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    Vector Spaces and Matrices
    Vector Spaces and Matrices
    Vector Spaces and Matrices
    Ebook591 pages8 hours

    Vector Spaces and Matrices

    By Robert M. Thrall and Leonard Tornheim

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    This text, designed for courses in linear algebra or for supplementary use by students in such courses, possesses the distinct advantage of approaching the subject simultaneously at two levels: the concrete and the axiomatic. Each new property of a vector space is discussed first at one level, then the other. Thus the student is introduced to the elegance and power of mathematical reasoning on the basis of a set of axioms; the gap is bridged between emphasis on problem-solving and the axiomatic approach of much of modern mathematical research; and the frequent return to concrete formulations helps keep the student’s feet on solid ground. The text is designed to develop understanding and conceptual grasp, rather than mere manipulation.
    The early chapters supply a far more detailed exposition than found in many texts, important for the student having his first experience with mathematical rigor. Concepts of vector space, linear transformation, and matrix are presented, then applied to solution of systems of linear equations. A self-contained development of the theory of determinants is given; the student is introduced to the general concept of invariant; then to the theory of similarity. Exposition of the bilinear and quadratic forms and of orthogonal equivalence follow. The last four chapters are more advanced in nature and the level of treatment somewhat higher. The standard theory of polynomials in one indeterminate is given; the development of the general theory of simple algebraic extensions of a field is presented in a form that can be used as a foundation for Galois theory and also for the general similarity theory. The standard canonical forms for matrices with integral or polynomial elements are presented, followed by the similarity theory, with applications to geometry and to differential equations. The final chapter provides an introduction to the important topic of linear inequalities, often neglected in elementary texts on matrix theory. The objective is to provide the student with sufficient background to read books and papers on game theory and linear programming. Exercises follow each exposition.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherDover Publications
    Release dateJan 15, 2014
    ISBN9780486321059
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      Vector Spaces and Matrices - Robert M. Thrall

      Index

      1.1. Introduction. In arithmetic and elementary algebra we study operations on numbers and on symbols which represent numbers. In plane geometry we describe each point by a pair of numbers and so can bring the tools of algebra to bear on geometry. In solid geometry a triple of numbers is employed, and for higher dimensions we merely use more numbers to describe each point and proceed algebraically much as in the two- and three-dimensional cases. Even though for dimensions greater than three we have no direct physical representation for the geometry, it is still useful to employ geometric language in describing the algebraic results.

      The next stage in the development usually is the introduction of vectors* into geometry. Frequently vectors are initially defined as directed line segments. Two line segments with equal length, the same direction numbers, and the same sense define equal vectors. Vectors find applications in many parts of mathematics. Since they arise in geometry vectors are apt to appear in any mathematical problem that has a geometric setting. Topics in which vectors are used extensively include mechanics, dynamics, linear differential equations, statistics, differential geometry, mathematical economics, function spaces, algebraic number theory, systems of linear equations, and theory of games.

      It is our purpose in the present book to give a development of the theory of vector spaces in such a way as to facilitate applications in all of these theories, and we shall include introductory treatments of several of these applications. With such a broad list of applications in mind it seems appropriate (indeed almost essential) to employ an axiomatic approach. The axiomatic approach has the additional advantage of providing an introduction to modern abstract algebra.

      There is also an economy of thought and simplicity of proof made possible by the use of the abstract approach. However, since the beginner may need or wish for something concrete with which to work, most of the presentation is arranged so that whenever a concept is introduced in one section it is accompanied by a concrete interpretation in that section or the preceding or following section. For example, we first define linear transformation and then matrix, and following each development of some portion of the theory of linear transformations we give the corresponding theory for matrices.

      We now summarize the earlier part of the book. First the idea of a field is introduced; the set of all real numbers or of all complex numbers is an example of a field. Next vector spaces are defined; the most important example is the set of all ordered n-tuples (a, an), where the ai lie in a field. This leads to the consideration of a special function, called a linear transformation, which maps a vector of one vector space into a vector of another or possibly the same vector space. The usefulness of linear transformations in the theory of matrices arises not only from the fact that in a certain way is there a one-to-one correspondence between such transformations and matrices which preserves addition and multiplication, but also many of the operations with matrices have a simple interpretation in terms of linear transformations. Thus the use of these transformations not only provides simpler proofs but our comprehension of matrices, e.g., of which statements about them may be true or false and the discovery of proofs, is deepened when put in a context of linear transformations. Thus Section 2.1, where linear transformations are defined, is central for an understanding of much of the book. And this conviction of the helpfulness of linear transformations will grow the further the reader advances in the book.

