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    Vectors and Their Applications
    Vectors and Their Applications
    Vectors and Their Applications
    Ebook304 pages1 hour

    Vectors and Their Applications

    By Anthony J. Pettofrezzo

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    About this ebook

    Geared toward undergraduate students, this text illustrates the use of vectors as a mathematical tool in plane synthetic geometry, plane and spherical trigonometry, and analytic geometry of two- and three-dimensional space. Its rigorous development includes a complete treatment of the algebra of vectors in the first two chapters.
    Among the text's outstanding features are numbered definitions and theorems in the development of vector algebra, which appear in italics for easy reference. Most of the theorems include proofs, and coordinate position vectors receive an in-depth treatment. Key concepts for generalized vector spaces are clearly presented and developed, and 57 worked-out illustrative examples aid students in mastering the concepts. A total of 258 exercise problems offer supplements to theories or provide the opportunity to reinforce the understanding of applications, and answers to odd-numbered exercises appear at the end of the book.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherDover Publications
    Release dateDec 4, 2012
    ISBN9780486148892
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      Book preview

      Vectors and Their Applications - Anthony J. Pettofrezzo

      BOOKS

      chapter 1

      Elementary Operations

      1-1 Scalars and Vectors

      In discussing physical space it is necessary to consider several types of physical quantities. One class of quantities consists of those quantities which have associated with them some measure of undirected magnitude. Such quantities are called scalar quantities or simply scalars. Each scalar quantity can be represented by a real number which indicates the magnitude of the quantity according to some arbitrarily chosen convenient scale or unit of measure. Since scalars are real numbers, scalars enter into combinations according to the rules of the algebra of real numbers. Mass, density, area, volume, time, work, electrical charge, potential, temperature, and population are examples of scalar quantities.

      A second class of physical quantities consists of those quantities which have associated with them both the property of magnitude and the property of direction. Such quantities are called vector quantities or simply vectors. Force, velocity, acceleration, and momentum are examples of vector quantities.

      The following example illustrates the need to distinguish between scalars and vectors. Consider a plane which flies from point A to point B, 300 miles east of A, and then proceeds to fly north to a third point C, 400 miles north of B as shown in Figure 1 – 1. The distances which the plane has flown are scalars and may be added in the usual manner to determine the total distance covered by the flight; that is, 300 + 400, or 700, miles. The flight may also be considered in terms of the displacement of the plane from point A to point C. This displacement may be considered as the sum of two displacements: one 300 miles east from A to B and the second 400 miles north from B to C; the sum of these displacements is the displacement 500 miles with a bearing of approximately 36°52’ east of north from A to C. Notice that direction as well as magnitude is considered in describing displacements. Displacements are examples of vector quantities. Furthermore, the sum of two displacements is calculated in a rather different manner than the sum of two scalar quantities; in other words, vector addition is quite different from scalar addition.

      Figure 1-1

      Figure 1-2

      Notice that in Figure 1-1 the displacements were denoted by means of directed line segments or arrows. In mathematics it is convenient to construct a geometric model of the physical concept of a vector and of situations involving vector quantities.

      Definition 1-1 A geometric vector or simply a vector is a directed line segment (Figure 1-2).

      In Figure 1-2 the length of the directed line segment with reference to some conveniently chosen unit of length is associated with the magnitude of the vector; thus, lengths of directed line segments represent scalars. Notice that the magnitude of a vector is a non-negative real number. Unless otherwise restricted, we shall consider a geometric vector as a vector in three-dimensional space.

      The notation for a vector which we shall use is due to the mathematician Argand. Symbolically the vector represented in , where A is the initial point (sometimes called the origin or origin point) of the directed line segment and B is the terminal point. , . . . will represent the magnitudes of such vectors.

      with the line segment whose end points are A and B, are not equal. When we use the second notation of a single small letter to represent a vector associated with a line segment, we will find it convenient to adopt the following convention for establishing the association we desire: "associate with line segment AB" shall mean ; "associate with line segment BA" shall mean Note that line segments AB and BA are identical and thus that our convention is strictly a notational procedure for this book.

      .

      Definition 1-2 A null vector is a vector whose magnitude is zero.

      By Definition 1-2, a geometric vector is a null vector if its initial and terminal points coincide. We choose to consider a null vector as a vector without a unique direction and, specifically, with a direction that is indeterminate. The null vector is the only vector whose direction is indeterminate. Some mathematicians choose to consider the null vector as having any arbitrary direction; that is, a null vector could be considered as the limit of any one of an infinite number of finite vectors as its magnitude approaches zero. The wording of many theorems in the subsequent development of vector algebra must be carefully changed if the direction of the null vector is considered arbitrary.

      Exercises

      Identify each quantity as either a scalar quantity or a vector quantity.

      Distance between New York and Boston.

      Displacement from Chicago to St. Louis.

      Temperature of 97° Fahrenheit.

      Weight of 100 pounds.

      Pressure of 18 pounds per square inch.

      250 horsepower.

      1-2 Equality of Vectors

      (denoting forces) have the same mechanical effect in that the line of action of these two vectors is the same and the vectors have the same magnitude. However, as in would be considered equal since they have equal magnitudes and lie along the same line with the same orientation. Consideration of this type of problem requires a definition of equality for a class of vectors commonly called line vectors.

      Figure 1-3

      , both having equal magnitudes and directed along the same line with the same orientation, acting upon an elastic material as indicated in would tend to stretch it. A consideration of this type of problem leads to a definition for the equality of vectors: vectors with equal magnitudes and acting along the same line of action with the same orientation are to be applied at the same point in space. A study of vectors under this definition of equality is a study of bound vectors.

      Figure 1-4

      However, those properties of geometry and trigonometry with which one is generally interested in mathematics allow mathematicians to use a less restrictive definition for the equality of vectors.

      Definition 1-3 Two vectors and are equal if, and only if, and is parallel to with the same orientation; that is, if, and only if, and have the same magnitude and direction.

      In Definition 1-3 the word parallel is used in a generalized sense to mean that the vectors are on the same or parallel lines; orientation refers to the sense of the vector along the line; direction refers to both parallelism and orientation. From the definition it follows that any vector may be subjected to a parallel displacement without considering its magnitude or direction as being changed. The vectors in Figure 1-5 are all equal to one another. Since the vectors are equal, any one of the vectors may be considered to represent a whole class of equal vectors of which the others are members.

      Under Definition 1-3 for the equality of vectors, the vectors discussed are called free vectors. Unless otherwise specified, we shall assume that all vectors are free vectors.

      Figure 1-5

      Exercises

      In Exercises 1 through 6 state whether or not the two vectors appear to be equal.

      In Exercises 7 through 9 copy the given figure and draw a vector with the given point P as its initial point and equal to the given vector.

      10 – 12. Copy the given figure in Exercises 7 through 9 and draw a vector with the given point P as its terminal point and equal to the given vector.

      1-3 Vector Addition and Subtraction

      Consideration of the displacement problem of § 1-1 and similar physical problems concerning vectors motivated the following definition called the law of vector addition.

      Definition 1-4 Given two vectors and , if is translated so that its initial point coincides with the terminal point of , then a third vector with the same initial point as and the same terminal point as is equal to (Figure 1-6).

      .

      Figure 1-6

      Figure 1-7

      Consider any parallelogram ABCD. with sides AB and BC, respectively, as in may be associated with

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