, the triangle is isosceles. If all three sides are of equal measure, the triangle is equilateral.

Slash marks on the sides in the figures indicate sides that are equal in measure.

Example 2In the model at the right, classify the triangles according to their sides. Segments of equal measure are marked.

Solution.

Triangles can be classified by the types of angles they contain.

Definition 1-32 An acute triangle is a triangle with three acute angles. An obtuse triangle is a triangle with one obtuse angle. A right triangle is a triangle with one right angle.