      The reader may recall the use of vectors in physics and in geometry. In these cases various properties of vectors and operations with them are studied; in particular, the ideas of length and direction of vectors are important. In many parts of mathematics, where vectors are used, however, neither length nor direction are important (or even defined); the concepts which always appear are addition of vectors and multiplication of vectors by scalars. In most of the early chapters we focus attention on these operations and later (Chapter 7) examine special cases in which length and direction are meaningful.

      In the plane a vector is determined by two points, an initial point (a1, a2) and a terminal point (b1, b2), or more simply by a single point (c1, c2) which is the terminal point when the origin (0, 0) is chosen as the initial point. Then c1 = b1 − a1 and c2 = b2 − a2. Similarly, in three dimensions a vector γ may be represented by a point C with coordinates c1, c2, c3, these coordinates being real numbers and depending upon the coordinate system. For simplicity we write γ = (c1, c2, c3) and call c1, c2, c3 the components of γ with respect to the coordinate system.

      Consider the vector α = (a1, a2, a3) and its representative point A. The

      FIG. 1

      product cα of α by a real number c is the vector (ca1, ca2, ca3). The point corresponding to cα lies at a distance from the origin O which is | c | times the distance of A from O, and in the same direction if c > 0, but in the opposite direction if c < 0 (see Fig. 1).

      FIG. 2

      If α = (a1, a2, a3) and β = (b1, b2, b3) are two vectors with representative points A and B, respectively, their sum α + β is the vector γ = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2, a3 + b3). Geometrically the representative point C for γ is obtained as the fourth vertex of a parallelogram having A, B, O as vertices and with A and B opposite each other (see Fig. 2).

      1.2. Scalars. ; other common examples are given later.

      Before embarking on our discussion of fields we say a few words about the axiomatic method. It frequently happens in mathematics that several systems arise which have a number of common properties. It may also be that the applications of these systems depend primarily on these common properties. When this is so, it is usually advantageous to set up an abstract system with these common properties as axioms (or postulates). One important advantage of using an axiomatically defined system is that any theorem that follows from the axioms holds for every system that satisfies these axioms, whereas without the axiomatic approach the theorem would have to be proved separately for each system.

      A field is composed of a set of elements called scalars or numbers, here denoted by a, b, c, and two operations, addition and multiplication, satisfying the following axioms.

      Some of the axioms are superfluous. For example, right distributivity is a consequence of left distributivity and the commutativity of multiplication. These excess axioms have been included because we are interested here not in the briefest description of a field but in the simple properties that are to be used and also because we shall compare fields with other axiomatic algebraic systems which will be introduced later.

      each have special properties, not resulting from the axioms for a field, which will be disregarded in all that follows except in a few applications. The proofs of some of these properties are not short, and we do not give them in this book.

      .

      of complex numbers consists of all quantities of the form a + bi with a, b and i² = −1. It has the special property of being algebraically closedand can be factored into linear factors.

      A rational number is a real number that can be expressed as p/q, where p, q are integers and q , zero is the sum of p 1’s and if p is said to have characteristic p.

      . Without the abstract concept of field such a theorem would have to be proved separately for each of the three cases, and would then be established only for these three cases. However, the reader who is unfamiliar with fields will be able to comprehend all the essential parts of the theory of vector spaces and matrices if he ignores the field axioms and thinks of merely as being an unspecified one of the three systems , or .

      We next consider some consequences of the field axioms. A complicated appearing product such as {[a(bc)] [(de) f ]} [(gh)k] can be reduced to the simple left-to-right multiplication (((((((ab)c)d)e) f )g)h)k by repeated applications of the associative law. This equality justifies the use of the simpler notation abcdefghk for both products. The following theorem generalizes and formalizes this result.

      THEOREM 1.2A. GENERALIZED ASSOCIATIVE LAW. Let a, an be elements of a field , let a1, aan denote the left-to-right product (a1a2)a)an, and let g(a, an) denote any other product defined by inserting parentheses in the ordered sequence a, an. Then g(a, an) = a1aan.

      We prove this theorem by induction on n (see appendix on mathematical induction). For n = 1 there is no product, and so g(a1) = a1 trivially. For n = 2 the only product is a1a2, and so g(a1, a2) = a1a2. For n = 3 there are only the two products a1a2a3 = (a1a2)a3 and a1(a2, a3), and the equality of these is just what the associative law states. Now make the induction hypothesis that the theorem is true for all products with less than r factors. Among the parentheses that define the product g(a, ar) consider only the outermost pair. They give

      s < r and g1, g2 are products with s, r − s factors, respectively.

      First suppose s = r − 1. Then by our induction hypothesis g1(a, ar − 1) = aar − 1 and g(a, ar) = (aar − 1)ar = aar by definition of the product aar. Next, if s < r − 1, then by our induction hypothesis we have g1(a, as) = a, as, g2(as , ar) = (as ar − 1)ar, and hence g(a, ar) = (aas)[(as ar − 1)ar]. Apply the associative law to this product, and we have g(a, ar) = [(aas)(as ar − 1)]ar. Now, once again, by our induction hypothesis (aas)(as ar − 1) = aar − 1, and finally g(a, ar) = (aar − 1)ar = aar as required by the theorem.

      For later applications we point out that the proof of the generalized associative law required only closure and the associative law for products of three factors. Hence it will hold in any system closed under an associative product or other associative operation. In particular, it holds for addition in fields, so that we may write simply a+ an for any way of summing the ordered summands a, an.

      Let us now turn to the axioms concerning the existence of zero and negatives. We know for the real, the rational, and the complex number fields that zero and negatives not only exist but are unique. We now prove this for all fields. First suppose that a = a + 0* for a pair 0* and a . Then we have 0 = (−a) + a = (−a) + (a + 0*) = ((−a) + a) + 0* = 0 + 0* = 0*, and hence 0 = 0*. We have shown not only that 0 is unique but that, if a + 0* = a for a single quantity a , then 0* = 0. Similarly, if b and b* are both negatives for a, we get b = b + 0 = b + (a + b*) = (b + a) + b* = 0 + b* = b*; i.e., b = b*.

      We leave as an exercise to the reader the analogous proof that the unit element and reciprocals are unique. As a simplification we sometimes write a − b for a + (−b), and a/b for a(b− 1).

      We next show that 0a = a0 = 0. We have a0 = a(0 + 0) = a0 + a0 by the distributive law. Thus we have an equation b + 0* = b, where b = a ⋅ 0 and 0* = a ⋅ 0, and hence as proved above a ⋅ 0 = 0. The other equality 0a = 0 follows at once from the commutative law of multiplication or can be proved from the equation 0a = (0 + 0)a = 0a + 0a. The latter method has the advantage of not using the commutative law and hence will apply even in systems where multiplication is not commutative.

      The remainder of the present section deals with some additional examples of fields and is not essential to the theory of vector spaces and matrices.

      of all real numbers of the form a + b where a and b . The negative of a + b is (−a) + (−b. The reciprocal (or inverse) of a + b , a fact that can be verified by forming the product, provided that the denominator a² − 2b² ≠ 0. Suppose a² − 2b² = 0. If b = 0, then a = 0 and a + b = 0 and no inverse is required. But, if b = a/b, which is rational when a and b is irrational. Finally the closure axioms can be easily checked. In particular for multiplication the product (a + b )(c + d ) = (ac + 2bd) + (ad + bc.

      of all rational functions f(x) = p(x)/q(x) where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials with real coefficients and q(xis a field are left to the reader.

      5. An interesting property of this field is that it has characteristic 5.

      Exercises 1.2

      1. Show that the integers under ordinary addition and multiplication do not form a field.

      2. Show that the rational functions f(x) = p(x)/q(x), where q(x) ≠ 0 and p(x), q(x) are polynomials with real coefficients, form a field.

      3. Show that the six remainders of integers on division by 6 do not form a field, if addition is defined by adding as usual and taking remainders, and if multiplication is defined analogously.

      4. Show that the commutativity of addition follows from the other axioms for a field.

      prove the uniqueness of the unit scalar and of the reciprocal a− 1 of any nonzero scalar a.

      : If c, a1, a, an then

      7. Prove that in a field −a = ( − 1)a.

      8. Is division associative?

      is irrational. (Hint: show that no fraction a/b in lowest terms can have 2 as its square.)

      10. Given that multiplication is associative, prove (without use of the generalized associative law) that (ab)(cd) = a((bc)d).

      11. Show, similarly, that {[a(bc)][(de)f]}[(gh)k] = (((((((ab)c)d)e)f)g)h)k.

      1.3. Cartesian space. be a field. Consider the set of all ordered n-tuples (a1, a, an) of scalars a1, a, an . We say that (a1, a, an) = (b1, b, bn) if and only if a1 = b1, a2 = b, an = bn.

      If α= (a1, a, an) and β = (b1, b, bn) are two n-tuples, then their sum α + β is defined to be the n-tuple

      The same symbol + is being used for addition of n-tuples and addition of scalars; strictly, different symbols should be used. However, it is almost always clear from the context which type of addition is to be performed and no confusion should arise from the double role of the symbol +.

      It is easy to see that α + β = β + α; i.e., that addition of n. Other simple properties will soon be given.

      The product cα of an n-tuple α = (a1, a, an) by a scalar c is defined to be the n-tuple

      The set of all such n-tuples, together with equality, addition, and multiplication by scalars as defined above, is called the Cartesian space of dimension n over ) is ordinary space discussed in Section 1.1. The nwill be called vectors .

      If α = (a1, a, an, then the scalars a1, a, an are called the components of α.

      .

      is closed under addition; i.e., α + β always exists. This follows from the fact that the components of α + β are simply ai + bi (i , nunder addition.

      Next, (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ). The ith component of α + β is ai + bi. If γ = (c1, c, cn), the ith component of (α + β) + γ is (ai + bi) + ci. Similarly the ith component of α + (β + γ) is ai + (bi + ci.

      , 0) acts as a zero for addition of vectors. For α + 0 = (a1, a, an, 0) = (a1 + 0, a, an + 0) = (a1, a, an.

      If α = (a1, a, an) and δ = (−a1, −a, −an) then α + δ = 0 because the ith component of the left side is ai + (−ai) which equals 0. Similarly δ + α = 0. Now δ . Hence for every vector α there exists a δ such that α + δ = δ + α = 0.

      The ith component of α + β is ai + bi which equals bi + ai, the ith component of β + α. Hence α + β = β + α.

      Next, cα defined by (is closed under multiplication of a vector by a scalar.

      If c is a scalar, then c(α + β) has as its ith component c(ai + bi). This equals cai + cbi, and this is the ith component of cα + cβ. Consequently c(α + β) = cα + cβ.

      Also if c, d are scalars, (c + d)α has (c + d)ai for its i, this equals cai + dai, which is the ith component of cα + dα. Thus (c + d)α = cα + dα.

      Furthermore (cd)α = c(dα). For, the ith component of (cd)α is (cd)ai, and this equals c(dai), the ith component of c(dα).

      Finally 1α = (1⋅a1, 1⋅a, 1⋅an) = (a1, a, an = α .

      has all these properties, it is only a special example of a vector space. It is, however, an exceedingly important case, as will become clear in Section 1.7 below.

      Exercises 1.3

      ) if α = (3, 0, 1) and α = (1, 2, −2), find

      (a) α + β, (b) 2β, (c) 3α + (−2)β.

      Verify that

      (d) 2(α + β) = 2α + 2β,

      (e) (3 + 2)β = 3β + 2β.

      ) let α = (2, 1, 2, 0, −1), β = (3, 1, 2, −1, 0), γ = (−3, −2, 1, 8, 1). Find 2α + 3β − 4γ, −3α + β + 2γ.

      ) let ε1 = (1, 0, 0, 0), ε2 = (0, 1, 0, 0), ε3 = (0, 0, 1, 0), ε4 = (0, 0, 0, 1), α = ( −3, 1, −2, 4), β = (b1, b2, b3, b4). Show that α = −3ε1 + ε2 − 2ε3 + 4ε4 and that β = b1ε1 + b2ε2 + b3ε3 + b4ε4.

      4. Let ε1, ε2, ε3, ε4 be as in Exercise 3. Show that c1ε1 + c2ε2 + c3ε3 + c4ε4 = 0 if and only if c1 = c2 = c3 = c4 = 0.

      5. If α = (3, −2, −1, 1), β = ( −3, 1, − 2, 1), find a vector γ = (c1, c2, c3, c4) for which 2α + 3γ = β.

      6. Let α = (2, 1, −2), β = (−4, 2, 3), γ = (−8, 8, 5), δ = (1, 3, 5). Show that there exists a scalar x for which 2α + xβ = γ. Show that there are no scalars x; and y for which xα + yβ = δ.

      1.4. Vector spaces. .

      A vector space over a field consists of a set of elements called vectors together with two operations, addition of vectors and multiplication of a vector by a scalar, satisfying the following axioms. Here α, β, γ and c, d for arbitrary scalars.

      Axioms for Addition of Vectors

      (A1)Closure: for every two vectors α, β called the sum of α and β, written α + β.

      (A2)Associativity: (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ).

      (A3)Zero vector: a vector 0 exists such that, for any vector α, always α + 0 = 0 + α = α.

      (A4)Negative of a vector: for every α, there is a vector δ such that α + δ = δ + α = 0 (such a vector δ is usually written −α).

      (A5)Commutativity: α + β = β + α.

      Axioms for Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

      (S1)Closure: for every vector α and scalar c called the product of α by c and written cα.

      (S2)c(α + β) = cα + cβ.

      (S3)(c + d)α = cα + dα.

      (S4)(cd)α = c(dα).

      (S5)1α = α.

      .

      Observe that S2 and S3 are in a sense distributive laws. Also S2, S3, S4 account for all of the simplest combinations of operations on vectors with operations on scalars.

      , 0) and, if α = (a1, a, an), then −α = (−a1, −a, −an). Consequently −α = (−1)α.

      whose elements are all linear homogeneous polynomials in x1, x, xn . An element α thus has the form

      where a1, a, an . If β = b1x1 + b2x+ bnxn , then, using ordinary addition of polynomials and multiplication of a polynomial by a number, we have

      and, if c is a scalar,

      .

      The next example comes from solutions of equations. A set of equations

      where the coefficients aij is said to be a system of m homogeneous linear equations in n unknowns.) By a solution of the system (4.1) we mean a vector γ = (c, cnsuch that the m equations

      , 0) is clearly a solution no matter what coefficients aij are selected; this solution is said to be trivial and all other solutions are said to be nontrivial.

      , and consider the system

      the vectors α1 = (0, 5, 1, 1), α2 = (−1, 4, 2, 0), α3 = (1, 6, 0, 2), α4 = (1, 11, 1, 3), and α) are readily seen to be solutions of the system (4.2). Note that α4 = α1 + α3 and that α5 = −3α2.

      More generally if α = (a, an) and β = (b, bn) are any two solutions of (4.1) and if c is any scalar, then γ = α + β and δ = cα are also solutions of (4.1). (This can be proved by direct substitution in (4.1) of the components of γ and δ.)

      of all solutions of the system ((the reader should check this). Thus we see that the set of all solutions of any system of homogenous linear equations is a vector space.

      The set of solutions of a linear nonhomogeneous system of equations is not a vector space because the sum of two solutions is not necessarily a solution nor is the product of a solution by a scalar.

      is the set of all infinite sequences (a1, a), where a1, a, with addition defined by

      and multiplication by a scalar c defined by

      We now prove some simple properties of a general vector space from the axioms.

      If there is a vector β for which α + β = α, then necessarily β . For on adding −α to both sides we obtain on the left −α + (α + β) = (−α + α) + β + β = β, while getting on the right −α + α . We conclude that β .

      Another fact is that 0α for any α. For, 0α = (0 + 0)α = 0α + 0α. But, by the preceding paragraph, using 0α in place of α and β, we conclude that 0α .

      Next we show that −α is unique. For, suppose that α + β = α + γ . Then β = β = β + (α + γ) = (β + α) + γ + γ = γ; i.e., β = γ or, in other words, a vector has only one negative.

      Finally we show that −α = (−1)α= 0α = (1 + (−1))α = 1α + (−1)α = α + (−1)α, where we have used successively the preceding paragraphs, and axioms S4 and S5. This shows that (−1)α is a negative for α. But, since there can be only one negative, (−1)α = −α as claimed.

      We shall mean by α − β the vector α + (−β). In particular α − α .

      Notice that some of the results presented here for vector spaces were given for fields in Section 1.2. Indeed several of the proofs differ only in the notation.

      Exercises 1.4

      1. Let c be a scalar and α, β vectors. Prove that c(α − β) = cα − cβ.

      2. Let c, c, cn be scalars and α, α, αn vectors. Show that c(α+ αn) = cα+ cαn and (c+ cn)α = c1α + cnα.

      satisfies the postulates for a vector space.

      4. Show that all polynomials in a single variable x , with addition and multiplication by scalars defined as ordinary addition and multiplication of a function by a constant, form a vector space.

      5. Show that all real single-valued functions of x on the interval a x b, with addition and multiplication by scalars defined as ordinary addition and multiplication of a function by a real number, form a vector space.

      6. Do likewise using the set composed only of 0 and those polynomials in x whose degree does not exceed some fixed positive integer n.

      5 be as in n5)?

      8. Prove that, for any pair

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